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4.7
v=
c
1 + 1 + ( )2
r r
2
(4.7.1)
(4.7.2)
1 + ( )2 - 1
2
(4.7.3)
(4.7.4)
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INGELISE MLLER
Reflection profiling
In reflection profiling mode the antennae are
kept at constant separation, while they are
moved along a profile (Fig. 4.7.1a). The
electromagnetic pulses are transmitted at fixed
time or distance interval. The signal is recorded
and displayed immediately on a computer screen
as GPR profiles, in which the vertical axis is twoway travel time in nanoseconds (ns) and the
horizontal axis is distance along the measured
profile (Fig. 4.7.1b,c).
The GPR data are either collected along a single
profile or in a grid of profiles to obtain 2D or
pseudo 3D information on structures in the
ground. The GPR data can also be acquired along
lines so densely spaced that the line spacing
equals the stepsize along the line. This leads to a
3D data cube, where data also can be displayed
as time or depth slices.
Fig. 4.7.1: Principles of GPR in reflection profiling mode. a) In reflection profiling a set of transmitting antenna
and receiving antenna with constant separation is moved along the profile. The path of some of the reflected
waves is sketched for antenna position 56, 91 and 226 of the GPR profile in (c). b) The received signal of these
antenna positions is displayed in wiggle mode. c) GPR profile acquired with 200 MHz system in a coastal
environment. The horizontal axis displays the distance along the profile. The vertical axis to the left displays the
two-way travel time and the axis to the right displays the converted depth. d) Photo of a GPR system equipped
with 100 MHz antenna. The text on the photo explains the different part of the system.
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Fig. 4.7.2:
Principles of GPR in CMP mode. a) In
CMP mode a set of a transmitting antenna (Tx) and
a receiving antenna (Rx) are moved away from each
other. The six first antenna positions are shown with
the path of the reflected wave from the first
reflector. b) Sketch of the path of the most common
waves that is present in a CMP. c) Diagram of the
received signals in a CMP. The horizontal axis
displays the distance between the transmitting and
the receiving antenna. The vertical axis displays the
two-way travel time. d) Photo of a GPR system that
is ready for a CMP sounding.
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INGELISE MLLER
Due to attenuation and spherical electromagnetic wave spreading of the signal the
GPR data have to be time gained. Several
procedures can be used. One of the most
common procedures is automatic gain
control, AGC. It equalises the amplitudes all
the way down each trace if it is applied with
at window of one pulse length. If the AGC is
applied with a longer window length it tends
to keep some information on the strength of
the amplitudes of the reflections.
CMP mode
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4.7.5 Resolution
The vertical resolution depends primarily of the
wavelength, , of the propagating electromagnetic wave, which is determined by the GPR
frequency, f, and velocity, v, of the ground
material as =v/f. Theoretically, the distance
between two reflectors should at least be
of the wavelength to be resolved (Sheriff 1995),
though in practice the distance should be 1
wavelength (Mller & Vosgerau 2006). Using a
wavelength, the vertical resolution in dry sand
with a velocity of 0.15 m/ns is about 1.5 m, 0.75
m and 0.19 m for a 50 MHz, 100 MHz and 400
MHz centre frequency, respectively. In saturated
sand with a lower velocity of about 0.06 m/ns,
the vertical resolution is 0.6 m, 0.3 m, and 0.075
m for a 50 MHz, 100 MHz and 400 MHz centre
frequency, respectively.
Figure 4.7.3 displays GPR profiles that are
acquired with both 100 MHz and 200 MHz
centre frequencies. This figure clearly illustrates
that the vertical resolution is increased by
decreased centre frequency.
The lateral resolution depends on more than the
wavelength of the propagating electromagnetic
wave. The depth to the target as well as the
antennae focusing plays a part. Neal (2004)
discusses in detail the different aspects that have
to be taken into account in the evaluation of the
lateral resolution.
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INGELISE MLLER
4.7.8 References
Bakker MAJ (2004): The internal structure of
Pleistocene push moraines. A multidisciplinary
approach with emphasis on groundpenetrating radar. PhD thesis, Queen Mary,
University of London, 177 pp.
Fig. 4.7.3:
GPR reflection profiles acquired in a
coastal environment along the same line with (a)
100 MHz and (b) 200 MHz system. The 200 MHz
GPR profile in (b) displays a better resolution of the
reflections compared to the 100 MHz profile in (a),
whereas the penetration depth is the largest in the
100 MHz GPR profile. The GPR profiles are migrated
with a constant velocity of 0.06 m/ns and scaled
with AGC with a window of four pulse lengths. The
depth axis is shown with a vertical exaggeration of
2.
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