FOREST ECOLOGY

(Subject Code: 8001002)

(REPORT WRITTING)

Abundance and Distribution of the main Forest types in Nepal

And
How these Forests are Influenced by Local or Regional Ecological Factors

Submitted by:
Bhoj Raj Pathak ()
Student ID: 3150843
Masters of Forestry Economics and Management
School of Economics and Management
Beijing Forestry University

Submitted to:
Professor Li Junqing
School of Forestry
Beijing Forestry University
lijq@bjfu.edu.cn

28TH DECEMBER, 2015

Subject

: Forest Ecology

Subject Code

: 8001002

Teacher

: Professor Li Junqing
School of Forestry
Beijing Forestry University

Students full name : Bhoj Raj Pathak

Student ID No

: 3150843

Major

: Forestry Economics and Management

School

: School of Economics and Management

Supervisor

: Prof. Xie Yi

Submitted Date

: 2015-12-28

Words Count

: Altogether 3850 words (Main text only contains about 3408 words)

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................................... iii
1.

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1

Background and Concept .............................................................................................................. 1

1.2

Brief introduction of Nepal ........................................................................................................... 1

2.

OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................................... 4

3.

METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................... 4

4.

LIMITATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 4

5.

ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL ........................................................... 4

6.

7.

5.1

Forest Types of Nepal and its distribution .................................................................................... 4

5.2

Abundance of forest types ............................................................................................................ 5

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORESTS TYPES .................................................................. 7

6.1

Dominating Ecological Factors in Nepal........................................................................................ 7

6.2

Influence of Local and Regional Ecological Factors in Forest of Nepal- a Discussion ................... 8

CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 10

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 11

Tables
Table 1: Physiographic and Bio-Climatic Zone ............................................................................................. 2
Table 2: Major Forest Types of Nepal ........................................................................................................... 4
Table 3: Forest and shrub area by Development Region.............................................................................. 6
Figures
Figure 1: Physiographic zones of Nepal, LRMP 1986 .................................................................................... 2
Figure 2 Land Use of Nepal, NFI 1994, DFRS ................................................................................................. 3

ii

ABSTRACT
The exclusive geography with its dramatic changes in elevation along the relatively short span
(150-250 km) in north to south transect and associated high variability in the physiographic and
climatic conditions have resulted in a uniquely diverse flora and fauna in Nepal. Moreover, the
country is standing at the junction of the Indo-Malayan and the Palearctic biogeographic
regions, which has made the country as a mixing place of species originating in both regions.
This impressive feature of Nepal has played vital role in the abundance and distribution of the
forest types of the country. According to Stainton (1972), on the basis of different climate,
vegetation and floristic composition, there are 35 types of forest which are broadly categorized
in 10 major types according to the differentiation in altitudinal range. Furtherore, the diverse
physiographic zones of Nepal having distinct climatic conditions and temperature results the
variety of habitats as well as micro climates and ultimately influenced the abundance and
distribution of forests types.

Key words: Forest Types, Ecological factors, Succession of plant community, Altitudinal
variations, Micro climate

iii

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background and Concept

A forest is a large area of land covered by tree or the woody vegetation. Forests occupy about
the one third of the total land area on earth and they are supporting more than 80 percent of
terrestrial biological diversity (Aerts & Honnay 2011). Moreover, global forests area totals 3999
million hectares in 2015 which covers 31 percent of total earth land mass (Keenan et al. 2015)
and during the last 25 years, global forest area has been decreasing at the average annual rate
of 3.1 percent (FAO 2015). Furthermore, Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of
Earth, and are distributed across the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary
productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass (Pan et al.
2013).
There are so many definitions for Forest. Among them in Nepal, Forest Resource Assessment
Nepal has defined the forest as An area of land at least 0.5 ha and a minimum width/length of
20 m with a tree crown cover of more than 10% and tree heights of 5 m at maturity(FRA,
Nepal 2014).
Forests at different latitudes form distinctly different eco-zones: boreal forests near the poles
tend to consist of evergreens, while tropical forests near the equator tend to be distinct from
the temperate forests at mid-latitude. The amount of precipitation and the elevation of the
forest also affect forest composition. However, in Nepal, the altitudinal variation is main
responsible factor for different climate as well as different forest types (Amatya and Shrestha,
2010).

1.2

Brief introduction of Nepal

Nepal is a land locked country located between China and India, it is situated in the central part
of the Himalayas between 2622' and 3027' N latitudes and 8004' and 8812' E longitudes,
and covers an area of 147,181 square kilometers with diverse geographical conditions. The
elevation ranges from around 70 meters above sea level in the southeastern alluvial plains to
8,848 meters at the peak of Mount Everest (NBSAP, 2014). Moreover, the country is standing at
the junction of the Indo-Malayan and the Palearctic biogeographic regions, which has made the
country as a mixing place of species originating in both regions.
The physiographic regions of Nepal range from alluvial plains in the tropical lowlands to very
rugged and snow and ice covered Himalayan Mountains. The range includes five major types of
physiographic zones extending from East to West (LRMP 1986, Figure 1). The physiographic
zones closely correspond to the seven bio-climatic zones identified by Dobremez (1976) and
1

used by the Biodiversity Profile Project (1995) for classification of the countrys vegetation
(Table 1).

Figure 1: Physiographic zones of Nepal, LRMP 1986

Table 1: Physiographic and Bio-Climatic Zone

Physiographic Zone

Land Coverage

Elevation (m)

Bioclimatic Zones

High Himal

23 %

above 5000

Nival (Tundra & Arctic)

High Mountains

19 %

4000-5000

Alpine

3000-4000

Subalpine

Middle Mountains

29 %

2000-3000

Temperate

1000-2000

Sub-tropical

Shiwaliks (Churiya)

15 %

500-1000

Terai (Plain Area)

14 %

below 500

(Source: NBS AP 2014, page 6)

Tropical

Furthermore, the climate of Nepal is also differing with its physiographic zones. The major
climates of Nepal are mentioned below:
1. Hot Monsoon Climate: Hot and wet summers, Mild cold winters. Mainly found in Terai,
Inner Terai and Siwalik (Churiya) physiographic zones.
2. Warm Temperate monsoon climate: Warm and Wet in summers and cold and dry in
winters. Mainly found in Middle Mountains up to around 2130m altitude.
3. Cold Temperate monsoon climate: Mild wet summers and Cold dry winters. Mainly
found in High Mountains up to 3350m altitude.
4. Alpine climate: Low temperature in Summers and Extremely frosty condition in winter.
Mainly found up to the altitude of 4870m.
5. Tundra Type Climate: Occurs about the Snow Line. Perpetual frost and cold desert
condition.
In other hand, Nepal harbor 29% forest and 10.6% of shrub land of its total land by which it has
altogether 5.83 million hectare of forested land which is altogether 39.6% of its total land. The
other detail of land use is shown in Figure 2.

Land use class

17.8

2.6

29

7
10.6
21
12

Forest

Shrub land

Grassland

Farmland

Uncultivated inclusions

Water, streams and and river beds

Urban and industrial areas

Figure 2 Land Use of Nepal, NFI 1994, DFRS

2.

OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of preparing this report are mentioned below:

1. To explore the abundance and distribution of major forest types of Nepal.
2. To describe the dominating ecological factors those influence the forest types of Nepal.

3.

METHODOLOGY

This report is prepared, on the basis of some literature review and Secondary data from the
published reports of some stakeholders of forestry sector in Nepal.

4.

LIMITATIONS
1. This report is prepared on the basis of few literature review and available secondary
data.
2. Unfortunately, the recent Forest Resource Assessment Project (2010-2014), Nepal has
published the report of only two physiographic regions among five. So, some of data
may be older here.

5.

ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL

5.1

Forest Types of Nepal and its distribution

In Nepal altitudinal variations results the forest types and its distribution. Stainton (1972)
delineated phyto-geographic boundaries based on climate, vegetation and floristic composition
and classified the countrys forests into 35 types. These types are often categorized in to 10
major Types, which are basically based on altitudinal differentiation (Amatya and Shrestha
2010). These types are briefly mentioned in Table 2.
Table 2: Major Forest Types of Nepal
SN

MAJOR FOREST TYPES

1 Tropical Forest

Sub Tropical Forest

Broad-leaved Forest

ALTITUDINAL
RANGE
Below, 1000 m

1000-2000 m

MAJOR SPECIES
Shore robusta , Acacia catechu, Dalbegia sisoo,
Terminalia species, Bombex ceiba, Anogeissus
latifolia, Syzzigium cumini etc
Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Alnus
Nepalensis, Albizia species
4

Sub Tropical Forest Pine

Forest

1000-2200 m

Pinus roxburghii (South facing Slopes)

Lower Temperate Broadleaved Forest

1700-2700 m

Alnus nitida, Castanopsis hystrix, C. tribuloids,

Quercus Sps (Q. lamellosa, Q. Lucotrichophora, Q.
Floribunda)

1700-2200 m

Family Lauraceae

2200-3000 m

Quercus Semicarpifolia

2500- 3500 m

Acer species, Rhododendron species, Juglans regia

8 Temperate Conifer Forest

2000- 3000 m

Pinus wallichiana, Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow,

Tsuga demosa

9 Sub-alpine Forest

3000-4100 m

Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis, Rhododendron

species

above 4100 m

Juniperus-Rhododendron assosiation with

Hippophae tibetana, (in very dwarf size)

Lower Temperate Mixed

Broad-leaved Forest
Upper Temperate Broad6
leaved Forest
Upper Temperate Mixed
7
Broad-leaved Forest
5

10 Alpine Scrub

Source: Nepal Forestry Handbook (Amatya and Shrestha 2010).

5.2

Abundance of forest types

In Nepal, the major forest types are categorized in ten major types as shown in Table 1.
However, in every major forest types, they are further categorized by the dominant tree
species, which also can be determine the abundance of forest types regarding the composition
of dominant tree species. For example, In the Tropical Forest can further categorized by the
name of dominant tree species, i.e. Shorea robusta forest, Acacia catechu-Dalbergia sisoo
forest. Similarly, the subtropical forests are further categorized as conifer forest of Pinus
roxburghii and broad leaved forests of Schima wallichii-Castonopsis indica forest. Furthermore,
oak forest is dominant in temperate broad leaved forests. However, the abundance of different
oak species is differing from eastern to western development region of Nepal. Quercus
semicarpifolia and Quercus lamellosa is widespread in eastern Nepal, where as Quercus
leucotrichphora and Quercus floribunda is dominant in western Nepal. Pinus wallichiana and
Abies pindrow is dominant as temperate conifer forest but in some western part Cedrus
deodara is found to be as dominant tree species. This way, the dominancy of tree species is a
basis of naming the forest types in each physiographical region. The Rhododendron forests are
also prominent all over the country in temperate region. Moreover, Abies spectabilis and Betula
utilis forests are major as sub-alpine forests where as caragana and juniperus forest are found
as Alpine forest.
5

A.

Development region wise forest Status

In Nepal there are five development regions from east to west. They are Eastern Development
Region (EDR), Central Development Region (CDR), Western Development Region (WDR), Midwestern Development Region (MWDR) and Far-western Development Region (FWR). The
abundance of forest in each development region is shown in Table 3. The Far-western region is
highest in abundance of forest which is about 48.7% of its total land area where as the western
development region having 33.7% is the lowest forest cover.
Table 3: Forest and shrub area by Development Region

263 900

Shrub
% of total
land area
13.5

Total
Forest+Shrub
area (% )
48.7

28.2

442 000

10.4

38.6

7 343 000
916 600

25.0
33.5

256 900
233 800

8.7
8.5

33.7
42.0

2 845 600

736 100

25.9

362 600

12.7

38.6

14 718 100

4 268 800

29.0

1 559 200

10.6

39.6

Region

Total land
area (ha)

Forest area(ha)

Forest % of
total land area

Shrub
area(ha)

FWDR

1 953 900

687 400

35.2

MWDR

4 237 800

1 192 400

WDR
CDR

2 939 800
2 741 000

EDR
Total

Source: DFRS 1999

B.

Forest Status in Terai and Shiwaliks

The Terai Physiographic Region of Nepal occupies 2,016,998 ha of the total land area. It is
located in a tropical climatic zone characterized by hot and humid summers, intense monsoon
rain, and dry winters. The maximum monthly mean temperature, 35-40C falls in April/May and
the minimum, 14-16 C, in January. In recent years, population growth rate of 1.75%, the
highest in the nation, have resulted in heavy pressure on the forest resources of the region
(FRA/DFRS, 2014). In Terai, per hectare stem volume is 167.42 m3. Sal (Shorea robusta) forests
had the highest stem volume density i.e. 208.68 m3/ha followed by Sal-Terai Mixed Hardwood
(STMH) forests which has 183.33 m3/ha and Terai Mixed Hardwood (TMH) forests has 131.59
m3/ha stem volume density. Khair-Sissoo (KS) forests had the least (67.29 m3/ha) tree stem
volume. The average number of stems per hectare is 583. In terms of number of stems per
hectare, Shorea robusta is the most prominent species having 188.16 stems per hectare,

followed by Terminalia alata which has 63.38 stems per hectare (FRA/DFRS, Terai, 2014).
Hence, Shorea robusta forest is the dominant forest type in Terai Zone.
Similarly, Shiwaliks is another physiographic region which is often known as Churiya which
has 72.37% forest of its total land. According to FRA/DFRS (2014), the number of stems per/ha
(DBH 5 cm) is about 731 and per hectare and stem volumes is 153.99 m3 in the Forest Land.
Shorea robusta and some other deciduos tree species like Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstromia
parviflora, Annogeisus latifolia are abundantly found in this region.

6.

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORESTS TYPES

The Ecological factors that can influence the distribution and abundance of the forest types are
broadly categorized in two types, which are biotic and abiotic factors. The ecological factors
like influence of plants, pathogen, human disturbance and symbiotic relationship are examples
of biotic factors, whereas, ecological factors like climate, elevation, aspect, temperature,
rainfall, soils etc are the example of abiotic factors.
The climatic variations affect on plant types and their biologic form. Plant types and vegetation
cover are also change with the change in soil types (Soleimani et al 2008). However, according to
Kolahi and Arti (2014) the effective ecological factors of the region were classified as the
principal, determinant and differential ecological factors. Their study showed that the elevation
factor of the region was the principal ecological factor; the factors of elevation, slope as well as
the aspect is the determinant ecological factors; and the factors of pH, EC and texture of soil
were effective as the differential ecological factors (Kolahi and Atri, 2014).

6.1

Dominating Ecological Factors in Nepal

In general, the types of forest occurring naturally on any site are, depends on three factors:
Climate, Geology and Topography (Amatya and Shrestha, 2010).
A. Climatic factors:

Within the climatic factors, temperature, rainfall and light, and their seasonal variation are the
important elements, which influence vegetation. The seasonal distribution of rainfall is very
important to vegetation. In contrast to the time of the year in which most of the rain occur, the
duration of rainfall over which it is distributed, is very important for vegetation.
7

The natural forest provides the indications as to the species adapted to the local climate of a
given area. Aspect may make a considerable difference, change of species in different aspects
being a very common phenomenon in natural vegetation.
B. Geology:
Geology influences the vegetation by the property of parent rocks, which can directly effects
the Edaphic factors of the locality such as, soil types, moisture contents of the soil, soil texture,
soil porosity and chemical constituents of the soil.
C. Topography:
Topography influences vegetation, the main determinant being altitude and aspect of the
slope. In general, a rise in 100 m in altitude corresponds to a fall of 1 C in mean temperature
up to about 1500 m., above which the fall is more rapid. Aspect can create micro-climatic
effects which are very influential in vegetation mainly in hilly regions, because of radiation and
its duration, and intensity of wind. (Amatya and Shrestha, 2010)

6.2

Influence of Local and Regional Ecological Factors in Forest of Nepal- a

Discussion

In Nepal, both biotic and abiotic ecological factors as well as regional or local ecological factors
are highly responsible for the distribution and abundance of the forest types in Nepal.
However, the altitudinal variation is one of the most important factors which can mainly affects
climate of the country. According to the variation in altitudinal ranges temperature and the
intensity of the sunlight also vary and make the climatic variations.
Elevation range (i.e. maximum minus minimum elevation) has been frequently used as a
measure of habitat heterogeneity of a site, because maximum elevation is strongly correlated
with the diversity of habitat types. It can also be used as the measure of habitat heterogeneity.
(Hong Qian et al 2007). So, the forests of Nepal are more diverse within the small amount of
land area. Some examples and facts are described below.

A. Effect of Elevation in forest types: Tropical Mixed Hardwood (TMH) forests were found
between the elevations of 144 m and 1,221 m and on slopes averaging 16. The vertical
distribution of the Shorea robusta (S) forest ranged from 172 m to 1,016 m and the
average slope was 13. Lower Mixed Hardwood (LMH) forests were distributed from
221m to 1,640 m on slightly steeper slopes (22 on average). Khair-Sissoo and SissooKhair (KS/SK) forests were distributed at the lowest range (256 m to 627 m) on relatively
flat areas with an average slope of just 4.7), and Chir pine forests were on the highest
slopes (1,380 m to 1,574 m) with the second-highest average slope (21)
(FRA/DFRS,Chure, 2014)
B. Effect of slope class in Shiwaliks/Churiya forest distribution: About 31% of the Churia
forest occurred in the slope class of 35-60%, followed by 0-15% (28%), 15-35% (26.02%),
60-100% (13.46%) and only about 1% in the steepest slope class (> 100%) Steep slopes,
forest management regimes and poor access limit the potential production of saw logs
in Churia forests. While evidence of tree removals was common in all slope classes up to
100%, the FAO recommends that tree harvesting using humans and draught animals on
erosion prone sites should be limited to slopes of less than 35%. (FRA/DFRS,Chure,
2014)
C. Effect of human disturbance in abundance of forest: The forest area in the Terai is
decreased by 16,500 ha with annual rate of 0.44 % in the last nine years from 2001 to
2010. It is mainly resulted by factors like human disturbance, encroachments and
overgrazing. However, The Terai forest area increased in some districts along the river
banks, it is resulted by the succession of grass community in the river bank to riverain
forests (FRA/DFRS,Terai, 2014). Most of the river banks are changing its vegetation
types from pioneer grasses like Saccharum sponteneum (Variety of Grass) towards the
climax riverain species, like Syzygium cumini, Adina cordifolia, Acacia chatetu, Dalbergia
sisoo, due to the plant succession.
Furthermore, the local ecological factors can also play vital role for the distribution and
abundance of forest types. For example in the same altitudinal range aspect of the slope can
influence the forest types, in southern aspect Pinus roxburghii forest is found where as in
northern aspects of slopes broad leaved forest is found. Similarly, soil types of particular locality
can also affect the vegetation types. In Nepal, Shorea robusta forest is generally found in soil
order Mollisols with high pH value (<6.5 pH) where as conifers Pinus roxburghii and Pinus
wallichiana tolerate a wide range of soil pH values and found in soil order Spodosols. In
additions, even in the same region having similar amount of rainfall, the drainage of the area
plays as local ecological factors. The waterlogged area contents the tree species like Albizia
julibrissin, Trewia nudiflora, Syzygium cuminii etc, which have high transpiration rate and

morphologically suitable for and waterlogged area. In other word, we can say, Tree
Morphology affects as biotic ecological factor.
Moreover, according to the aspects and exposure of the hills and mountains the availability of
tree species is varied because of the ability of any plant to acquire maximum photosynthesis
under low light intensities (shade- bearers) or to increase in photosynthetic activity with
increasing light (light demanders). The tree species like Adina cordifolia, Ailanthus excelsa,
Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii, Shorea robusta are light demander species.
And the species like Abies pindrow, Quercus glauca, Taxus baccata, Michelia champaca etc are
some examples of shade demander species which are found in low light intensity area like
northern aspects of the hills.

7.

CONCLUSION

As the Nepal has diverse physiographic zones with differentiation in altitudinal range, it causes
climatic variations in the country. The physiographic and climatic variations results different
ecological factors which are highly responsible for the distribution and abundance of the forest
types in Nepal. Almost forest types of Nepal are often categorized in to 10 major types, which
are basically based on altitudinal differentiation. However, according to Stainton (1972), based
on climate, vegetation and floristic composition, the forests of Nepal are of 35 types.
Moreover, both biotic and abiotic ecological factors as well as regional and local ecological
factors are highly responsible to influence the forest types of Nepal. The variations of different
locality factors also change the structures, compositions and abundance of the forests. The
succession of plant community and the plant morphology can also plays important role in the
occurrence of different species in different sites which can lead the dominancy and abundance
of species in a particular area.

10

REFERENCES
Aerts, R & Honnay, O 2011. Forest restoration, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, BMC
ecology, no. 1.
Amatya, Swoyabhuman and Shrestha, Kanhaiya Raj. 2010. Nepal Forestry Handbook. Nepal
Foresters Association, Kathmandu, Nepal. xxviii, 536 p.
DFRS. 1999. Forest Resources of Nepal. Department of Forest Research and Survey (Publication
No 74), Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation,Kathmandu, Nepal.
FAO, 2015. Global Forest resources assessment 2015: How are the worlds forests changing?,
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Rome.
FRA/DFRS. 2014. Terai Forests of Nepal. Forest Resource Assessment Nepal, Department of
Forest Research and Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal. IXp
FRA/DFRS. 2014. Churia Forests of Nepal (2011 2013). Forest Resource Assessment Nepal
Project/Department of Forest Research and Survey, Babarmahal, Kathmandu
Hong Qian, Peter S. White and Jong-Suk Song, 2007, Effects of Regional vs. Ecological Factors
on Plant Species Richness: An Intercontinental Analysis, Ecology Vol. 88, No. 6 (Jun.,2007), pp.
1440-1453, Ecological Society of America. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27651252
Jackson, J.K.1994. Manual of Afforestation in Nepal. 2nd Edition. Forest Research and Survey
Centre, Kathmandu.
Keenan, RJ, Reams, GA, Achard, F, de Freitas, JV, Grainger, A & Lindquist, E 2015. Review and
synthesis: Dynamics of global forest area: Results from the FAO Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2015. Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 352, pp. 9-20.
Kolahi M and Atri M, 2014, The Effect of Ecological Factors on Vegetation in Hamedan Alvand
Region (Iran), International Journal of Farming and Allied Sciences Available online at
www.ijfas.com 2014 IJFAS Journal-2014-3-5/489-496.
MoFSC. 2014. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2020. Ministry of Forest and
Soil conservation, Nepal.
Pan, Yude; Birdsey, Richard A.; Phillips, Oliver L.; Jackson, Robert B. (2013). "The Structure,
Distribution, and Biomass of the Worlds Forests" (PDF).Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 44: 593
62.doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135914.
11

Soleimani K., Kordsavadkooh T. and Muosavi S.R. 2008, The Effect of Environmental Factors on
Vegetation Changes Using GIS (Case Study: Cherat Catchment, Iran), World Applied Sciences
Journal 3 (Supple 1): 95-100, 2008.
TISC 2002. Forests and Vegetation Types of Nepal. Tree Improvement and Silviculture
Component, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Nepal.

12