ESR (Electron Spin Resonance) is an application of the electrons intrinsic spin resonance, given

by the spin quantum number. First, I will develop the theory of the spin and describe how it is applied in
ESR.
The angular momentum, L is a property of an electron that could be measured. An electron
moving in a current loop produces a magnetic field. The current is given as

I=

e ev
=
T 2 r

If we multiply in the angular momentum, we can express this as

I=

evmvr
eL
=
2 rmvr 2 mr 2

In this diagram, the magnetic field B would be pointing down, in the opposite direction of L. The
electron can be portrayed as a magnet producing a magnetic field, so the current loop is analogous to a
magnet, or a dipole. We know that a current loop processes a magnetic moment . This is the magnetic
dipole moment. We know
2

=IA=I r =

L increases, we expect the magnetic dipole moment

Here, as the angular momentum

as well, because

e
2m

eL
2m

is just a constant of proportionality. From the derivation of the quantum

numbers, we know that the angular momentum and its z-component is quantized as
and

Lz =ml .

to increase

L= l ( l1 )

is much easier to measure than L, and we can test the quantization based on that.

In this image the L is pointing out of the cone, so it is quantized. Substituting in

experimentally, we find that the magnetic moment is quantized in space as

m is the mass of the electron.

e
2m

L= l ( l1 )

and

e
l(l+1) where
2m

is the Bohr magneton, and for an electron it is

9.21023 A m 2 , a constant of proportionality, which can be understood as the unit of the magnetic

moment. The z-component of the magnetic moment is also quantized because

z =

Lz is also quantized:

e
m
2m l .

An experiment called the Stern Gerlach experiment led to the discovery of the spin quantum
number. According to Bohr, the angular momentum was conserved for each energy level, as

L=mvr=n where n=1, 2,3,

According to Schrodingers theory, L can be 0, such as in an s orbital where l=0. The Stern Gerlach
experiment used a non uniform field to create a net force on the magnetic dipole (because, otherwise, if
the magnetic dipole was in a uniform field, no Fnet=0. Stern and Gerlach wanted to split the fie;d and
expected to observe two spots on the screen. Their experiment failed, but later on this experiment proved
that the quantization of L, as predicted by Bohr, is incorrect because of Schrodingers interpretation.
According to Bohrs model, they would have expected a huge smear. So, this model was unable to
explain the two fringes that was examined when the beam split up.

has to be quantized in

accordance to Bohr, but there was something else going on. In 1925 the experiment was repeated with
the hydrogen atom, and then a sodium atom. And the results were curious. Because the valence electron
for hydrogen and sodium have a angular momentum quantum number of l=0, therefore they do not have
any angular momentum. Because the angular momentum is related to the magnetic dipole,
also found out that

, they

=0. According to these experiments, they should not have observed a spin, but

regardless, a spin was observed. How, then, do we explain the spinning? It turns out that the concept had
nothing to do with the orbital angular momentum, L, but rather, another, fundamental property of the
electron. This was called the spin. This is the fourth quantum number, which was derived from Diracs
equation, which is based on special relativity and quantum mechanics.

3
1
S= s ( s +1 ) = s=
2
2

s=

1
2

was named the spin quantum number. Electrons and other particles called fermions, are called

spin-half particles. The S here can be considered the spin angular momentum. This is analogous to

L= l ( l1 )

Lz =ml

Just as the orbital angular momentum was quantized for the z-component, the spin angular momentum
could also be quantized for the z-component:

1 1
S z =m s , where ms= ,
2 2
Also, there is a magnetic moment associated with the electrons spin,

S . The magnetic moment in an

electron, then, is a combination of the orbital part and the spin part:

= L + S
So, even if

L =0,

S is non-zero. This explains the results of the Stern-Gerlach experiment.

=

Also, in analogy to the orbital magnetic moment,

we have

s =g

eL
2m

e
S
2m

Here, g is called the Lande g-factor, a constant of proportionality that was derived from Diracs equation.
For the angular magnetic moment, the g-factor was g=1. For an electron spin,

g 2 . The g-factor will

vary for other particles.

s =g

e
S
2m

The z-component of the magnetic moment is an electron with no orbital magnetic moment is actually the
Bohr magneton, as given by:

s , z =g

e
e
m =
= B
2m s
2m

This is due to

ms=

1
2 .

This quantization actually explains the results of the Stern-Gerlach

experiment, where we saw the beam of silver atoms split into two. When the B-field was applied, half of
the atoms went into the

+ B

state in the z-direction, and the other half went into the

B state in

the opposite z-direction. Electrons are in fact, then, tiny magnets that can point upward or downward
(parallel to the z-field or anti-parallel to the z-field). This is true even if there is no orbital motion.
Many particles occurring in nature have a fundamental, intrinsic spin. This is true even for a
proton, even though you cannot associate the spin with orbital motion. Here are the spins, spin quantum
numbers, and g-factor for several particles:
Particle

ms

Spin, s

Electron

1/2

1 /2

Proton

1/2

1 /2

5.6

Neutrino
Neutron
Photon
Graviton

1/2
1/2
1
2

1, 0, -1

Bosons are particles with spins of s = 0, 1, 2, 3,

Fermions are particles with spins of s=1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2,
Now that Ive explained the foundation of the electron spin, I can describe the theory of ESR, or
electron spin resonance. ESR is an application of the electron spin, wherein we create an electron or ESR
spectrum. The graph gives the electrons at different positions and it tells the intensity of the molecules
usually ESR can shed light on the structure of the molecule.
In our experiment, we have the DPPH molecule, but we can obtain an ESR spectrum from other
molecules. DPPH is the organic chemical compound 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. Within DPPH are
electrons with a magnetic moment. We can place a solenoid, or in our case, a Hemholtz coil near the
sample to get an EMF induced inside the sample. The electron is now placed in a B field. If the magnetic
field is uniform, there is no force on an electron, but there is a torque. The torque is proportional to

B , and also the rate of change of the spin angular momentum.

1
d

d S=
= B=
dt
dt
In this case, the magnetic moment is not in the parallel or anti-parallel direction of the z-direction, but it is
instead rotating around the z-axis.
gyroscopic (or mechanical quantity)

is the gyromagnetic ratio. The gyromagnetic ratio connects the

with the magnetic quantity

s .

s =g

In

So,

e
ge
S,=
2m
2m

= B
dt

This is a vector quantity, so you have to solve for the x, y, and z components.

d x , y , z
= ( B )x , y, z
dt

^j k^
i^
x y z
0 0 B

B
=

i^ ( y B ) ^j( x B)

d x
= y B Eq . 1
dt
d y
= x B Eq .2
dt
d z
=0 Eq .3
dt
We get three differential equation which can be solved simultaneously, for the x, y, and z components.
The Eq. 3 is the easiest to solve,

d z
=0 tells you that
dt

z is a constant in time. So, the

magnetic moment rotates around the z-axis. This is called precession. When the spin is placed in the
magnetic field, the magnetic moment is precessing. The motion is fixed on a z-component, so the
magnetic moment isnt moving up and down the z-axis. From this, later, the frequency of precession can
be determined.
Now, solving Eq. 1:
2

d x
dt

=B ( x B ) =

( ddt ) B
y

d x
+ x ( B )2=0
2
dt
y ( t ) y ( t ) cos ( Bt ) +C 2 sin ( Bt)
y ( t )=

1
(B C 1 sin ( Bt ) +B C2 cos ( Bt ) )
B

y ( t )=C 1 sin ( Bt ) +C 2 cos ( Bt)

Now we find

C1 and C2 with initial conditions

x ( t )=0 , y ( t )=0

C1 = 0 ,C 2=0

So,

x ( t )=0 cos Bt)

(
)
y t =0 s Bt)
z ( t )=Constan t

Because the x-component is a sinusoidal function and the y-component is a cosine function, the magnetic
moment components are out of phase by 90 degrees. The magnetic moment is also precessing with with a
frequency

L =B . This is called the Larmor frequency. L is also dependent on the

gyromagnetic ratio and the field. As the magnetic field increases, or

frequency. So,

, so would the Larmor

is precessing around the z-axis in a shape of the cone, making an angle with the z-

axis and with a frequency

L .

All of this is due to a relativistic quantum phenomenon in the spin. But, there is an observable
signal in the real world. You can obtain a classical reading from the quantum world with something like a
ADC (analog-to-digital-convertor). This may be found in an oscilloscope. A sample of points is
generated of the data according to time. Also, a Fourier transform is used to get a frequency spectrum
(therefore, a voltage to time reading can be obtained).