Assessment on Landform Processes

1. Fluvial Landforms
1.1 Riffle
Riffle is a type of fluvial landform. A riffle is formed in a shallow section of a river
or stream where rough bed or bottom with rocks or rock formations. The rocks are
not large enough to create large waves or heavy rapids. Extent may be all over or
portion of the cross section of the river or stream. Due to riffles it makes ripples in
the water.
1.2 Gorge and Canyon
Gorge or canyon is a deep valley which is bounded by steep rock formations on both
sides. Wind, water, freeze thaw erosion or river or glacier are forming gorges. In
deserts or mountain regions, gorge or canyon landforms can be seen.
1.3 Esker
A long narrow ridge, composed of stratified sediment and marking the former
location of a glacial tunnel. Eskers are formed with washed sand and gravel. Eskers
are vary in shape and size. Sinuous in shape and several ten meters in height. May be
long to few kilometers or discontinuous.
1.4 Gully
Gully landforms are formed by running water in a shape of channel cut in to a
hillside or mount side. Size of a gully is 5-6 ft in width and depth, and to hundred ft
in length. Gullies are also formed in hill or mountain sides where a stream or river
flows through them.
1.5 Marsh
A marsh is a wetland which is contained primarily plant growth such as grasses,
reeds, cattails and water born leaf plants and few or no trees. Marsh lands are formed
in lowland areas by rivers during high water level times or by lakes during flood
times or by sea during high tide period in coast. A marsh land is in size of small lake.
1.6 Meander
When a river or stream formed a bend or curve, generally over 90 degrees is called a
meander landform. This land form occurs when water flows against the outer river
bank with increased force. Due to the force bank is eroded and large bend formation
is occurred. Meander size will depend on the size of the river or stream.
1.7 Oxbow lake
A long, narrow curved lake is called Oxbow lake. Oxbow lake will be formed when
the water flow bypassed and joined the near curves in a meander while sediments
creating a new bank to the portion of the bypassed area. As water flows through the
new channel old channel will be isolated with new bank in shape of U or C.

1.8 Point bar

Point bar is a deposited feature in a stream or river inner side of a meander. Due to
low velocity of water of inner curvature of the meander, sand and other debris will
be deposited. Point bars typically are composed of sediment ranging in size from
pebbles to granular sands
1.9 River delta
River delta is formed by separating a river into few channels when river enters
another water body like sea or lake. Separation of the river into few channels is due
to sediment settlement near the mouth of the river.
1.10 Swamp
Swamp is wet land that is forested. The two main types of swamp are "true" or
swamp forests and "transitional" or shrub swamps. The water of a swamp may be
fresh water, brackish water or seawater.

2. Erosion Landforms
2.1 Badlands
Badlands are type of dry terrains which the sedimentary rock or clay rich soil cover
has been heavily eroded by wind or water. Badlands are formed with steep slopes
with high drainage density and minimum or no vegetation. Badlands are difficult
to navigate by foot. Badlands often have a spectacular color display that alternates
from dark black/blue coal stria to bright clays to red scoria.
2.2 Butte
Butte is a landform which has steep slope or vertical sides with flat top. Height is
greater than the width. Butte are made of rock which has a top layer of hard rock and
softer rock below that is eroded more easily. Butte is more than 100 feet high above
the ground.
2.3 Canyon
Canyon is formed by erosion of a land which is creating two steep cliffs with a large
valley due to a river running through the cliffs. The cliffs form as harder rock strata
which are resistant to erosion and weathering remain exposed on the valley walls.
2.4 Erg
A large area of desert land covered with sand dunes is called an Erg. Action of strong
winds creates ergs over thousands of years originally covered by shallow sea. Ergs
can be found in sand deserts on almost every continent which are formed by the
wind blown sand. The action of waves over very long periods of time can erode
rocks to form sand. An erg covers at least 48 square miles. A large erg can cover tens
of thousands of square miles.
2.5 Hogback
Hogbacks are formed by erosion of loose soil or weathered rock forming a line of
narrow crests or ridges on top with a series of hills or mountains. Hogbacks can be
found in mountainous regions or in badlands areas. Line of rock formation rising
from the land may be less than 100ft or more than few miles in length.
2.6 Mesa
Another name for mesas is Table Mountains. It contains flat top with steep slopes
which are formed in arid climates. Larger than butte in size and formed due to
erosion of weathered or weak rock and remained hard rock topographically higher
than surrounding area.
2.7 Potrero
A potrero is a long mesa that at one end slopes upward to higher terrain. This
landform commonly occurs on the flanks of a mountain, as part of a dissected
plateau.

2.8 Ridge
A ridge is consisting of a chain of mountains or hills. Formed as continuous elevated
crest for some distance with sloping sides. There are several types of ridges called
Dendritic, Stratigraphic, Oceanic spreading ridge, Crater ridges, Volcanic
crater/caldera ridge, Fault ridge, Dune ridge, Moraines and eskers, Volcanic
subglacial ridge and Shutter ridge.
2.9 Structural bench
A bench or benchland is a long relatively narrow strip. Gently inclined land. That is
bounded by distinctly steeper slopes above and below. Benches have different
origins. Created by very different geomorphic processes
2.10 Valley
Valley is a low land between mountains or hills. There are U shaped or V shaped
valleys which are categorized according to the shape of the cross section of slopes or
hillsides area and depression is longer than its wide. When a river flows through the
valley, it is termed as vale. A valley formed by flowing water or river is in V shape.

3. Aeolian landforms
3.1 Barchan
Barchans can be found around shrubs or rocks which are U shaped sand dunes that
consists of horns or tips that point downwind or against the wind. Barchans are also
called crescentic dunes which can be over 100ft in height. A large Barchan can be
over 1200 feet wide.
3.2 Blowout
A blowout is a depression in the ground where the topsoil or sand has been carried
away by the wind due to loss of vegetation. Blowout can be occur near seashore
where strong winds occur or after a grass fire and sandy soil or soil is loosened and
exposed to strong winds.
3.3 Desert pavement
Desert pavement is a desert surface covered with closely packed, interlocking
angular or rounded rock fragments of pebble and cobble size. This landform occurs
due to erosion of loose sand by wind and remains and cover the top with hard well
graded rocks which will not further erosion.
3.4 Desert varnish
Desert varnish is dark coating on rocks and composite by clay minerals. Clay arrive
by wind. These clays are black manganese oxide (birnesite) and red iron oxide
(hematite). Another terms for desert varnish are Rock rust, Desert patina and Rock
varnish which color ranges from Orange to Yellow Black. These rocks' high
resistance to weathering process.
3.5 Dune
Dune is a large sand hill formed by wind. Strong winds can pick up sand and move it
over the surface. While this process sand is being collected and grow in to a sand
dune. When wind pattern changes the size and shape of the dune also alters.
3.6 Ventifact
Ventifacts are rocks eroded by windblown particles, generally or exclusively sand.
They can be seen mostly in arid regions with little vegetation with a fairly abundant
supply of sand, and winds capable of exceeding the threshold speed necessary for
sand movement. Their formation depends on original rock texture, shape, and
composition.
3.7 Loess
When the windblown dust and silt cover the land as layers those layer of fine,
mineral-rich material is called loess. Loess is mostly created by wind. Loess is pale
and loosely packed. It crumbles easily. Loess is soft enough to carve, but strong
enough to stand as sturdy walls. Loess accumulates, or builds up, at the edges of
deserts

3.8 Dry lake

Dry lake is a lake bed which is dry in most of the time in a year and mud or layer of
salt is covered the bed. During rainy time it may cover water for several inches and
during dry season water will be evaporated by wind and again make it dry. Over a
large period of time bed become flat surface.
3.9 Sandhill
Sandhill originated from sediments leftover by glacial melt waters around 13,000
years ago. Great sandhills cover area approximately 19,000 square km. It is not the
same as a sand dune. Sandhill soil, deep well-drained and nutrient poor.
3.10 Yardang
Yardang is a tube shaped carved remained feature eroded from original bed rock or
consolidated or semi consolidated material. Erosion is occurred by wind abrasion
with dust and sand, and deflation which is the removal of loose material by wind
turbulence. Yardangs become elongated features typically three or more times longer
than wide.

4. Coastal and oceanic landforms

4.1 Arch
A sea arch is a natural opening eroded out of a cliff face by marine processes. Arches
develop where waves attack a plane of weakness which cross-cuts a headland. Caves
produced on either side of a headland may joined over time to become a tunnel and,
finally, an arch.
4.2 Bay and gulf
Bay is a landform which has semicircular shape and go inwards to the land. Bay
occurs due to erosion and deposition of the coast. Bay has small opening to the sea.
Bay is smaller than a gulf. Gulf is larger than a bay arm of sea or ocean enclosed by
large amounts of land.
4.3 Blowhole
Blowhole is a hole connected the surface of ground to a cave or underground tunnel
in sea area which water can travel upward with great pressure and escape through the
opening.
4.4 Cape
Cape is a large area of land extending into an ocean or other large body of water
while changing of shape and direction from the rest of the coastline.
4.5 Coral reef
Coral reef is a ridge of calcium carbonate rich rock with living creatures that extends
to some distance just under the surface of the sea. Coral reefs are alive substances
until they are under sea water. New corals are constantly being made and being
attached to the old coral reefs.
4.6 Cliff
Cliffs in coast are formed by erosion of soft rock formations due to wave action.
Cliffs are formed with high and steep slopes with vertical or near vertical faces.
4.7 Estuary
Estuaries are formed when the freshwater of a river meets the saltwater of an ocean
in a partially enclosed area. It may be connected by one or more rivers. All or part of
the water in an estuary is brackish, a mixture of freshwater and saltwater. Separate
zones of freshwater and saltwater may exist in parts of an estuary.
4.8 Lagoon
A lagoon is a shallow body of water covered from the ocean by sandbars, barrier
islands, or coral reefs. The size and depth of coastal lagoons often depend on sea
level. When the sea level is low, coastal lagoons are swampy wetlands. When the sea
level is high, they can look like coastal lakes or bays.
4.9 Shoal

A shoal is made of sand, gravel or silt which is formed by wave action and currents
in the form of a narrow straight line. It may be connected to the coast line or may be
offshore.
4.10 Tombolo
A tombolo is a deposition landform which is an island attached to the mainland with
narrow piece of land. Attachment is occurred due to sediments transported by sea
currents.

5. Slope landforms
5.1 Alas
A type of thermokarst depression with steep sides and a flat, grass-covered floor,
found in thermokarst terrain, produced by thawing of extensive areas of very thick
and exceedingly ice-rich permafrost.
5.2 Cuesta
Cuesta landform is formed in areas of tilted strata and is caused by the differential
weathering and erosion of the hard capping layer and the soft underlying cliff maker,
which erodes more rapidly.
5.3 Dale
A dale is an open valley.
5.4 Plain
Plain is a land which is broad in extent and flat, or gently rolling areas in level with
low in elevation. prairies, grasslands and steppes are different types of plains.
5.5 Plateau
Plateau is an elevated portion of land with flat and level top. It may have vertical
slopes or cliffs in one or more sides of elevated part.
5.6 Scree
Scree is the loose rock created by physical weathering. It typically lies on a steep
mountainside or at the base of a cliff.
5.7 Strath
Strath is a bedrock platform created by a stream which is abandoned due to shifting
of the stream to a lower location.
5.8 Summit
Summit is the the top, or highest area of a hill, mountain, or tableland. It usually
refers to a high interfluve area of relatively gentle slope that is flanked by steeper
slopes.
5.9 Ravine
Ravine is same as a canyon or valley with steep sides but smaller than both
landforms. They are formed by the action of a stream that erodes the land. A ravine
is generally several hundred feet wide.
5.10 Dell
A dell is a small wooded valley. There may have small stream flowing through it
also.
6. Lacustrine landforms

6.1 Carolina bay

Carolina bays are elliptical depressions concentrated along the Atlantic seaboard.
Carolina bays vary in size from one to several thousand acres. The bays have
different vegetative structures.
6.2 Endorheic basin
Endorheic is a closed drainage basin. It retains water and will not occur any outflow
to other external water bodies, such as rivers or oceans. They are identified as a
closed or terminal basin or as an internal drainage system.
6.3 Lake
A Lake is a body of water which surrounded by land. Mostly lakes are filled with
fresh water and may be naturally formed or manmade.
6.4 Oasis
Oasis is an area surrounded by desert where there is a water source which supports
vegetation and animal life. In an Oasis ground water is near to the surface.
6.5 Playa lake
A shallow, intermittent lake in an arid or semiarid region, covering or occupying a
playa in the wet season but drying up in summer.
6.6 Lacustrine terraces
Lacustrine terraces is a former shoreline of a lake. A lake terrace can be formed by
either the abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline, the
accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged environments,
or some combination of these.
6.7 Lacustrine plain
Lacustrine plains are lakes that are filled with sediments which comes from the
incoming flow. After a longtime the lake get filled and the filled material can be used
as fertilizer rich material for farming.
6.8 Pond
Pond is a water clogged area which is smaller than a lake. It may be natural or
artificial. Usually contains shallow water with marsh and aquatic lives.
6.9 Proglacial lake
Proglacial lakes are formed when glaciers are melting trapped melted water in a
impermeable soil layer.
6.10 Salt pan
Salt pans are large ground areas covered with salt and other minerals with shining
white under sea. They are naturally formed landforms and can be found in deserts.

7. Mountain and glacial landforms

7.1 Cove
Cove is formed by erosion of soft rock of a mountain leaving hard rock in a circular
shape or small bay shape with inlet.
7.2 Dirt cone
A dirt cone is a cone shaped elevated part of a glacier that is covered with soil or
other sediment. The shape is usually irregular, not a perfect cone
7.3 Fjord
Fjord are formed by glacier movement. They are long, narrow inlet with steep rock
formations on each side. Larger valleys water also can be seen.
7.4 Glacier cave
Glacier cave is a formation in ice at the bottom of a glacier. Due to geothermal action
or melting process, a space under the glacier may formed and it is called glacier
cave.
7.5 Hill
A hill is a landform which is raised above the surrounding terrain. It sloping sides
and slopes are not so steep.
7.6 Pingo
Pingo is a domed shaped earth covered ice. Pingos can only form in a permafrost
environment. They formed when the pressure of freezing groundwater pushes up a
layer of frozen ground.
7.7 Sandur
Sandur is a plain formed of glacial sediments deposited by meltwater outwash at the
terminus of a glacier. As it flows, the glacier grinds the underlying rock surface and
carries the debris along
7.8 Rift valley
Rift valley is a portion of land that drops, forming a valley. It has bordered by fault
zones and separating land masses. Rift valleys can be found in areas that have faults
in the Earths crust where separation of land masses has occurred.
7.9 Trim Line
Trim line is a clear line on the side of a valley formed by a glacier. The line marks
the most recent highest extent of the glacier. The line may be visible due to changes
in color to the rock or to changes in vegetation on either side of the line
7.10 Monadnock
Monadnocks are mountains left standing in low plains that eroded around them.
8. Volcanic landforms

8.1 Caldera
Caldera is large volcanic crater which has occurred either by an explosive volcanic
eruption or collapse of a large surface rock in to an empty magma chamber.
8.2 Geyser
Geyser is a narrow opening in the ground which emits water and steam
intermittently. They can be found in areas of geothermal activity.
8.3 Lava dome
Lava dome is in mound or hill-shaped formation. They are made by lava ejected
from vents in the ground. Lava domes can be found in areas of volcanic activity. A
volcano can also be a lava dome. They can also exist in areas that are no longer
volcanically active.
8.4 Lava tube
Lava tube is a lava flow that has solidified outer surface under the ground. The
interior is hollow like a cave by drains away the lava.
8.5 Maar
Maar depression are formed by underground volcanic explosions in the funnelshaped and usually round hollow. These explosions crush the overlying rocks and
launch them into the air along with steam, water, ash and magmatic material.
8.6 Pit crater
Pit crater is formed by collapsing ground above an empty space due to volcanic
activity and not by volcanic explosion. It has a hole with steep or vertical sides.
There is no any elevated portion around the pit crater.
8.7 Tuya
A tuya is a volcano formed landform lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet.
It has a flat-topped, steep-sided. They are somewhat rare worldwide, being confined
to regions which were covered by glaciers and had active volcanism during the same
period.
8.8 Volcanic cone
Volcanic cone are formed by ejecting lava from the volcano vent and filling up
around the vent. Stratcone, Spatter cone and Tuff cones are the major types of
volcanic cones.
8.9 Volcanic crater
A volcanic crater is formed as a circular depression in the ground. They are formed
by volcanic activity. It is typically a bowl-shaped feature within which occurs a vent
or vents
8.10 Volcanic plug

A volcanic plug is a volcanic object created when magma hardens within a vent
(volcanic neck or lava neck) on an active volcano. When plug is there while volcano
eruptions, causes an extreme build-up of pressure of rising volatile-charged magma
which are trapped beneath it, and this can sometimes lead to an explosive eruption.