MAN AND ENVIRONMENT

Ecology is the study of abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem, together with the interactions between these
components. These studies ensure low persistence of human beings can be carried on the earth and gives us a
knowledge of how to utilize the resources available on earth.
Ecosystem is an active dynamic system integrating all the biotic and abiotic components in the environment. Ecosystem
therefore consists of two components.
a)Biotic component (b) abiotic component.
The above components interact with each other all the time, thus the ecosystem is called an active system. Because the
available amount of the two components tend to change, ecosystem is called a dynamic system as well.
An ecosystem can be divided as follow on the basis of its
(a)components (b) interaction

According to the interactions between biotic and abiotic components a series of organizational levels can be arranged.

Sub atomic particle—atom—molecule—organelle—cell—tissue—organ—system—individual—population—community

—biome—biosphere—ecosystem.

1.INDIVIDUAL
One organism belonging to a species, is known as an individual. An individual can not exist on its own. It requires the
existence of individuals of its own species as well as other species. Example for interaction within a species is
reproduction. An example for interaction between different species is that of a carnivorous animal feeding on a
herbivorous animal. Requirement of water for survival is an example of interaction between living and non-living
individual.
 An individual is the structural unit of the population. It shows structural and physiological characters which are
significant to that species.
 genetic variation of that particular population.
 posses a growth pattern
 Life cycle consists of many stages
 Individuals may live as males or females or as monocious organisms.
2.POPULATION
A number of individuals, living in a defined area, in a given time belonging to a particular species is known as a
population. Eg:- The dear population in 1980 at Yale sanctuary was 3000.
A population has a certain size. The size of a population is defined by the following factors:-
(i)Resources available in the region (ii)Migration (iii)birth rate (iv)death rate
The following factors can be observed in a population, but not in an individual.
(i)Population density (ii)Death and birth rate (iii) distribution pattern (iv)sex ratio (v)Intraspecific
interaction (vi)Growth rate of the population
Eg:- Competition to obtain food and shelter
 Population density
Population density is the number of populations living in an area. It is expressed per unit area or unit volume.

 Birth rate
Birth rate is the rate of addition of organisms to the population. The birth rate of bees is 5 organisms per week.
Birth rate can also be expressed as a percentage. An example:- the birth rate in Sri Lanka per year is 2.3%.

 Death rate
Death rate is the rate of loss of organisms from the population. The death rate of bees is 2 organisms per week.
This too can be expressed as a percentage. The death rate in Sri Lanka per year is 0.8%

Distribution patter
Distribution of organisms within and ecosystem may be uniform, random or clumped.

Eg:-Rubber trees Eg:-Grasshoppers Eg:- elephants

 Sex ratio
Sex ratio is defined as the ratio between the number of male organisms and female organisms in a population. In
most population, the sex ratio is approximately 1:1, but the number of female organisms is never equal to the
number of male organisms. In some populations the ratio can be very different. For example, the number of
female organisms in a bee population is higher than the number of male population.

 Intraspecific interaction
Within a population, organisms show close interactions. If in an ecosystem, the availability of food and space is
limited, there may be competition between organisms.

 Population Growth rate

It is defined as the change in the number of
individuals of any species in a population using
"per unit time".
Posseses a definite pattern
Similar to that of an individual pattern of growth.
When a graph of growth vs time is plotted a
sigmoid shape is obtained. This curve can be
divided to four stages .
Stage A :-number increases very slowly
Because number is low, mating ability of each other is low. Amount of sexually
mature adults are also low.
Stage B:- Shows exponential growth curve
Number of adults have increased. There is an availability of enough food and space,
and reproductive places. There is an absence of low threat from predators. Thus in these conditions competition
is low.then birth rate increases and death rate decreases.
Stage C:- Growth rate is lowered
Number of organisms have increased, thus the amount of resources are limited. Competition therefore begins.
Environmental resistance (threat) acts upon the population. Therefore death rate increases and birth rate
decreases.
Stage D:- Growth rate is seized
 Growth rate and death rate fluctuate around a mean value.Population has reached its carrying capacity.That
means this is the maximum population that can exist in that particular environment. Population has
equilibriated with its space, amount of food, and population of predators. If the population tends to decrease
then the threat from the environment has been imposed again by the environment.

3.COMMUNITY
A group of biologically interacting populations, living
in a same region is know as a community. Eg:-
Mangrove community, Teak forest community,
Tropical forest community. It can be as small as an
intestine or as large as a tropical forest.
Within a community, different populations interact
with each other. Among these relationships,
nutritional relationships is of great
importance.Predation, parasitism, symbiosis, commensalism
are examples.
Predation:- An organism of one species feeds on an organism of another species.
The organism eaten is known as the prey, while the organisms that consumes is known as the predator.
Normally the predator is larger in size than the prey, and one predator may feed on one or more of the prey
species. Eg:- A lion and a deer
Parasitism:- One species obtains its nutritional requirements using another species. The species that supplies the
nutrition is known as the host, and the one obtaining is the parasite. Usually the host is small compared to the parasite.
One host may contain many parasites.
Due to Predation and parasitism, one species is always harmed, while the other always benefits from it. in predation,
because of the survival of one organism, the other dies. But in parasitism, the host does not always die.
Symbiosis:- It is a close association between two species, where both the species are benefited. For the survival of one
species, the other is essential. Lichen is an example (as association between algae and fungi). Food produced by algae
through photosynthesis is used by the fungi, while the fungi fulfils the water requirement.
Commensalism is a class of relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits but the other is
unaffected.
Climax or Static Community
Initially a community begins to change its own physical environment. Then another population will be able to enter the
new abiotic environment. Therefore a community can undergo a seris of changes with time. Ultimately abiotic
environment becomes a static one. At this stage the community is know as a climax community. Eg:- tropical wet forest
community.

4.ECOSYSTEM
A community of living organisms, interacting with the non living factors of the environment together produces an
ecosystem.
Features
 Easily recognisable system. Its abiotic components decide its biotic environment. Eg:- desert –cactus,camel ;
Lake- phytoplanktons, fish
 Only takes energy from outside for its existence. Energy is obtained from the sun, as solar energy and converted
to useful energy by photosynthesising organisms, and chemical energy is produced by certain bacteria.
 Substances are always exchanged between biotic and abiotic components in a cyclic manner. Eg:-nutrients
 Only energy flows through the ecosystem undirectionaly.
 Acts as a self defensive system.
 The size of an ecosystem could be varied from a small fish tank to a tropical rain forest.

5.BIOME
Zones in the world determined by large scale climatic and vegetation characteristics are known as biomes.
6.BIOSPHERE
All living organisms and their interactions with the non living components of the earth forming a large functional system
encloses the biosphere. Limits of the biosphere spreads as the following :- 100m from sea level upto atmosphere, 18m
deep into the soil. All the ecosystems on earth are known as the biosphere.
Biotic components of the biosphere include, all plants, animals, micro-organisms. Abiotic components include the
atmosphere. Externally, the only energy enters and leaves the biosphere. Energy enters as electromagnetic waves, and
leaves as heat energy.

The Abiotic environment of the earth

This can be divided as the hydrosphere, atmosphere and geosphere. The abiotic portion is very large compared to the
biotic portion.

HYDROSPHERE:- Due to presence of water, our planet is known as the blue planet. Water spreads on the earth as
follows:- 75% in ocean; 25% on land as still water in lakes and tanks, ground water and flowing water.
According to nature, it can again be divided into two parts:- salt water (97%) and fresh water (3%). Out of this 3%, 2% of
water is trapped in poles as glaciers. The other 1% is present in rivers, lakes and tanks. Mean depth of ocean is 3.8km
and max depth of it is aabout 11.5km.

ATMOSPHERE:- This is the insulating layer present around the earth. This has given a convinient environment for the
existence of life on the earth. 75% of it lies within 16km, around the earth. This has been divided into different zones.
(a) Troposphere – extends 10-12km, from the ground level. This is the closest zone to the earth. Heat and water
vapour is exchanged between this and the earth. It produces rain and storms. Temperature goes down with the
elevation. Temperature ranges from 15-55 celsius.
(b) Stratosphere – extends up to 50 km from the surface. Temeperature is increased with the elevation. Ozone layer
lies within this. Its elevation ranges from 15-30km from the earth’s surface. Ozone turns UV rays into heat ie it
absorbs UV rays.
(c) Mesosphere – Extends from 50-85km. Temperature reduces upto 90 celsius.
(d) Thermosphere – Extends from 85-500km. Temperature is very high. Density of air is very low.

GEOSPHERE:- This divides into 3 major parts

(a) Core of the earth (b) Mantal (c) Crust
(a)Earths core consists of the inner core and the outer core
Inner core- it has a radius of 1255km. This encloses 20% of the earth’s radius. This is hard and made out of nickel, iron
silica and sluphur. Extremly hot with 4300-7200 celsius. Its pressure is also high.
Outer core- Thickness is 2200km. it is made out of iron and nickel. This is a liquid portion. Pressure and temperature are
low compared to inner core. Temperature ranges from 4500 – 2000 celsuis. Outer core is the source of the magnetic
field.

(b)Mantal is present next to the outer core. Thickness is 2900km. it is solid in state. It is made of mainly of silicates. This
has an ability of flowing although its state is solid. Main metals present are iron and magnesium.

(c)Crust is the outer layer and covers the mantal. Thickness ranges from 85-65km. it forms the outer cover of the earth.
Includes only 1% of the earths radius. All type of terrestrial environments, seas and oceans are situated here.
Spontaneously subjected to movement. These movements are connected to the movements of the mantal. Crust is
affected by human beings.This shows straight interactions with hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. This is the
portion that maintains life. It can be divided to oceanic plates (oragons) and continental plates (crators).
Oragons:- more flexible compared to crators. When the earth core is under stress, these plates form without
getting damaged. Thickness is about 8km. consists of silica and magnesium (sima)
Crators :- Highest thickness is 65km. Density is low. Therefore these plates flow on the inner part, continuous
with oragons. Earths crust acts as a source of fundamental reources. Eg:- provides fossil fuel resources, minerals, metals
and building materials.
Continental drift
Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other. The hypothesis that the continents
had once formed a single landmass before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations was fully formulated by
Alfred Wegener in 1912. the similarity of southern continent geological formations show that continents had once been
joined into a supercontinent. Through volcanic activity due to thermal expansion this continent broke and the new
continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion of the rip-zones, where the oceans now lie.
Evidence for continental drift is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around different continent
shores, suggesting that they were once joined. There is also living evidence — the same animals being found on two
continents. An example of this is a particular earthworm found in South America and South Africa.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The main structural components of an ecosystem can be classified under the following
*inorganic substances *organic substances *physical factor ---- abiotic components
*primary producers *consumers *decomposers ----- biotic components

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Biotic Components
Includes all organisms classified under the five kingdoms. Virus is also considered.
Function of the ecosystem
In an ecosystem there are 3 major components according to the nutritional interactions taking place between abiotic
and biotic components.
PHYSICAL STATE ECOSYSTEM MAIN PRIMARY (a) Primary producers
PRODUCER Those who produce complex organic
Terrestrial (a) Forest Trees compounds that can be used as food, using
(b) Savanna forest Grass energy and simple inorganic compounds from
(c) Desert Succulent plants the abiotic components of an ecosystem, are
Aquatic (a) Small pond Tender water plants known as producers. Producers mainly use
(b) Lake Phytoplankton sunlight to obtain the energy. They are also
(c) Ocean Phytoplankton called photoautotrophic organisms, and the
(d) Rocky sea shore Sea weeds process is known as photosynthesis. In
terrestrial environment, plants are the main
producers. In aquatic environments, aquatic plants are the main producers. Certain primary producers use chemical
 energy by breaking down substances for synthesizing complex organic compounds. These organisms are known
as chemoautotrophic organisms. Some bacteria living in aquatic environments is an example.
(b) Consumers
Those that depend on energy fixed organic matter, produced by primary producers are known as consumers. An
ecosystem consists of many trophic levels according to the feeding relationships among producers and
consumers.
1. Primary trophic level – Includes primary producers. Energy is obtained by sun or any other energy source
2. Secondary trophic level – obtains energy from primary producers. Mainly includes plant eaters (herbivores).
They are also known as primary consumers.
3. Tertiary trophic level – live on herbivores. Includes primary carnivores. Also know as secondary consumers.
4. Quaternary trophic level – live on primary producers. Also knows as secondary carnivores or tertiary
consumers.
The energy fixed by producers flows through the ecosystem. The energy is used by other organisms to fulfil their
following functions.
*metabolism *growth *movement *reproduction
Energy relationships among organisms in an ecosystem can be shown by means of the following
(A) Food chains (B) Food webs (C) Ecological pyramids
Food Chains
A chain which shows how food or energy flows respectively through trophic levels, present in an ecosystem
according to their food and feeding relationships, is known as a food chain. A food chain that can be observed in
a home garden is:-
Grass—grasshopper—frog—snake—eagle
The minimum number of trophic levels present in a food chain is three. This type of food chain is called a simple
food chain. A food chain in an ecosystem which shows how food or energy flows from primary producer
through primary consumer to secondary consumer, according to their feeding habits is knows as a simple food
chain.
There are three types of food chains in an ecosystem.
a. Grazing food chains – these begin with plants and end up with huge carnivores. Grass—rabbit—fox
b. Detritus food chain – these being with detritus substances and end with bacteria. Detritus—fungi—bacteria
c. Parasitic food chain – begins with large plants and end with parasites. Coconut plant—coconut beetle—
parasite
The first two are the most prominent food chains that can be observed in an ecosystem.

Food web
A diagram which shows food and feeder relationships between different trophic levels of different types of food
chains in an ecosystem is called a food web.
These are formed because some animals have the habit of taking food from several food chains. Unlike a food
chain, a food web provides several food sources to a single animal. due to this their survival power has
increased. Because if they don’t receive food from one link, they will be able to feed from another link. When
the species number is high, the food web becomes more complex. This ensures the survival power of the
ecosystem.

Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids are diagrams which show feeding relationships and energy transfer through biotic
components of an ecosystem. Generally the base of the pyramid is represented by primary producers. When we
draw these diagrams we must consider
a. productivity of each trophic level or
b. energy present at each trophic level
According to above dimensions, there are 3 types of ecological pyramids.
a.pyramid of biomass b.pyramid of numbers c.pyramid of energy
Pyramid producer represents the base of all the above three types of pyramids. The other levels are represented
by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary trophic levels respectively.
 Number pyramid: - Quantified representation of the trophic relationships by number, among different trophic
levels in an ecosystem.
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramids of numbers. An aquatic ecosystem is an
example of upright pyramid where the number of organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher up in the
pyramid. A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially upright pyramid, as fewer producers support more
primary consumers, but there are less secondary and tertiary consumers. An inverted pyramid of numbers is one
where the number of organisms depending on the lower levels grows closer toward the apex. A parasitic food
chain is an example.
Biomass Pyramid: - Quantified representation of the trophic relationships by dry mass among different trophic
levels in an ecosystem.
There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted. An upright pyramid is one where the combined
weight of producers is larger than the combined weight of consumers. An example is a forest ecosystem. An
inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is smaller than the combined weight of
consumers. An example is an aquatic ecosystem.
Energy Pyramid: - Quantified representation of the trophic relationships by energy fixed at different trophic
levels in an ecosystem.
An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for utilization in the layers above is
less than the energy available in the lower levels. This happens because during energy transfer from lower to
higher levels, some energy is always lost.

Usually these diagrams have a large base and a narrow apex. Thus takes the shape of a pyramid. This shape isn’t
always present in a number and biomass pyramid. Energy pyramids always forms an upright pyramid.
Ecologically energy pyramid is considered as the most useful type of pyramid. Because (a) the energy fixed by
each level is unique in different types of ecosystems. (b) therefore this provides more quantitative information
than the other two. Number pyramids do not consider the efficiency and the size of the animals. Biomass
pyramid does not consider the efficiency of animals. When we do a study of total efficiency of an ecosystem, the
most important factor is the activity of the animals or plants, not their size or weight. Therefore when studying
ecosystems, energy pyramids is given more importance than the other two.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

All the functions that take place in an ecosystem need energy. This energy is
received by (a) sun as solar radiation and (b) fixed as chemical energy by
producers. Fixed energy that transfer through trophic levels of the ecosystem
and eventually exit from it. This movement is unidirectional. Only 10% of the
energy enters from one trophic level to the other.
Because (a) a feeder never consumes its food completely, (b) a portion is spent
to fulfill its own metabolic reactions and (c) another portion of food is ejected
as faecal matter. The organisms that aren’t consumed as food by higher trophic
levels end up dying. Decomposers release the energy present in dead bodies to
the environment.

Primary productivity: - the amount of light energy converted by chemical

energy by the autotrophs of the ecosystem, during a given time period is called
primary productivity. The total primary productivity is given as GPP – Gross
primary productivity. This is measured by units of gram of dry mass per sq.
meter per year.
Net primary productivity: - Plants use some amount of energy for their
metabolism.
NPP = GPP – (energy used by producers for metabolism)

(c) Decomposers
 Organisms who live on dead bodies of producers and consumer after their death and obtain energy for their
needs by converting complex organic matter into simple inorganic substance.
This helps to (a) release organic matter present on dead bodies, again into environment as organic matter, (b) recycle
things in the environment to ensure continuity of life. Decomposition initially forms detritus matter. Some animals live
on detritus and they are known as detritovores. Eg:-
1. In terrestrial environment – millipede, earthworms, garden snail, termites and cockroaches
2. In aquatic environment – prawns, some fish and gastropods

Habitats and Ecological Niche

Habitat
It is the place where an organism lives in an ecosystem. There are many habitats in an ecosystem. Eg:- buffalo- marshy
lands near a jungle.
Niche
The Niche of a species is its ecological role in its ecosystem. In and ecosystem the habitat of a species can be easily
identified, but identifying the niche of a species is difficult. When identifying the niche of a species, details of the species
should be put forward. For example the freshwater species Oreochromis mossambicus .We can easily show that it lives
in freshwater, but when describing the niche, details of its food, when it feeds, its growth, environmental factors
required for its growth, reproducing places, form of reproduction should be gathered.
Normally two populations with the same niche do not live in the same habitat. If they do so, they will have intense
competition between them.

SUBSTANCES CIRCULATING WITHING AND ECOSYSTEM

This process is mainly based on two thing :- consuming substances from the environment and releasing these again into
the environment.
The following cyclic processes take place in the environment:-
*water cycle *carbon cycle *Nitrogen cycle *Oxygen cycle *Phosphorus cycle

Water cycle

The ocean is the largest water reservoir on the earth. It covers a surface of 360 million sq.m. Average depth of the ocean
is 3.8km. Earth’s total amount of water consists of 97% marine water, 2% trapped as glaciers, and 1% as fresh water. The
freshwater consists of the vapour in the atmosphere, surface water in soil and ground water. This 1% of fresh water is
continuously exchanged with land, ocean and atmosphere supporting to maintain life, and to carry out many more
physical activities.
 Water circulates within the water cycle in three physical forms i.e. ice and frost; liquid ; vapour.
  Water circulates by mean of three processes i.e. evaporation, precipitation and frost formation.
 When solar radiation falls on the ocean surface water get heated and become water vapour, entering the
atmosphere. This process is known as evaporation.
 In this manner atmosphere receives water vapour from mainly the ocean; from lakes, rivers and from wet
soil; and evaporation that takes place by forest vegetation.
 Then water vapour circulates in the atmosphere and condenses. It then precipitates in the form of rain, frost
and snow.
 Water that falls onto terrestrial habitats flow on the surface as run off water and get collected in lakes and
other inland water bodies. Another portion remains in soil as soil solution. Some amount seep into deep
layers and get collected in ground water reservoirs.
 When ground water meets impermeable rocks, it gets collected and form groundwater reservoirs.
 Most of the rain water flows back to the ocean along rivers.
 Plant re-absorb water from deep soil and again remove as water vapour into the atmosphere by
transpiration.
 Transpiration that takes place from rainforests affects climatic conditions not only where it is situated but
also far away countries around it.
 Water cycle is activated by energy from the sun.
 The hydrological cycle is the largest user of solar energy input.
 It helps to redistribute solar energy within the biosphere.

Carbon Cycle

Basic source of carbon is air in the form of carbon dioxide. Green plants fix this carbon dioxide into glucose or organic
compounds by photosynthesis. Heterotrophic organisms either directly get their carbon from plants by eating them or
indirectly, by eating animals. The carbon thus fixed, is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide in the following
ways:-
(a) By respiration of plants, animals and microbes (b) By decomposition of dead organisms and faeces by
saprophytic microorganisms.
Sedimentation of dead organisms in aquatic environment form deposits of carbonates. Accumulation over a million
years of dead and decaying organic matter, under anaerobic condition, result in the production of fossil fuel. Carbon in
the fossil fuels and other organic materials are released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by combustion. Volcanic
activity also release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Human interference on the natural cycling of Carbon

Increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere occurs as follows:-
*burning of fossil fuels *in factories *in vehicles *Deforestation
Forest vegetation absorbs a large amount of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Increase in carbon dioxide in this fashion
causes an imbalance of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide increases causes global
warming by contributing to green house effect, and increases the global temperature. This results in the melting of
glaciers and thermal expansion of water, causing a rise in sea level. Result would be the inundation or flooding of coastal
areas. Weather patterns would change thus affecting bio diversity.

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic nitrogen, ammonium
(NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), and nitrogen gas (N2). The processes of the nitrogen cycle transform nitrogen from one chemical
form to another.
Nitrogen fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed" (see page on nitrogen fixation), in order to be used by plants.
Biological fixation: some symbiotic bacteria (most often associated with leguminous plants) and some free-living bacteria
are able to fix nitrogen as organic nitrogen. An example of mutualistic nitrogen fixing bacteria are the Rhizobium
bacteria, which live in legume root nodules. These species are diazotrophs. An example of the free-living bacteria is
Azotobacter. Some fixation occurs in lightning strikes. Energy released by lightning causes nitrogen to combine with
oxygen forming nitrogen oxides. These nitrogen oxides dissolve in water vapour, forming the respective acid. The acids
reach the soil along with rain, enriching the soil in nitrate and nitrite ions.
Assimilation
Some plants get nitrogen from the soil, and by absorption of their roots in the form of either nitrate ions or ammonium
ions. All nitrogen obtained by animals can be traced back to the eating of plants at some stage of the food chain.
Ammonification
When a plant dies, an animal dies, or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria, or in some
cases, fungi, convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH4+), a process called
ammonification or mineralization.
Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia to nitrates is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. The
primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH 4+) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas
species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO 2-). Other bacterial species, such as the Nitrobacter, are responsible for
the oxidation of the nitrites into nitrates (NO 3-).[2].It is important for the nitrites to be converted to nitrates because
accumulated nitrites are toxic to plant life
Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into the largely inert nitrogen gas (N 2), completing the nitrogen cycle.
This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in anaerobic conditions.[2] They use
the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration. These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can
also live in aerobic conditions.

Human influence on the nitrogen cycle

 Availability of atmospheric nitrogen is disturbed by the following :-
 extensive cultivation of legumes, (b)growing use of the Haber process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and
(c) pollution emitted by vehicles and industrial plants.
 nitrous oxide has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and
feedlots, and other industrial sources.
 N2O has deleterious effects in the stratosphere, where it breaks down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of
atmospheric ozone. N2O in the atmosphere is a greenhouse gas.
 Ammonia is a reactant in the atmosphere, decreasing air quality and clinging on to water droplets, eventually
resulting in acid rain.
 Fossil fuel combustion has contributed to increase in nitrogen dioxide flux to the atmosphere. NO2 is a precursor
of lower atmosphere ozone production, which contributes to smog, acid rain, damages plants and increases
nitrogen inputs to ecosystems.
 Anthropogenic input of fertilizers can also result in nitrogen saturation, which weakens productivity and can kill
plants.
 Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher nitrogen availability increases nitrogen-demanding grasses,
causing a degradation of nitrogen-poor, species diverse heath lands.
 Additional risks posed by increases in fixed nitrogen in aquatic systems include spurring the creation and growth
of eutrophic lakes and oceanic dead zones through algal bloom.