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THE
THEORY OF SOUND
IN ITS
RELATION TO MUSIC.
BY
NEW YORK:
D.
AND
BOND STREET.
isea
i'
:
PREFACE.
THE
of the
phenomena
laws of Music.
or artistic aspect,
works and
special
special study.
now
classical book,
empfmdungen,"
The student
PREFACE.
ficiently
questions.
made
notable progress in
to regard the history
view, and
is
To expound
briefly the
fundamental principles
portant
of science and
some
most im-
has
applications,
its
and
by lovers of
by
lovers
art.
PIETRO BLASERNA.
April 1875.
it
A FEW
signed
Sound.
by Professor TYNDALL
work were
for
his
permission.
de-
book on
his
kind
CONTENTS*
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
1.
Vibration of a bell
method
branes
5.
7.
4.
2.
3.
Vibration of a string
6.
Of
plates
9.
Conclusion
CHAPTER
1.
Sonorous vibration.
and mem-
Method
8.
.
.1
II.
Propagation in air
3.
In water
4.
5.
In water
6.
Reflection of sound
Transmission of sound
2.
CHAPTER
Characteristics of sound,
which
position of sounds
Echo
28
III.
difference
between musical
2.
it
and
7.
depends
4.
3.
45
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
IV.
PAGE
3.
Pitch of sounds
voice
4.
"
Musical sounds
ference
notes
4.
Law
2.
Beats
Their
Octaves and
7.
and third
other
6.
harmonics
8.
Resultant
Consonant
fifth,
fourth, sixth,
10.
The seventh
harmonic
CHAPTER
1.
2.
4.
2 and
3.
VI.
3.
Their inversion
CHAPTER
4.
5.
Greek
.96
VII.
Ancient music
scale
6.
scales
Scale of Pythagoras
chants 9.
8. Ambrosian and Gregorian
Its decay
Polyphonic music, harmony, the Protestant Reformation,
Palestrina 10. Change of the musical scale, the tonic, and
7.
fundamental chord
11.
74
more notes
Discords
.59
Unison, inter-
3.
explanation
The major
9.
V.
of simple ratio
5.
limit
of the vibrations
CHAPTER
1.
Laws
6.
pitch
and of harmonics
of a string,
The major
scale,
musical intervals
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
12.
Sharps and
15.
flats
13.
16.
17. Desirability of
racy
The temperate
abandoning
CHAPTER
1.
it
109
VIII.
2.
Forms assumed by
optical method
3.
Another
Phonautographic method
5.
Laws
4.
14 and
of harmonics.
6.
CHAPTER
1.
music
3 and
ence of Paris
4.
6.
146
IX.
2.
Italian
and German
Conclusion
5.
Influ.
175
CHAPTER
1.
I.
PERIODIC MOVEMENTS, VIBRATION 2. SONOROUS VIBRATION 3. VIBRATION OF A BELL 4. VIBRATION OF A TUNING-FORK, GRAPHIC METHOD
6. OF PLATES AND MEMBRANES
5. VIBRATION OF A STRING
7. VIBRATION OF AIR IN A SOUNDING PIPE
FLAME.
1.
9.
AMONGST
8.
CONCLUSION.
which
it
These are
at rest for a
moment,
retraces its steps, again takes the road it has already passed
over,
and continues
thus,
ments in a determinate
making regular
to-and-fro
move-
line.
Galileo,
that
movement
who
is
is
pendulum, be
movement
executed,
is
is
isochron-
its oscillations
large or not.
In other words,
we
if
give to a
at rest
pendulum
which
may
the oscillations
The law
is
matically exact,
Although
shall consider.
called
oscillation,
it
pendulum
may
is
a very
not be mathe-
still it is
which we
of cases
fro
and
if it
that of the
pendulum
be smaller and quicker,
is
it
is
termed a vibration.
also
name
all.
of
compound
complex laws.
On
vibrations to those
we
An
summed up When
:
it
it
its
path,
second half of
its
path.
maximum
An
is
obtained
by adding to the already existing oscillation of the pendulum some other oscillatory movement. Suppose, for
example, that the pendulum rod be flexible and
and that
it
on
oscillates
own
its
be an
to
when
is
elastic
which,
ball,
on a
billiard-table
that
and expansions.
first.
by the ball-player,
who throws
movement
a compound
give
air,
pendulum
We shall
elastic,
furnished
is
to the ground.
of the pendulum.
The
ball goes
same
up with a
velocity de-
pendulum
comes
to
rest,
increasing velocity,
and then
and
is
is fairly
high and
still
In
this
number
treat of
one
which
great importance
the history of
2.
I wish
human
first
its
culture.
we
to
know
ticles,
formed
know
is
To under-
it is
the
enough
body can be subdivided into little parand that these particles can move away from one
that the
more or
to
go farther
less
hypothe-
themselves.
yet another
We
called elastic in
which a
particle,
moved from
A body is
its
natural
to return to
position of equilibrium, has a tendency
first
displaced
When
it
its
has ceased.
a particle
is
is
it
free to
move,
it
pendulum
returns
The
does.
instant
it
momentum
finally
about
the
stops and
pendulum
movement which
retraces
oscillates
vertical position.
its
it
steps.
then
oscillates
is
it is
not enough
The body
may
movement
it is
vibrations to which a
be subjected,
one vibrates,
its
is
position
its
dulum.
its
it
important to
and
as
each
influ-
particles,
In
this
respect
on
its
It often
own
may be
sonorous,
regularity.
The
upon sound.
it is
necessary
movements together
thermal vibrations
irregular
movements
altogether
of an undisciplined crowd.
It
of the
sounding body.
metal bell
Fig.
it
may make
is
taken,
(fig. 1).
mouth
A very light
at a given
moment.
movements
If this bell be
movement
of the
is
pendulum
and
VIBRATION OF A TUNING-FORK.
less
grows
as the
long as
bell, so
it
sounds,
is
its parts.
4.
Another
vibration
be held by
(fig. 2).
by a
its
foot,
fork.
it
illustration is given
if it
D, which,
upon the
its
table, or if
branches with a
if
'
the table,
or,
better
still,
The sound
may
be
so, it is
when
it
The movement
ment.
follow
it,
movement
is
of the tuning-fork.
made very
the finger.
ment
ment
perceptible
This vibratory
ceases,
But the
by
with
when
the other
visible
itself
two branches be touched, the moveand with it the sound. Sound and move-
If the
is strong,
movement
when
vibrations
method
made
A plate
of glass
2),
(fig.
by
G,
is
is
in
placed against
it,
such a
Or,
is
is
certain
used, on which
and more
is
stretched
This
moved by hand
fork
is
or
now brought
by mechanism
and
is
fixeoHirmly by means
and the
movement
3).
of a vice.
(fig.
The tuning-
from a straight
its
it
line.
at rest
and
pendicular to the
first.
If, lastly,
turns, a regular
GRAPHIC METHOD.
undulating line
is
When
movement
3.
later on,
when
the
inish in width
ceasing, they
finally,
when
become almost
of the tuning-fork.
Kg.
sound
The vibration of a
demonstrated.
stretched over a
3
For
this
the sound
invisible,
is
on the point of
line.
wooden box
(fig. 4).
Two
is
bridges,
used,
A and
10
of
any part
it
it
to be determined at will.
The wire
is
fixed
Fig. 4.
is
is
called a
is
its tension.
feeble
if,
the sound
on the contrary,
is
loud
it
amount
force,
it.
on the greater or
The vibration of
manner
less
this
string
VIBRATION OF A STRING.
when rubbed
extremities,
is
ined,
it
it
At
the
rests
rest,
is
outline.
maximum
at
ing reaches
string,
where
appears to be at
11
its
which each
itself.
vibration of strings
existence,
some
like riders,
may
of.
and
fall
is
made
of the longitudinal
little slips
is
longitudinal
them from
up on account
when
it
vibrates,
of their lightness
in a state of vibration
is
This effect
thrown up
movement
is
first
greatest,
free,
In
those in the
and afterwards
is
no
12
point of
it
or,
The
note which
is
and
the lowest
is
it is
note corresponding to
it,
But
from the
string.
or,
finger,
If
better
obtained which
musical ear
it
still,
is
be touched at
its
with a feather
(fig.
distinguishes,
4),
a note
and
which
practical
The
at
rest.
has been
produced
artificially
In
placed on the
that
string,
it
by touching the
fact,
if
the riders
string
be
now
maining
is
observably higher
easily
The
off.
not
rider
move,
by
re-
Successively higher
An
equal
in the
first
number
of parts, invariably
five,
&c.
and the
riders that
remain
VIBRATION OF A STRING.
in the string.
it
if
13
at distances of |, f f, |
,
Kg.
found the
maximum
5.
vibratory
movement
points of
maximum movement
Fig. 6 represents in
(fig.
5).
The
when
it
vibrates as a whole, or
is
divided
14
into 2,
3,
4,
&c.,
In the
parts.
we have
1,
first
case no node
2, 3, &c., nodes.
is
It is
offered
is
In
fact,
a plate
may
be con-
As we
we
by the junction
Chladni,
who
lines,
indicated
Chladni's figures."
Fig. 7
shows some
plates,
such as are
15
CHLADNI'S FIGURES.
the plate and rubbing
it
is
curved
vibratory
nodal
lines,
movement
lines.
Prom
r.8.
by applying the
line.
Fig. 8
16
Savart, from
according to
The number
sufficient size.
square plate of
of these figures
is
rather large,
The
rule
is this,
produced
No
is
figure
membrane
more complicated
is
or
as the note
higher.
relation,
make known
been discovered.
7.
We
have up to
is
different forms
is
"
much
use
is
made
mouth
"
pipes,
and that of
"
reed
many
in practical music.
sound
The best-understood
It
that of "flue" or
"
pipes.
In both the
produced either
is
by breaking up
blown into them, or by causing it to enter in puffs. In
the first and most important that is, in the flue-pipe
is
called the
embouchure
by a
special arrangement,
of the pipe.
which
is
FLUE
Fig. 9 represents the
By
17
PIPES.
of the
mouth
or
a musical sound
and open
and it has
a,
flue-pipe.
whether by means
is
embouchure
Fix
9.
at
m and
I.
Fig. 10
shows better
Fig. 10.
bevelled to
into the
which
box
&,
fissure against
18
the upper lip
I.
and induces
vibrations,
Fig.
enters
by
r, is
n.
reed,,
of which
When
the fissure a ;
The box
acb is closed in
when
12
Fig. 12.
fig.
by
d, called
through
its
own
REED
the
closes
it
elasticity,
19
PIPES.
passage.
a sound
pipe be used,
comes feeble
note
we blow hard
if
we blow
if
first
or second kind of
the sound
gently, and in
is
loud
be-
it
is
reason
Whether the
obtained.
is
called the
it is
all,
on
the length of the pipe, and also on the nature of the gas
that enters
it
a determinate
mode
When
fundamental note.
happen
and
to
the blowing
is
stronger, it
may
fundamental note.
if
the pipe
is
may
pipe, then,
will give
which
will give
by preference higher
In
practice.
notes.
is
note,
or one
Sometimes
utilised in prac-
music.
fact there are instruments,
and with
its
by
reeds, in
fundamental note
wind instruments
can assume.
Many
and
also
20
the flute
This
a series of notes.
which
attained
is
is
intended to give
by giving the
instru-
string,
by
It
is
enough
effect is ob-
at suitable points
by means
and
by means
of the fingers
into a certain
number
air subdivides
instrument
itself
instruments
and the
all
lip
of the player.
The
little
cceteris
Besides
certain
very characteristic
Two
pipes of the
same shape and dimensions, the one stopped and the other
open, give two fundamental notes which are to each other
VIBRATION OF AIR IN A
as the
21
PIPE.
its octave.
If therefore
an
methods
different
Many
may
method
is
to introduce into
be used to demonstrate
One
an open
stretched
membrane
The note
13).
is
is
sprinkled
(fig.
slightly altered
by the introduction of
traneous
m on
of paper
this
ex-
but nevertheless
body,
be observed
how
glass wall it
may
the sand
is
communicated
to the paper
to the sand.
At
the
movement
the
is
at this
point
produced by
is
air in a stream,
not
but only by
ng.ia.
air in a state of
vibration.
22
is
made
its
of very
a note
is
The
communicates
air in vibrating
its
Therefore, if
way
is
lines,
and
indi-
vibrating in the
out by Kundt.
is
Some
evenly.
The tube
its
it is
it is
Fig. 14.
powder
fig.
14,
is
air,
and the
way
light
indicated in
represented.
The
KUNDT'S METHOD.
nodes, and between
circles are
23
The form
of the figure,
on various circumstances
be obtained from
the tube.
In
it,
this respect
of great accuracy,
and
is
is
propagated
manometric flame.
Fig.
that
viz.,
15
gives
by means
a sufficiently exact
by him.
of the
One
or
more
a hole
under which
made and
is
is
by
membrane which
capsule, which
gas-tube
is
put in
by means
In the pipe
a capsule
closed again
a flexible elastic
to set in
from the
e,
serves
interior of the
/,
24
a small flame
obtained.
is
If,
Fig. 15.
produces
its
to the
movement
note, the
communicated
membrane, from
When
it
to the gas,
and
and more
blue,
thing abnormal.
and by
all its
and
falls rapidly,
and
as this
25
movement, on account
of its rapidity, cannot be followed by the eye, only a complete image of the flame is seen, an image caused by the
and long
In
flames.
recourse
is
had
to a
is
of in physics.
glass S,
band
is
that
is
rotation, there
its
If,
to say, if
on the other
it is
sometimes
and
to
others
short
part
does
not take
the vibrations.
in
much
But the
long flames are seen clearly separated one from the other;
whence
pearance
flames, as
idea of
of
is
separate
shown in
what happens
and
fig.
16.
l'ig.
16.
equal
This method gives a clear
and
if
26
room in order
to
remove
all
smaller pipe
may now be
When
at
the apparatus
first, it
numerous audience.
is set
first.
way
as
In general terms,
the higher
the
vibrations
of the
This
is
a very
We may
even go
farther,
and deter-
mine the
ratio
little
it
may
then be arrived
at,
line.
This conclusion
fundamental
9.
note.
truth,
for,
in
demon-
Wherever
27
phenomena.
liquid, or
It does not
In order that
this
special conditions,
up
to this point
there
is
we may
say, that
But vibration
vibration.
wherever there
is
objective
is
He would
sound
exists in
ears,
it
and
is
exists,
it
pro-
From
this
sound the
we may
effect
that sound
bodies.
is
produced on our
is the cause
and
CHAPTER
1.
TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
OTHER BODIES
4.
OTHER BODIES
1.
WE
2.
II.
PROPAGATION IN AIR
6.
3.
5.
IN WATER AND
IN WATER AND
ECHO.
7.
But
if
the vibra-
How
could
vibration evidently
were no medium
generally air
but
fit
it
may
body
is
not be propagated
to propagate
also be
it
be
This
it.
elastic.
Elasticity of the
since a vibration
body
is
ment
there
if
medium
medium
its
own move-
it to
when circumstances
tory
movement
transmitting
is
not possible
medium be not
if
The
vibra-
able to vibrate on
its
own
TRANSMISSION OF VIBRATION.
account
And
that
is
to say, if the
29
medium be
not
elastic.
On
of water at rest.
concentric waves
is
large surface
it,
a series of
by
and end by becoming imperceptible. It would be a mistake to suppose that the water itself moved from point to
Each
point.
and
wave
of the
same post as
is
so,
before.
or other
floating body,
the
It
is,
The
itself or
any
part of
to another,
and
it.
which coming
from different points strike against or across each other,
is more complicated, and at the same time more interesting.
If
different points,
still
shows that
water at
at each point
common
to
Experience
30
interference.
points, each
wave
had
is
pro-
and never
This
is
all cases,
whatever be the
elastic
sounds
may
body
vibrations.
air, it
leads
reciprocal disturbance.
2.
is
made
extremity a
by means
The globe
a in
its
17) attached
of
an
is
neck, which
opened or
closed.
enables
it
to be
If the air be
ex-
the globe,
by means of an air-pump,
and thence the bell, may be
shaken with any degree of violence without any sound being heard.
ever, against the
the
globe,
reason of which
is,
By
holding the
is
ear,
is
howheard,
not completely
suspended
is
the
31
is
phenomenon
very
faint,
an
instant and again closed, a little air will enter the globe,
now
find
is
an
elastic
very
glass
to
is
the ear of
be heard.
Its
able to transmit
rarefied,
elastic,
to
them
the
to
The
the external
very
and thence
air,
stopcock be
If the
feebly.
is
observer,
heard, although
which
glass,
again
opened, and left open so that the air can enter freely,
the sound will grow louder, and
when
shows that
case
with
its
was necessary
it
for
Not only
but
air,
the bell
This experiment
full loudness.
air is able to
air,
all
density
solid,
is
it
greater.
liquid,
and
gaseous
well-known
It is a
fact that
if,
when bathing
in the sea,
rocks
is
known
distinctly
fact,
passage of
ground
by the water
heard.
And
it
striking
is
against the
an equally well-
men
must be held
by the
to the
32
than
Almost
known
all
and metals
it
even better
transmits
it
air.
and obliged
when
to travel in
the sound
sound
This
air
the
is
feeble.
This
circum-
is
But
if,
may
end
air,
and
Theoreti-
of the tube.
Very long
distances
may
nevertheless be
attained.
An
is
that described
yards
in
by
Wlicatstone.
A rod
of
wood
several
for
VELOCITY OF SOUND.
33
surrounded by a
two extremities are
is
tin tube
left
One extremity
free.
put in
is
To make these
to
notes
its
perceptible, it
a violin,
The
effect
is
a piece
played in the
other
room
harp, or pianoforte.
of music
astonishing;
or
other floor
is
perfectly heard.
This being
4.
themselves
different bodies
for all bodies
By
as
Is
it
velocity
is
now
present
sound transmitted in
great or small
Is
it
the same
velocity
of time
so,
With what
is
in a second
In
when
fact,
man some
the blow
The
is
is
of time
and
hammer
is first
seen
the distance
is
rather
at
which
heard
if
firing of a
off is
announced
first
They demonstrate
that
34
sound
transmitted
is
much more
slowly than
light,
and
The method
itself
very simple.
two cannon
two
at
may
is
in
first
moment
which
and
to pass over
at
is
thus
by
must be made
noises.
when
They ought,
further, to
by other
is
able or unfavourable
its
direction
is
that
the same
is
is
to say, according to
whether
transmitted.
But
as
it is
impossible
fired first
from
one station and then from the other, because in this case
the wind will be favourable to the transmission of the
One
of the
two
velocities will
mean
VELOCITY OF SOUND.
35
Experiments of
We may
this
made by members
of the
perfect
means.
The
sound in
in
fixed
of time
and that
F.) it
(60 '8
not at
first
is
a temperature
that
it
is
the
of
known
is
velocity of
be
second
with
16
C.
It
was
very small,
To confirm the
in most cases.
may
observed by Eegnault
on
C. (32 F.),
air, at a temperature of
round numbers at 330 metres* in a
temperature, so that at
the
is,
sound,
influence of temperature
we may
here notice
in Melville
the
Island,
band playing
*
One metre
Listening to a military
equal to 3 '2 8
feet, Le., to
36
is
rhythmic movement.
its
same consecutive
not be possible
order.
velocity.
Biot endeavoured to
way
by causing a
on a
flute in
On
listening at
more accurate
difference in
may
experiments
of
would be
this point
to be played
make
this respect as
certain
would
pipes at Paris.
altered.
This, however,
if
reveal
was found
for loud
difference
be neglected.
ments
at a long distance
much
The
elastic
membrane,
which was completely under water. The sonorous vibrations from the bell were propagated through the water to
The
the membrane, and from it to the air in the tube.
observer holding his ear to the tube, distinctly perceived
VELOCITY OF SOUND.
sound.
the
37
the bell to the observer, and the time occupied by the sound
in traversing the
The
is
velocity of
air.
Many
sound in
would be impossible
It
different bodies.
on these
to
myself
small in gaseous bodies, such as
proportion as the gas
is
air,
more dense
and
that
is
is
smaller in
it is
therefore
is
than
dense than
air.
In
gas
an increase
of temperature
which
But
it rises
as high as
first
38
F.),
up
to
100
which
in
this
two quantities
on the
way
The
elas-
ticity
as
of sound in solids
For
must
different
The following
rings.
table contains
some
and of the
results obtained
more
clear
Air
REFLECTION OF SOUND.
39
Metres per
Second.
Gold
at20C.
100 C. (212
200 C. (392
20 C. (68
100 C. (212
Silver
Copper
.,
Iron
Cast steel.
.
200
20
100
200
20
100
200
20
100
200
to
Wertheim
F.)
F.)
F.)
F.)
C. (392 F.)
C.
(68 F.)
C. (212 F.)
C. (392
C.
F.)
(68 F.)
C. (212
F.)
C. (392 F.)
C.
(68 F.)
C. (212
C. (392
F.)
F.)
fibre
6.
it
When
a sonorous
wave
strikes against
an
1743
1719
1634
2707
2639
2477
3556
3292
2954
5127
5299
4719
4986
4925
4788
4714
1475
1352
3322
1405
794
obstacle,
exhibits the
an
elastic
way
is
By means
is
its reflection
by
40-
An
exist.
When
echo.
a sound
is
why
and
easier to hear
it is
to
make
is
one's self
chamber be
If the
this
There
is
in breaking
may become
be remedied.
it
places,
only one
up the
may
be con-
of resonance
empty
large, enclosed,
sists
it is
phenomenon
troublesome unless
freely.
siderably prolonged
and
where
way
all
to prevent
large walls.
extremely
This happens in
The
it,
which con-
seats of a theatre,
41
REFLECTION OF SOUND.
also
fill
and
spectators
office
viz.,
most
difficult
problems
for
an architect
which sound
that
and
it
ways
and
well
is
Dionysius
room
to say, a
may be
up
utilised in various
The celebrated
interest.
known
it is
"
ear of
where the
The
least
roar.
Cathedral in London
so constructed that
great
sound
dome
said that
art
one
It is
to construct
is
but
that of pre-
is
trans-
of St Paul's
two persons
at
drum
mere whisper.
The
sound
is
nomena
are
bridges,
viaducts,
problems
often
of this
often solved,
whispering
met with
An
by
of the
dome.
and
there was
nature were
architects.
galleries,
much
by
successive
a period
sought
It is for this
when
after,
and
reason that
in old houses.
elegant
mode
of demonstrating
the reflection of
42
sound
is
by the use
of
two parabolic
reflectors
MN"
MIT
(fig. 18), placed one opposite the other in such a way that
their centres shall be on the straight line AA'.
Placing a
reflector
is
driven
back thence by
reflection
reflector,
on to the second
Big. 18.
reflector,
that
is
and by
it is
and by a second
remaining rays
is
concentrated on to
FC
is
its
own
focus F';
reflection
along
reflected in the
C'F
7
.
Each of the
all
43
ECHO.
p
concentrate at F.
perceives
the
An
sound made
a very slight
reflectors
give, whilst
which
is
it
by means
at F,
reflection
of
which they
much
too feeble
by
itself
met with
in
by
reflection
is
the sound
fore
by singing three
of the reflections, a
by the
heard, as
is
effect
produced,
is
it
called echo.
is
may
as, for
sembles a wall.
is
be
other object
if
example, a rock
A sound
it
sent
by
by
some
which roughly
re-
reflection,
and
if
the distance
metres.
syllables
are
per
second,
the
tenth
of
this
is
But
is
one-fifth of a
44
second.
68 metres.
It follows that, if the reflecting wall be at a distance
of
when
syllable
pro-
be trans-
to
all,
therefore, one-fifth of a
and
called monosyllabic ;
it
distinct.
is
In
called dissyllabic
lables
when
the wall"
is
at
when two
At
syl-
This happens
and
that
is
to
a triple distance
The most
from each
is
certainly
wings.
The report
of
a pistol
is
repeated as often as
thirty-two times.
Examples
of
echoes
are
CHAPTER
III.
1.
4.
1.
ALL
may
be their
origin,
be propagated,
may
By
produced, or
by
by which they
are
their loudness.
By their pitch.
By a certain characteristic
Secondly,
Thirdly,
difference,
by which
human
voice, &c.,
even though
tone," or
We
"
called "quality,"
different
sound depend.
important matter,
really
same
timbre"
characteristics of
this
is
it
is
its
qualities are
spoken o
46
A distinction
and
noise.
is
generally
Sound
is
made
that offered
by the
oscillations of the
the
pendulum
if
the
is
a sound to one,
is
movement
of the
attentive
and
practised
ear
distinguishes
of the waves.
but an
determinate
The
waves
Thus the
An
orchestra,
when
the line
In
there really
fact,
is
A fine
Often those
who
47
have not the habit are not aware of the presence of a more
marked note in the midst of so many others but with
;
very
attention
little
In order to
it
demonstrate this
use
fact,
is
all of
it.
made
of
the same
on a bench, most
make
it,
be allowed to
fall
They
distinctly.
by the
fall
and
may
are tuned so as
is
is
produced
a note, which at
first is
nevertheless sufficiently
distinct.
would be meaningless.
It has
no
or timbre.
2.
This being
so,
let
us
now
investigate
what may be
it is
first place,
is
produced.
The
on the greater or
produced.
Now, all
work
show that
48
tory
movement
The law
the duration
is
We
sufficient.
will
call
generally con-
is
the
greatest
we may say
which a sound
is
the loudness of
a sound
The loudness
is represented
sounding body
density,
it
is
to transmit
In
it.
and
fact,
In other words,
it.
by
vibrations causing
space
its vibration,
is
some other
enough
for
transmitted
by
air,
some other
me
As
to the
the sound
again,
It is a general
on
whatever
they
the distance of
the
may
which
have
the
SYMPATHETIC VIBRATION.
Sound belongs
is
phenomena
transmitted equally in
times less
fourth.
At
is
reduced to one-
3.
again,
body.
We have
is
stronger in an
This
by
is
to the
new
ones.
vibrates,
it
interesting fact,
may
be demonstrated in
Take
producing
the
same
note.
This
many
ways.
same
note.
In order
to
show
50
in the
first
chapter
If one of the
[5].
on
into the
But
air.
it
may
it
give
two
its
strings be
fundamental
be thrown up
same time,
that the other string, which has not even been touched,
on the two
is
one,
This
same way
may
vibrate in
string will
which
way
all
is
middle node.
in the
and one of
off except
strings,
its
is
produced.
own
as the
first.
be continued
any way
show that
the
first
made
string being
to
The vibrations
of the
first
to the
vibratory
movement
is
air,
and the
if it is
string
no
first.
SYMPATHETIC VIBRATION.
To demonstrate
a
little
this, let
may
The
first
string
may then
ical action of
be rubbed
be a sensible difference of
movement
was not therefore the purely mechanthe blow or shock given to the instrument
It
phenomenon observed.
The following is another experiment, tending
Take a tuning-fork, mounted, as
the same law
:
to
show
is
usual,
on a wooden box.
itself
note.
Scarcely
is
it
made
to
exhibit this
phenomenon in a very
at a great distance
from each other, the one sounds directly the other sounds.
This no longer happens if the tuning-forks do not give the
same
note.
by taking two
may
be obtained
even by slightly
the
note
of
one
of
the
two
former tuning-forks by
altering
fastening,
branches.
different tuning-forks, or
by means
of
It will not
now
sound.
its
52
Fig. 19.
make
tuning-fork
it is
jar,
gradually diminished.
more, a point
it.
is
is
By
By
pouring
air enclosed
is
considerably
reinforced.
If
trials,
SAVART
53
S BELL.
Take the
jar
that of an organ-pipe,
tuning-fork.
If,
by
and
air,
like
more be added, notes may be obtained by blowing in the same manner, but they are no longer the same
away, or
by the tuning-fork.
is
arrived at
A large bell
by means
of Savart's
Fig. 20.
a movable bottom
brought near
it.
&,
By
A hollow
is
so
constructed that
it
cau be
is
54
bell),
is
greatest
siderable
When
is
The
easily found.
when
the cylinder
is
effect
obtained
con-
is
brought near.
is still
it
it
on
when
there are
A.
JPig. 21.
This im-
They
as in
HELMHOLTZ'S RESONATOR.
55
21,
They considerably
rein-
force the
An
two
apertures.
which has
ac-
resonator.
Iwltz's
is
One
a,
sizes,
furnished with
the ear
[figs.
22 and 23].
Pig. 22.
For
use, it is necessary to
volume
of air that
it
have a
Each
56
the larger ones serve for the low, the smaller for the high
notes.
The
Pig. 28.
is
more
are therefore
convenient to manage.
It is easy to
reinforce musical
If a series
sounds, and each one only one particular note.
of tuning-forks, which give notes corresponding to those
by
its
This effect
corresponding resonator.
is
rein-
may
be
duced into one ear and the other be closed with the hand.
It is to be noticed that
effect unless it
be combined with
its
this
corresponding tuning-
fork.
But
if
an observer wishes
these there
is
to
note,
note in question
is there, it
it
will be reinforced,
it
all
amongst
If the
and thus he
all
the others
An
example of
number
kind
this
of suitable tuning
a very agreeable
is
-
57
easily to be found.
forks be
If a
sounded together,
harmony
it is
By means
it.
To take another
and held
natural voice,
every
which
signifies
will
which
many
it
distinctly
corresponds,
notes which he
is
resonator corresponds.
analyse successively
all
by a person whilst
speaking.
In a
example of Helmholtz,
made
of the employment of
show [chapter ix.] how one of the
most important and most delicate laws may be observed
and followed by this means.
these resonators.
The
case
of resonators
described above
the
an
earlier
forming part
of
certain
musical
sounding-boards
instruments.
in
I will
&c.,
58
to reinforce not only one note alone, but all the notes in
turn,
and
a uniform extent.
to
as far as possible
It
method
of producing
them
of these sounding-boards
and
is
the same.
The theory
much more
complicated,
is
is
will confine
myself to
it is
necessary
In
note, and
that
to
it
is
very low
many
it
can reinforce so
many
infinite.
mem-
obtained.
CHAPTER
1.
IV.
3.
PITCH OP SOUNDS
LIMIT or
AND OF HARMONICS.
1.
THE second
is
their pitch.
Every
ear,
however
is
of musical
characteristic quality
not large.
when
one, even
the
number of
low
sounds
vibrations that
a sounding
way
that the
number
how
mined
There are
the
number
we must
of vibrations
many methods
is
first
solve
to be deter-
purpose.
One method
chapter.
In that
of a cylinder, turned
by hand.
made
first
if in-
60
is
made
of one of the
many mechani-
determined.
record
its vibrations,
we have
and
only to count
is
is
number
accurately determined.
later
This
on a very simple
is
often
counter,
At
this point it
becomes necessary
to
make
the reader
acquainted with another instrument, which answers this purpose to perfection, and which offers the advantage over the
turning cylinder of not requiring for
its
tuning-fork to trace
its
vibrations.
This instrument
is
It consists of a hollow
empty
cylindrical
CAGNIARD DE LA
air.
number
of equidistant holes,
itself.
61
TOUIi'S SIREN.
concentric to the
all oblique,
so
I
Fig. 25.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 26.
entirely,
axis A.
and which
is
on a
number
vertical
of holes,
holes beneath.
Fig.
discs,
the fixed one and the movable one, as well as the arrange-
ment
of the holes.
in one direction
and
the holes
in the other.
62
cal
box
on which
cylinder
turns.
by means
a series of impulses,
it is
begins to turn.
Aa
all in
The movable
It turns quickly
is
and through
will,
it
disc.
jet,
mittently as
turn.
air that
can only pass out through the holes intersoon as the movable disc has begun to
The reason
for this is
The
very simple.
disc
when
number
it is,
on the
frequent as the
only
air
of holes in the
two
discs
is
greater,
is greater.
are
am now
describing [twelve
is arbitrary].
63
THE COUNTER.
time.
If,
turns in a second, I
i.e.,
25
by
2,
of holes
the
3,
number
or generally
&c.,
4,
number
2, 3, 4, &c.,
by
by
is
When
the siren
formed, low at
set in action, a
is
first
by the
regularly
puffs of
from the
air
is
struck
These
siren.
number
the
to the
of
number
we
note
time
please,
number
be
it,
by
number
we can
vibrations
of
as there is a
of turns
We
can
high or low
it
the
calculate
corresponding to
the
air,
means
at the
same*
per second
of determining
makes
in
second of time.
this
purpose.
To
the
The teeth
that
it
of a toothed wheel
disc.
To the
carries at its
CF
is
upper
an
endless screw.
EH gear into
this screw, so
is
and movable
movable disc
which
called
for
64
graduated
[see
movements, and by
on the
circle corresponds to
its
Each
24]; a
fig.
means
division
The toothed
round an internal
parts, arranged
and a second
periphery.
revolution of the
and
hand one
its
first
wheel
it
division.
movable
first
show the
may
To
made by
be very high.
facilitate
may
be desired, and
The instrument
may
be stopped at
will.
Suppose we wish
thus used.
is
to
We have
way
keep
it
siren the
time.
(2.)
This being
obtained,
to
set
in
action
stop-
THE
65
SIREN.
siren,
and thus
to determine
and
is
at first
first
The
after
The
The reason
of
to
velocity.
The note
rises suddenly,
and
after a
few
trials
is
steady.
time, during
completed.
the pointers
is
afterwards, at a
chosen moment,
which
in
left
is
is
is set
going,
and so
It is always
than in the
When
counter
the
is
number
seconds
latter.
of turns
made by
is seen.
66
that
is
one second.
by
25,
second.
we can
The
whatsoever.
of this nature.
Whether we wish
have recourse
to
method, or whether
to the graphic
As we have
we have
siren,
number
we
of vibrations of very
many,
Let us
now
at
on
this point,
by a minute
What
is
perceive, as a note,
or
is
our
That there
any number
of vibrations whatever,
a lower limit
easily be demonstrated
the siren
is
perceived.
is
set in action,
when
may
When
it
is
By
produce a note
and
by using a
that
somewhat loud
able to give a
to say,
is
note.
67
an instrument
In other cases
common
siren
as,
twenty or
twenty-five vibrations
in
more
difficult to fix
If
and
faster,
last
becomes
nary siren
it
shrill
and
disagreeable.
above a certain
limit,
But with an
ordi-
to obtain a velocity
To
solve
made use
for sound,
of smaller
him
at very nearly
38,000
firmed by Helmholtz
different individuals.
vibrations
lie
but
it is
We may
probable that
it differs
in
38,000 per
second.
But
all
the notes
are too
is
that
is
to
base
68
differences of tuning,
it
may
In the
violin,
corresponds to
may
This
number
is not,
Some
piano-
fortes
full,
The question
between which
ing
it,
of the
we must
as
many
sions
voice,
interesting.
In consider-
The
and of women.
human
acts, is also
it
latter is represented
by about twice
are
made
classes of voice
for
:
thus there
Subdivi-
men,
bass, baritone,
for
The
may
singer.
[B=
(D
61]
Baritone
73)
Tenor
(G
Bass
Mezzo-soprano
Soprano
(G
E=
F=
AE=
F=
98)
= 110)
(E = 164)
Contralto
to the
tional voices
present time
69
(C
A=
196)
Human
82
87
109
164
174
218
D=
=
F|
A=
F=
A=
=
Voice.
293
[F
370 [G
435 (C
696 (A
870
1044
(B
=
=
=
=
(E
348]
392]
544)*
870)
976)
1305)
The extreme
limits
the
of
human
voice
[man's and
included.f
4.
instruments uniformly.
cal instruments,
a small tuning-fork
A which
the
and
is
generally used,
fifth
open
in a seven-octave pianoforte
All the
* Tambcrlik's
overpraised C$.
t Certain marvellously gifted voices have had more extended limits ;
the voices of Cruvelli, Catalani, Patti, and Nilsson will always be celethis.
The highest voice seems to be that of Bastardctta, whom
Mozart heard at Parma in 1770, which had three and a half octaves, and
went up almost to 2000 vibrations.
Also the voice of eunuchs, and
brated for
70
theatres
different
of
Italy
and
1700,
it
At Paris, in
goes on gradually rising.
was 405 later on, 425 in 1855, 440 and in
the
per second.
whom
differing
when
the
it
it
so
is
effect,
in
countries,
especially
to satisfy requirements
different
upon the
singers.
ones,
To
may
be added the
it
now
pitch at Paris,
still
higher.
It
THE HARMONIC
5.
71
SERIES.
we
arrive
When
it
gives
the whole
lowest note,
its
If the string
note.
it
are obtained,
The notes of
scries.
taken at random.
this
They
harmonic
is
series
fundamental note, and have great importance, as we shall see in the sequel, in the theory of music
relation to the
is
method
It
may
be asked, then,
if
To answer
is
so simple.
needed
is
to deter-
Carefully
repeated
relations exist
between
by dividing the
harmonic
experiments
show that
these notes.
all
notes.
simple
Let us suppose,
two
parts,
is
obtained
or
makes
parts,
arises
four
72
fundamental note
1,
2, 3, 4,
&c.
considering the
By
by
mode
The harmonics
The number
number
of
whole numbers.
there
is
scale of centimetres
means
manner
The operation
of a note.
affords
of determining the
is
the
it
gives a
when
diate use.
is
If
it
be desired to
know
is
the
The
vibrating
known, constant
the string
and
of vibrations
performed as follows
note
simplest
number
When
number
is
of vibra-
exactly
73
its
number
string,
new
then, as the
we
432
Whence
1000
128
^^-
296
all.
may
CHAPTEE
1.
MUSICAL SOUNDS
4.
BEATS
2.
LAW
OF SIMPLE RATIO
THEIR EXPLANATION
5.
THE MAJOR
9.
1.
V.
10.
3.
6.
UNISON, INTERFERENCE
KESULTANT NOTES
AND THIRD
THE SEVENTH HARMONIC.
FIFTH, FOURTH, SIXTH,
sounds
character,
THE MINOR
all
the
in
called.
7.
8.
it
must
may
acquire a musical
on
It is
either
disagreeable or insignificant.
But
it
would be a grave
or at hazard.
may
written.
between
notes
is
at, all
MUSICAL SOUNDS.
of music.
w- move
75
accompany
it
This
are limited,
is
and
case in our modern music, but also holds good for the
music of every epoch. There is no instance known of a
musical system, however barbarous it may be, in which
is left to
poser or performer.
The history
it
on the con-
select,
more
rules, in
by
restricted
scientific
preference
theories.
tions
to
We
one and
sometimes to another of
such
different
For the
present I will
what
aesthetic feeling.
2.
It
may
tion
number of
"bear
on
this condi-
76
that
is
number
of vibrations
notwithstanding
I will for
significance,
its
such a subject.
figures,
road
is
indicating
It is
it
its simplicity,
I shall
and indeed
I enter
have to go through a
to argue entirely
upon
upon
series of
figures.
The
who
mountain in order
history of
3.
human
most
a creation that in
brilliant
pages
in
the
culture.
ratio that
is
that in which
If they be
form
one
more prothey only
longed note if they be sounded together, they only give
It sometimes happens,
one note of double loudness.
sounded one
INTERFERENCE.
77
due
are
to
what
is
called interference.
This happens
the
way
first
that
is
is
note makes a
to say,
when
movement
makes a
precisely contrary
movement.
in the
of air
Pig. 27.
in which
vibrating
will.
a Chladni's
segments
in
It is
B, A'
fig.
27 enables us
composed
is formed by the
The vibrations in two
figure
B'.
to pro-
of a vibrating
78
inasmuch
rise,
when
as
and
vice versa;
segments, as at
which gives by
when
they are
and
itself
A'.
If
A'
at
similar
DCE
is
fall,
those at B'
two opposite
in
a bifurcated pipe
is
in the pipe.
the particles
now
to
indicate
the vibrations
and
A',
may
to touch; the
effect.
Again, two
B',
may
be
From
all this
we may
and
effect is
opposite.
identical,
known by
the
name
of beats.
BEATS.
79
In order to show what these beats really are, the followTwo large equal organing experiment may be adopted.
pipes are taken which give
together,
we
which
ness,
two low,
strong, identical
notes.
the other.
there
is
is
note
it
is
can be regulated at
Now
raised.
is
slightly raised,
let
will.
The
difference
it for
together, a
sound
is
But
if
feeble,
now
If the dif-
the beats will be very slow, not more perhaps than one
in the second
but
if,
become more
frequent.
By
first
pipe, they
80
or 10 beats
5,
case,
however,
it
difficult
is
to
is
them.
Beats of this kind are very common.
They
are
more
instrument
correct
is
method
into unison.
They
two
is
to tune
them
until
common.
that
it
may
If
It is easy to
understand
are produced.
double loudness
same
be
pitch, the
but
if
and a note
is
produced of
phenomenon
is
vibrations in a second,
BEATS.
81
have accomplished
fifty
and a half
But
vibrations.
as a
moves in one
direction,
it
vibration of the
or at least
more or
first
first
To the
hundred and
note,
first
It
there
the note
fore,
if
that
is
by
2,
There-
2,
3,
beats,
3,
4,
4, 5,
5,
which
measure of the
10
is
differ-
two
notes.
This
is
determinations of this
sort,
because
it
is
independent, so
very delicate
ear.
The phenomenon
9
of beats
is
when
82
two notes are almost in unison, but even more when the
number
vibrations per
of
number
of
proportion
is
no beats;
if,
on the
once heard.
In order
to
show
this,
its
octave,
beats,
and
fuller note
draw
and
But
may
is
it
In
strict relation to
the
is
phenomenon
of beats,
and
as
those
notes whose
discovery,
is
made towards
the
name
of
RESULTANT NOTES.
resultant
given.
notes,
sometimes
or
difference notes,
Hitherto
it
83
is
when
is
usually
If there be
one which
two notes
makes 100, and the other 125 vibrations per second they
which will generate a note
of 25 vibrations a second.
the original two of 100 and 125, and the resultant note
of 25 vibrations per second.
But
this explanation,
it
may
however simple
it
may
on which
it is
appear,
is
open
impossible to
is,
vibrations
bined notes.
number
to
of
the
two com-
by means
may be
experimentally observed
of
|,
84
major
heard, which
When
third.
two
notes, a
is
very clearly
number which
is
the half.
low note
same
this
note.
It follows
is
attention
little
is
found to be the
fact.
whenever
always present,
combined and there
a very simple
number of
vibrations per
them
the
two
is
to the difference
sound
to
know
know
number
such
by whole numbers.
In the example given above it may be said that the
notes 4 and 5 have been combined, since the ratio is
The
note
is
resultant
1.
THE OCTAVE.
of music, as will be
shown
into account,
and
on in
later
85
it is
this chapter.
necessary to take
If,
As
them
then,
several notes be
notes,
and
combined
It
may
how
to see
notes.
It follows
from
they can
this that
But
&c.
these
as
are
so
notes,
order.
very feeble
that
even a
most cases
it
is
account.
7.
That note
of the octave.
is
2.
ratio that
This
is
can be imagined
means
too,
raising
The octave
vibrations
octave
of the octave
per
second
is
four
its
octave below.
represented by a
times
greater,
number of
the
third
the second,
86
J, &c., of
J,
The harmony
is
When
very consonant.
in tune,
which
is
distinguish
two
what modified
notes.
One
with a some-
timbre.
octaves; which
is
easily understood,
singing
together,
admitted singing in
when
it
is
remem-
so
in octaves.
harmony
its
octave the
&c.
the octave
The note 2
the note 3
is
represents, as has
the twelfth, or as
been seen,
it
may
also
be called, for reasons which will be seen later on, the fifth
of the octave ; the note 4
is
fundamental note.
is
87
1C SERIES.
These
harmonies,
however,
are
harmonic
is
that the
to
2,
that of 1 and
is
3,
and so on
we come
the
series.
of 1 and 3
is,
notes
resultant
and
when
fundamental
note.
8.
to limit
it
to these
were wished
natural ones.
other notes
if it
at
their
as,
disposition,
example, the
for
if
would be
still
less
at the
down
But
The introduction
therefore been
it
is
progress
it
made
has increased
at the
expense
88
we can
reasonably go.
sufficient
apology
that music
ciples,
is
but that
What
is
of itself
who maintain
In
fact,
difficult to establish
Whether
cated,
it
more
the ear
how
it
certain harmonies,
admissible,
when
In truth,
centuries,
is
The
In
fact
we have
may
then be asked,
if
4,
the ratios
THE
89
FIFTH.
which
signifies, in
other terms,
only with the fundamental note, but also with each other.
This question
may
be
by
I,
I-,
by the
ratios f, j,
&c.
vibrations in the
is
of the
who made
it
with
harmony
the
harmony
3 be taken,
its
of
the
scale.
If
fifth.
resultant note
is
the
that
harmony
is
to say,
equal to two.
is
to the
ancient Greeks.
It is to a certain extent a
consequence
90
of the
fifth,
mental note be
octave
f
the
is
note.
In the harmonic
of the third
:
it
its
is
evidently
value, hence
f,
and
its
we have
called in
is
fourth
ratio 3
below
fifth
funda
for if the
This ratio
1,
obtained by doubling
is
harmony
4, it is
that
is
The harmony
what strange
arises
from
it,
this
of the
some-
which
to a certain extent
it
more
Another
fairly
simple ratio
is
that expressed
unknown
to the
Greeks
by f
it
more complicated
was some time before it was
it is,
in fact,
is
3.
it
that
4.
It is a very
to
is
91
im-
Greeks, and
and
fifteenth
six-
H xx |-x
t
f,
x| x | - V
fx|
ft
becomes
-J,
1,
which
is
and
to
keep
precisely the
Greek
name
same
it
octave,
of its inventor.
may
tion for
in the
it
of the consonant
it
stitutes the
our scale
also
its
note.
5:6.
with
It
many
sixth,
from which
it
harmony
As late
In
of the
fact, it is
as the middle
as
imperfect,
and
was
92
The
resultant note
notes
note 6 of the
This note
5 and
is
is
1,
harmony.
Writing it
and is in respect to the
its fifth.
But in the
6.
the
of
6,
the
of
either
is
dissonant.
There
is
|, or also
minor third
that
is
note 5
5:8.
It
was the
to be adopted.
The
now
considered
that of the
is
last
minor
resultant note
is
to say, the
fuller chords to
minor sixth
evidently on the
rise.
harmony
of the
is
This
is
been
much
discussed,
deeper study. It
to
is,
art,
be touched on here.
To
treat
it
and
to consider the
properly
it
would be
most minute
details,
to three
SEVENTH HARMONIC.
93
It
this treatise.
may, however,
music
field of
&c., in
to
it
f,
Some
tance.
of these ratios
as J, I,
are undoubtedly
and therefore
insignificant,
also,
and I
the
harmony
how
observe
But
f.
it
the seventh
is
a strange
harmonic
phenomenon
can
be
to
entirely
standing
much more
much more
dissonant,
&c., of
V>
an ear accustomed
ample,
|,
harmonic
may
complicated,
which we
for
ex-
To
adopted,
to our music, as it
appear like
and therefore
are
ratios
is,
as,
the seventh
some
that
it
certain
it
affords
it
than from
its
inherent
nature.
It
The
94
reason
is,
number 7
is
not
in discords,
too
much
it is
but divisible by
advantage over
reason
make
why
7,
2, 3, 4, or
it.*
no use
is
And
made
of
it
in music.
Without wishing to push too far forward, and to prophesy what will happen in the future, it may be observed
that the systematic introduction of the seventh harmonic
into
incalculable revolution
justifiable,
it
more
sibility that a
at
chords
any rate
artificial.
To
certain
and discords
it is
However
this
may
may
sometimes be
some in present
use.
us the
discords.
Below
it is
*
Euler had remarked the importance of the numbers 2, 3, and 5,
and established upon them a rule for the development of our musical
system.
it
We have
a great hiatus.
...
Perfectly consonant
Consonant
95
Imperfectly consonant
-If
Dissonant
-I
This demonstration
may
The harmonies
first
examined above,
order which arise
will be found
line, in
This
the bass
mode
on the upper
on the lower
clef.
be terminated by represent-
from them.
-$
clear.
min.
mm.
min.
3d.
6tli.
6th.
CHAPTER VL
1.
2.
4.
1.
is
demonstrated by means
Helmholtz, which
3.
THEIR INVERSION.
of
called
the
siren
constructed
(fig.
by
28).
other.
of this arbor
which
is
Jc,
and there-
In the middle
is
absolute measurement
is
required.
Each
when
of four buttons
any one
duced
There are thus eight notes, which can be proat will, at the disposition of the experimenter.
A strong
current of
either siren at
the
rotation
notes.
gQ
of
or
air,
to enter
the discs
Fig. 28.
98
thus
circles
8,
10,
many
^o>
duced, and to
make them
clearer.
there is an arrangement by
can be slightly altered. In fact, the
box of the upper siren can be turned independently of the
which these
rotatory
of beats
ratios
movement
of a handle d,
This
of the discs.
is
the siren
itself.
attained
is
is
by means
e, which
so arranged that
is
a graduated circle
4*3-
turned,
it
moves in a contrary
The
it.
The reason
number
of this
of puffs of air
is,
that
which are
move
in a direction contrary
Very
to,
or the
is
same
varied experiments
may
99
siren.
The most
obtained.
at the
same
instant.
when
the two sirens are so placed that their puffs are alter-
the
If the handle
nate.
notes
each other
number
which
of
number
by the
sirens.
two
loaded, the
siren
will
turn
quicker, and the two notes will rise in pitch but will
still remain in unison, which demonstrates that unison
is
independent
of
the absolute
number
of
vibrations
per second.
But
if
note and
octave
is
and remains
so,
2.
The octave
is
any
quite perfect,
the discs
100
then,
may
turned.
and
of vibrations in a second.
If
it
to
to explain.
The
18, since in
is
the ratio 2
of the fourth
have the
ratio
3.
12,
The
ratio
12 and 16
15, since
they
5.
The major and minor sixth are obtained by the combinaand 15, and 10 and 16.
tions 9
minor third
is
obtained by the
There are
many
The
examples are enough for the present purpose.
harmonies obtained by this means are mathematically
correct,
instruments.
show
to those obtained
number
this
by other
instrument
of vibrations per
number
number
be controlled at
The fundamental
will.
note, then,
may
101
second of
all
office,
the others
is
number
the
fixed
by
of vibrations per
above.
The laws
instrument.
which were
We
2.
must now
which
is
and the conditions under which they give a consonant chord. But the question may be generalised. It may
be asked, Can three, four, or more notes be so combined as
sidered,
which
In order
"be
that
consonant,
pose
it bear,
tions,
is
In
and
a chord, produced by
it is
more
notes,
may
also to each
other.
most simple
it is
mind
for example, a
fourth, fifth,
tlie
compose
three or
it
but
it is
ratios to
each other.
Thus,
and octave,
is
its
102
1430A
*l
The reason
too complex,
is
"2)
by f which
expressed
~S>
is
ratio is not
In
is
comprised amongst
In
this respect a
much
better chord
is
obtained by
it
We
mental note.
whose
~2>
"1
*J T>
ratios are
!>
which are
all
>
f9
consonant.
is
The
minor
chord, in
major
third.
name
is
substituted
expresses,
is
the
and
fifth,
and
it is
The
ratios
and a
fourth.
The
In
fact,
103
figures
16?>
i
3
2>
it
is
seen
J, I, 1, 1.
The
first
mental note;
the
last,
second, the
first
octave
below the
itself.
below the
fifth;
and
more
especially the
structure
is
is
in the following
manner
In
first,
fact, if it
although
be written
fl
*J
it
inferior to the
"5>
2^ *>
654
T> T>
~5>
whilst in the
third
and
and a
is
fourth.
third, a major
The
to
not enough
104
But a
far
chord
first
represents
Ttf>
~5>
second
new
note in
found by means
13141
"5?
The
is
is
is
the second
the third
the fourth
is
is
the
Whilst,
the last
fundamental note.
then, all
it.
If these resultant
Even
and undecided
as
it
is,
make
they impart to
it
the chord
a disturbed
character.
met with
in compositions,
They
other.
are, in truth,
Pieces founded
On
the other
105
and melancholy, or to express it more exactly, are disturbed and undecided, and therefore express well condi-
mind
tions of the
in
chords.
two fundamental
may be added
to conclude a piece of
character
its
not
may
it
who would
to the
hesitate
In Mozart we find a
it.
as a closing chord
omitted
willingly
probably did
up
Up
to the middle of
demanded
decessors
is,
when
that
the
sound well
minor
enough
third,
to
his pre-
which
them.
It
natures
may
have, as
it
To make
this
of the
more
clear
with respect
On
the
first
Those of the
first
first
106
PERFECT CHORD.
MIMOH
MAJOR
4.
The
ways.
higher or lower
is
The chord
which
it
had
at
first,
of this treatise.
is
it
it
chords constituted
the principal
may
be
and that
resource
of
more
This
is
especially
SECONDARY DISSONANCES.
107
dissonance.
Palestrina,
who had
cer-
and
little
much
In his music
German
great
thinker,
who
called
Palestrinas music,
"
As an example,
MAJOR CHORD
f)
room
The other
here.
also
other
simple
chords.
Amongst
these
may
108
mentioned the
characters
differing
chord
somewhat
from
each
other,
and
same
is
CHAPTER
1.
DISCORDS
AND
3.
4.
ANCIENT MUSIC
7.
ITS
DECAY
8.
VII.
5.
9.
POLY-
CHORD
SCALE
16.
11.
13.
THE TEMPERATE
ABANDONING
1.
UP
17.
DESIRABILITY OF
IT.
been considered
if it
were
may
and without
expressing anything.
To
increase
their
resources,
their
ideas,
Strictly speaking,
much
dissonant chord
is
greater satisfaction
is felt
when
110
It
is
in us, just as
This
is
we doubly
The
most consonant of
all,
muse
There can be no
it
may
be used.
All
as, for
by
us.
by
It
is
therefore
On
the
is
minate
by
field,
different
ways
even
If the history of
if all
Ill
MUSICAL INTERVALS.
music
that
be found,
will
by notes
proceeds
clearly
which
would be necessary
it
all
from
to pass
intolerable.
is
proceeds, then,
by musical
it is
in its
firm,
intervals, precisely as
and decided
movement by
steps.
It
man
seems
and by rhythmic
intervals
steps, as also
by
and diminuendo, accelerando and rallantando, of
and staccato, which constitute musical accent, that
crescendo
legato
movements which
because
it is
determinate
to
sentiments;
certain states of
arise.
That
any given
state
of mind,
however,
it
is
applicable
to
mental music
means
constitute
is
added by
But
if
the words
of words united
with music.
112
that the
it
will be seen
may be
adapted
Music
There
is
is
no question in
it,
as in sculpture, of copying
of uniting to the
architecture has
and
Even
The
itself.
It
anything.
is
true that
it
abounds in
suggested
simple ratios
is
by
Man
why
has therefore
own
numerical
relations
are
instrument,
but
and
is
considered.
arts.
its
Music
art, as
In
full
fact,
in it
the
columns
by numerical
relations
relation.
But these
113
MUSICAL SCALES.
11gf
revenges
itself
*?fi
is
The
minate intervals.
and other
&c.
acts of
first
All nations have selected notes to be used, have collected together those intended to be together,
By musical
scale is
meant the
and have
scales.
The
most important
nation.
and
few hints
up
semblage
of notes
If
made
it
were a question of an
as-
many
centuries.
but
114
is
developed with
it.
perfect scale
of little value.
In
this
wall,
and
it
column
is
comparison with
Greek
and
archi-
the
architecture,
and
column,
was reducible
therefore
In
good.*
between
distances
and
the
also,
respect,
holds
tecture
wall
flat.
Everything
and horizontal lines,
to vertical
one of
arch,
which
The Eoman
covery.
this,
roof,
and
as a
more
the dome.
new
dis-
of large dimensions;
it
is
It allows of
of stability
Helmholtz, Op.
cit.
115
BIBLICAL MUSIC.
each other so
much
that
it
it
are found,
it
From
as history itself.
many
man
followed
ancient historical
in his wanderings
To the
sung.
latter is
more important bearing on the question now under conIt is incontestably established that the
sideration.
Greeks
had no true principle of harmony even in their most prosperous times. The only thing that they did in this re-
was
Thus
*
to
[At Genesis
"And
iv.
his brother's
21,
name was
Jubal.
the father of
all
it
that
time, but
says
such as
He was
least
116
it
parts of a verse.
this
auxiliary art,
The development of
from
it,
their
which
it
It was, in fact, a
when
it
is
artistic
ever existed,
becomes necessary
it
to look
fifths.
scale
Eaising a note to
seen in the
fifth chapter,
by
its
has been
number
of vibra-
multiplying
its
f.
octave.
To make the
making the
supposition
will be
LYRE OF ORPHEUS.
studied later on in
known
details, is already
its
c,
to the
and
117
flats
d,
In
modern music.
e,
f, g, a,
b, c,
c,
repre-
fifth,
scale.
and
below
fifth
its
'octave, so as to bring
the octave of
obtained
it
is g,
is /.
an
if
c>f>g,c>
whose musical
ratios are
1.
I, 2.
that
it
is
interesting,
In
fact,
when an
interrogation
To emphasise a word,
fifth,
Musically speaking,
declamation.
tone,
tradition, con-
is
made, the
it rises
another
notwithstanding
its
poverty,
to a sort of
musical declamation.
Progress
12
further continued.
118
The
fifth
of g
ratio will be
when
ratio
is d,
and
The
f.
if it "be
raised an octave
following scale
d, f, g,
its
musical
its
musical
l\>,
c,
1 6
intervals are
19
J
which
We
is
whence
is ty,
c,
whose
lowered an octave,
below /
fifth
is
>
~5>
2">
>
^>
fifths,
way
all
bb,/, c,g,d.
This
an
is
number
enormous
of
popular
songs
are
written,
But the
fifths.
scale
The
e.
octave, will be
whence the
when brought
into the
same
men-
27 81 243
TIP Wf> 12 F>
d,
e,
f, g, a, &,
c,
The
first
3,
ft, *, I,
H,
III,
e,
2.
were introduced by
Ter-
PYTHAGOREAN SCALE.
pandro ; the
the
last,
b,
to say,
But
idea
name
is forme7i^as*"li&3* been
119
ssWi,
By
succ^ssive 'iifths
ratios.
is
..
is
It
that
law of
The mode
note.
for
is
and
this
seems to have
the scale
is
further that
ratios to the
This
is
ratios to the
The
by
I
its
thus be seen
fundamental note.
sponding to our a,
The
may
fractions
It
e,
and
&
that
is
last
consonant note.
why
The Pythagorean
third
and
120
more
alone no development of
harmony
is
possible, the
fifth is
The Pythagorean
However, in the
in Greece.
that
Christian era
is
are found.
centuries
many
At
they
for the
we
cordant.
artistic sentiment.
left
sway up
its
last
on
Greek
attempts at modifying
went
sway
before the
last
It
Italy,
where
it
held sovereign
and
slow
musical
from Greece to
successive
scales.
from
it
from the
The law
of formation
in fact, suppose
c,
note whatever
Any
the scale
may
e,
/, g, a,
&,
121
c.
may
f>
ff>
a, b>
d,
c,
e;
or
a, I,
c,
d,
e,
f, g, a, &c.
can be formed in
this
piece,
have had a
distinctive character
and
it is
more
in this respect,
is
subject to far
rigid rules.
The
8.
turbance
later,
Pope
different
in
Greek
Ambrose,
Italy.
Thus
underwent much
scales
Bishop
of
Milan,
dis-
and
re-estab-
rest of the
Greek
scales.
ecclesiastical
it,
it is
intended.
that
is
to say, at
music
It consisted in
122
produce discord.
in Italy.
upon
fifths
By
the impulse
more melodies were combined together in a most complicated fashion, in which the art of combination had a much
more considerable part than
tours de force without
was
artistic
especially cultivated
by church
mere
inspiration
Such music
singers,
to
whom
unpleasant
an end
discords.
to this
Luther's
fictitious
and
great
Reformation
artificial
style
put
of music.
made
all.
sprang madrigals
and popular
songs.
And
thus
for
123
PALESTRINA.
Harmony
way by
even in
method
felt
in use
up
to that time,
and
laid the
most
stress
on
His composiinspiration.
"
Improperia," "Missa papse Mar-
("Crux
fidelis,"
10.
But
and always
will be, a
model of that
style.
scale,
The Pythawas
at the time,
human
perceptible.
means
voices
fundamental note,
possible.
which the
and to each
other,
were as simple as
Greek scales have
is,
was more
easily to
scale.
The
its
first
two
is
124
development, and
of
of
the
something
similar.
polyphonic music.
Ages demanded,
The
plicated the
keep together.
resting-place became.
of the
more complicated.
It is
rigid, as
now
which
is
it
In the music of
And
this
MODERN SCALES
is
its
standing
why
11.
examine in
125
facts
being premised,
it
beautiful.
is
now time
to
scale, as
scale
major
another modification, which
scale.
may
The
last
having yet
be considered as the
may
its
be made of an instrument
(fig.
29) invented
by
Seebeck
ment
0.
The
centrically to the
other.
disc carries
same
circle at
the rotatory
current of
movement
air.
The
is
It
is,
in fact, a siren in
which
eight circles,
one,
But
as the
produced
this
to
is
the
number
proportional to the
number
of holes,
number
it
of impulses, and
follows
that at
equal
126
velocities the
number
of the vibrations.
105435159
*>
When
>
T> B>
2">
3>
8" >
-1 '
if
the
Pig. 29.
may
is
is
obtained.
And
it
it
ratios.
scale
therefore constituted
is
1
x
>
In
it,
the
as
8>
4> o>
*
a>
>
&, c.
may
fifth, |,
by the following
05480119^
c,d, e,f,g, a,
the
127
the sixth,
for
dissonant,
is
y,
The second, f
considerably simplified.
It
may be
is
question with
all
examine the
made
128
The
known.
ratio
antecedent note
and
scale
its
which
is
The Pythagorean
structive.
scale
expressed by the
is
following ratios:
1
*
The
81
18 >
6T>
"35
"2>
On
243 O
27
T~
256
8")
2T3>
9
>
>
256
"2I^'
>
whole tone
|||,
which
the
is
called a semitone.
classes
is
called a
which
f,
two
complicated,
The Pythagorean
scale
is
the third and fourth, the other between the seventh and
octave.
Our major
1>
95435
T
&
'
15
2>
>
>
-"
In
^,
it
16
10
>
T~5>
10
9
>
16
9
>
15'
>
intervals
They
as the
are
the largest,
Pythagorean
met with
twice.
The
is
and
a minor
jj, is
first,
met with
twice,
H*!;.
129
as
major semi-
tone, to distinguish it
it
distributed
tones,
in
the same
lies
The
order.
in this, that
difference
we make a
distinction
We
To
this
may
itself
a greater
find
interval
d and
d
e.
between
to play
e,
and d
d
is
is
to a
whole piece of
fundamental
first
and thence
>iece.
13
130
The second
12.
of our scales
is
is
~&>
>
3>
1T>
In
it
composed of the
9643899*
It is
16 10
>
T^>
9
>
~5>
1>>
16
T5J
10
minor
same
scale,
The minor
form :
}9048515g
In which the intervals are
V,
I, if,
This scale
scale,
and
is
I,
V,
I,
first
half, of
major
the minor
scale.
The
The second
form
ascending scale
is
that
adopted
is
to say,
whilst the
form
is
adopted for
The minor
minor
scale, then,
has as
its characteristic
note the
may
further development
of,
therefore
be considered as the
131
allied.
The
basis
its
characteristic difference
Now
in the thirds.
is
reserved
scale.
scales lies
third, f , is
It
semitone.
may
and minor
scale
be
may
However small
may be mathematically
from
an
artistic point of view.
speaking,
very great
Those points discussed with respect to the two perfect
it
this difference
is
chords
[see
scales.
The major
chapter
also
vi.]
scale
and
hold
all pieces
undecided.
The reason
for
this
is
to be found in the
they are
perfect
chords;
scales.
In conclusion,
it
may
In
beings,
who show
different
characters,
tendencies,
and
132
up
in its construction.
One
13.
is
remained
last step
it is
would be
it is
made
to be
as yet entirely
in music,
made.
and
The
it
scale
when
scale begins
on
and
c,
then
But
c.
it
may
and he prefers
who
is
is
is
to
it
to transpose
it,
may
This
is
permissible, since
it
may
may
be
its
number of
to the first or
when
the tonic
Now,
that
if
if
is
moved from
and/
with
c to g.
a semitone between
signifies,
that
c,
there
is
is
it
is
will be found
the interval of
to say,
between the
found between
&
and
133
TRANSPOSITION.
c,
be transposed from
c to g, in
begins on
g,
it
must be
referred to a scale
which
But
simply in
if this
the
between
and
This
tone.
and octave
there
e,
/, g,
that
is,
is
is not,
that
d,
c,
is,
between/ and
The semitone
g.
on
is,
is
to say,
between
The
and /.
scale, then,
does not
The desired
sixth
/a
by
between the
to its flat.
multiplying the
number
minor semitone.
its
sharp means
To lower
the
its
it
at
to its
number
of the
ratio'
two notes
number
of
an interval of a
flat,
on the other
of vibrations per
some others
That
to their flats.
which has been explained for one example holds good for all
cases. The tonic can be changed from c to g, to e, to/, &c.
that
is
a quantity of
new
notes
is
By
this operation
To return
to the
the interval
-||,
simple musical
}f
This idea
Between
and
scale.
may
but lower,
which
is
by
near /,
as
But there
transposition.
no need
is
When
it
for
is
music
changed from
therefore,
to c sharp.
must be made
to
stop at this
first
The same
for the
can be then
considerations,
been made
it
is
135
TRANSPOSITION.
In
or minor.
sharp of
c is
fact, to
obtained by multiplying
by
j|-
that
twice over
its
number
is,
of vibra-
and
and d
two
This
?.
by
c
is
These
The conclusion
count
all
thus arrived
at,
necessary to
is
Another
would be
necessity of lowering
it
seven notes
with
it
the
lowering a note to
its flat.
good also
for the
flats.
that seven
these
It
new
may
and especially
is
it
In executive music,
is
generally admitted
equivalent to the
flat
of the
13G
flat
at 1,
but this
sharp
is
is
sharp
expressed by
But d
f-J.
is
equivalent to
In
is f,
tions can be
As
made
taking c
fact,
whence d
f
a value
?,
which
is
Similar considera-
flat.
If the interval e to
equivalent to a
represented
by T f,
whole
intervals.
as sharps
and
flats
and f *,
and
flat
it
notes,
sharp
or /,
must be distinguished
is
correspond respec-
follows that
e,
f flat, e
/.
remain
is
sharp
the same.
flat
sharp,
is
made
account
all
and
scale,
also four other sets, each of seven keys, for the sharps,
double sharps,
thirty-five
flats,
keys in
and double
all
that
flats
to each octave.
It
is
is
to
say,
true that
but
it is
none the
less
TEMPERATE SCALE.
16.
As
possible
transpositions,
137
developed in respect to
many
attempts
have
all
arisen
to
more
easy.
strictly
all
mathe-
same notes
differing
fruit of these
is
ear,
is
the temperate
scale,
which reached
its full
dedicated to
and fugues.
it
forty-eight of his
It
between the major and minor tone, of confounding the major semitone with the minor semitone,
and of considering the sharp of a note as equal to the flat
distinction
and
all
it is
an
138
gress
made
and, above
in instrumental music
due
is
to this
scale,
all,
pianoforte in social
But, no doubt,
in this respect.
it
life is
to
be attributed to
It
would
all
it.
delicacies,
to music,
this
make
the
different
scales,
so
as
to
and calling
it
c,
ia
cdefgabc
:
The minor
scale
by
The Pythagorean
scale,
matical scale,
it
is
139
SCAI.IvJ.
coincide exactly.
somewhat modified
all
Therefore there
sidered that
it is
It
it
It
may
it
Pythagorean scale, in
303J,
a difference
when
and 302 1
is
it
is
be said
is
con-
by the
represented
by
cannot be neglected.
defective.
The
differ-
the
first
But
if
12 vibrations
enough
to
of the scale,
discord.
Lastly,
it is
perfect tune,
it
kno-,yn that
whenever a chord
On
is
not in
the pianoforte
140
and sustained
full,
loud,
may
notes,
when they
example
to the
much more
frequent.
Applying the
two
and with
of the
number
of beats
Even the
notes,
this the
effect.
general
harmony
and the
trans-
parency of a chord.
It follows that
must be considered
That
it
is
endured,
ears
have
* Cornne has
lately made some most ingenious experiments, in which
he measured directly the number of vibrations per second of the notes
produced by good singers and violin-players, whilst they executed a pure
melody with the greatest possible care. He found that they made use
neither of the exact nor of the temperate scale, but of a scale differing
but
little
141
structed, on which ho can play at will in the exact or temperate scale, on purpose to see if there really is an appreci-
As soon
as the ear
becomes
little
clearer,
and
more
transparent, the
dissonant
without any
have greater importance in the former, and in general the
music acquires a more decided, open, robust, and sweet
character.
new and
and return
scale
modern
In truth, this
scale
portance, since pure melody without harmony does not exist at the present
day, and would be no longer enjoyed. And it is enough for a song to be
accompanied by the most simple harmony, to oblige the singer to adopt
melody,
14
142
difficulties of
may
it
But
all
voice,
which
will al-
any
free,
The return
to the exact
The
same may
which are
still
A flute
scale,
and the same considerations hold good for the greater part
It does not therefore appear
wind instruments.
of the
The pianoforte
is,
and the
enjoys,
it
In
it is
fact there is
in
no
The great
defect
ever
may be
is
away
143
what-
rapidly,
As
a con-
The
pianoforte
scale
is
tolerated.
is,
it
cadences,
it
figures, scales,
call
up the
of the hearers.
new
order
of the grotesque.
Eeforms of
this nature
may
it
to induce us
But
it is
with
all
evident that
if it
complication
but
it
it
would lead
to very great
144
Helmholtz's, that
considerations,
by
it is
starting
from somewhat
different
have at present ; but when the great ability of our pianoforte-players with twelve keys per octave is taken into
consideration,
it
may
of execution;
and even
if
musical compli-
cations
Man
had
is
its
capable of a
much
different
finer class of
schools
which
at
present divide
all.
first
to try for
and
Singing
and
more
intelligible,
when
it is
Basili,
much
scale.
145
If
them
it
would
of itself
to these
at
new
exigencies, the
CHAPTER
1.
VIII.
LAWS OF HARMONICS
6. QUALITY OB
GENERAL LAWS OF
NOISES ACCOMPANYING MUSICAL SOUNDS 9. QUALITY OR
5.
CBORDS
8.
7.
1.
THE
is their
sung by
quality or timbre.
different
same
many
an ordinary violin
Amati.
for a
costs a
few pounds,
good Stradivarius or N.
is
147
TIMBRE.
The
them
in
difference of timbre is
and very
characteristic.
stitutes the
violins
In the human
voice,
which con-
of voice.
may
differ so as to
produce so marked a
The curve
of the oscillations
may
is
and impress a
The question
will
special character
on
it.
methods, and they will be illustrated by the most important examples in each.
As
will be
148
1, 2, 3,
same width
will
ab,
now be
explained
how
such curves
may be made
visible.
Fig. 3<X
2.
Of
all
simplest vibrations
USSAJOUS' METHOD.
149
[fig.
31].
is
made
its
branches,
ray of solar
Fig. 81.
room
is
to fall
on the
reflected thence
is
An
is
reflected
on
to
on to a
when
the
and
at rest, but
on the diaphragm.
This line
is
movements
of the luminous
at every
instant;
150
but
if
that
which correspond
so
it
spots,
moved by hand,
mn
In
tions.
it
or less
vibrates
But
if
at will.
curve
is
obtained,
allows a great
number
interesting to study
by
of experimeuts to be made.
combined together in
different ways,
many may
and
It is
vibrations are
One example
it
affords
an
From
is
caused to enter
I, falls
LISSAJOUS' METHOD.
151
a violin bow,
it
vibrates
and
but
vertical line;
the
rubbed,
if
vertical
becomes
movements
longer or
of the
shorter,
two tuning-
Fig. 32.
forks are
made
same instant
each other's
wax
of time,
same
effect.
This being
little
in the
so, if
to the tuning-fork T,
it
and will thus give with the other T' very marked
The vertical line will then be of variable length
vibrations,
beats.
short,
152
The reason
is
To each beat
simple.
movements
one
is
moment
at
which the
of the
and another
at
Tig.
33
Pig. 88.
is
ment
is
Fig.
purpose.
all directions
it
this receives
room through
slit S'.
into the
The image
of the string
in the figure)
But
larger
if
by means
of the lens L.
and
fainter,
the string in
In order
its
is
rapid movement.
to see the
MOMENTAEY ILLUMINATION OF A
particular instant,
it
is
153
STRING.
necessary to illuminate
it
only
thus obtained
feeble, and the phenomenon cannot be
The slit S', through
observed at a little distance off.
is
Fig. 34.
of the vibrating
string is obtained for an instant, and the
state of the
instant can thus be made
string at that
given
visible.
But even
15
this
154
phenomenon
lasts for
it is difficult
so that
An
position.
it
returns to the
is
same
thus
appear as
is to
time that
For
board
slits
if
it
this
The
some means
discover
point, then,
purpose use
(fig.
34),
which
may
carries a certain
number
of narrow
round the
circle.
It
allows
also
its
by
increasing
few
trials it is
the
slits
less
after a
intercepts
This
more or
slit
as follows
them completely
The
disc being
slit
in the shutter,
If,
then, the
it
slit
slit
in the disc to
to its
first
when
it is
same
in the
come
makes a complete
position, the
time, always
155
string
equal intervals of
position.
The
string
fixed,
were fixed
phenomenon remains as
may be wished. But
time as
it
it
changes
is
for as long a
of
its
its
it
be rubbed
Fig. 35.
the string
form
is
complicated, which
The image
At
plucked at one-seventh of
is
is
is
the points
a, I,
c,
d,
there
intermediate points d, V, c,
fainter.
its
The
length.
The
is
d',
the image
different portions
is
at the
enlarged and
of the string at
these
156
latter
disc,
points
succeed in analysing.
between which
An
4.
it
its
vibrates.
apparatus of
much
use in
many
acoustic re-
searches,
Phonautograph
36).
(fig.
Scott &
is
and closed
at its
is
more
or less
by means
carries
at
its
piece of elder
to the
membrane,
point p.
it,
the
membrane
own
part in
p vibrates strongly
length.
The vibra-
method.
is
handle M, or better
ment arranged
still,
by means
of a clockwork
move-
by the
THE PHONAUTOGRAPH.
weight P.
cut on
it,
The
157
by
not superposed.
The phonautograph
may be used
for
is
many and
various researches.
The
vibra-
two organ-pipes
by
it
158
But
method
[fig.
vibrations, but
known
33].
also
may
make
compound
note,
something on
its
and
it
own
may
it
adds
account.*
is
All that
is
necessary
is to
of the
itself
traces
the required
curve.
Fig.
this
different curves,
and
The
effect is
clearer,
to the
when
more
certain,
to the
same sound,
is
The
ci
Fig. 37.
vibrations produced
by the strong
voice
of a baritone
The
last contains
byway
of
160
rubbed
relation do these
to the simple
It
sum
of
2, 3,
or
more simple
may
may be
vibrations.
As an example, suppose
tions, so
[fig.
38].
it
it is fairly
easy
determine the curve representing the resultant motion.
For
this purpose
vertical lines
db,
all
a'V,
that
a"b",
and
is
needed
to set
them
sum
to
is
off
draw the
on these the
The curve
together.
algebraic
first
is
is
equal to the
three curves.
is
the curve
required.
fig.
161
COMPOUND VIBRATIONS.
proportion of 2
lengths are as 3:
It is seen
the third
is
1.
Fig. 38.
that the
compound curve
number
differs
it.
As
a general
162
proposition,
it is
of the
is
it
number
more
complex.
As
curve,
it
may
is
by mathematical
calculation.
possible to enter
on
at.
very general,
it
here
Proposed in these
necessary to give, at
it
be
the
it
of a periodic curve
numbers
if
less
may
num-
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
&c.
per second.
second are as
But
number
triple,
quadruple, quintuple,
as vibrations
1:2:3:4:5,
&c.,
the following
may
series,
the result of
be acoustically expressed
163
HARMONICS.
decomposed into
to the
harmonic
ought
sounds
them,
be
to
all
series
series.
to
able
With
this
discover
can
theorem in hand, we
in
compound musical
mental
string,
method
of
initiated
studying
the
second
of
timbre
experi-
musical
sounds.
6.
always simple, but are accompanied by notes of the harmonic series if a sonometer be taken, for example, and
;
it
mental note.
1,
the harmonics
numbers
Seebeck's
siren
2, 3, 4,
(fig.
by the pro-
&c.
on the axis of
rotation a disc
series of holes
are represented
ratios of
1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8,
the harmonics of the fundamental note are produced in
absolutely correct proportions.
first,
scale.
They
are,
164
In
from
fact,
octave
its
thence to
2,
the
thence to the
the
it is
not
difficult to
demonstrate
is
may
The
latter
note dies
therefore
is
easily perceptible.
The same
forte.
met with
harmonic.
easily
fifth
and are
it.
fact is
third harmonic,
note,
g, is easily
and the
c,
perceived,
for
difficulty.
example
which is its
which
also
is its
be heard,
is
hammer
is
string,
at that
point.
Harmonics
if
met with
are
but
may
fig.
22).
according to
enough
its
be
to
It is
provided with a
reso-
have a very
efficacious
means
may
many
others.
be met with, to
of proving the
midst of
of these
series
presence
may
be, in the
this point
it
it is
is,
that
agreeable sound,
it
harmonics
may
some-
always thin and poor, and thereis the case with tuning-forks.
This
its
is
and by no means
the vowel u. The har-
gives a hollow
somewhat
like
166
mental note
&c., it
other hand,
is
it
is
sound acquires a
clanging character
as, for
ex-
The
richest in
ments of
7.
The timbre
it
is for this
and always
is
produced^ then^ by
number and
most musical.
of musical sounds
human
degree, of the
more
is
or less complicated,
and
it
by
itself
its
vibrations
alone consti-
It follows that in
it
is
may
be formed by
same system
for
all
harmonics
of harmony.
We
must enter
into the
In
fact,
note 1
more
also, as
simple.
5,
2, 3, 4, 5, &c.,
will be expressed
&c.
by
167
&c.
2, 4, 6, 8,
It is seen that,
single
new
in fact,
note.
and the
produced
is
therefore
by combining together
the
octave,
the reinforcement of
harmonics
some
only effect
of the harmonics
It follows that
somewhat modified
And
this is
what
Adding the
timbre.
which
fifth,
is
f,
to this
Some
of these notes, as 3,
fifth
is
6,
&c.
&c.,
f, &c., are
f,
notes.
The
less perfect
new
octave
which
is
expressed by
i
Referring the
fifth
it
i,
and has
1,
|, 2, 1, 3, &c.
to this
for
harmonics
all its
168
fundamental note
more
perfect.
In
-|.
This
is
this
way
the reason
fifth
the
harmony becomes
why
A
to
somewhat
same
this
harmonics
is
similar conclusion
is
arrived at
by adding
with
its
expressed by
{,
&e.
if
is
expressed by
J,
be added, they
all
become harmonics,
The conclusion
to
is
that
it
is
necessary to
render
it
really agreeable.
In
written as
It
may
fact,
is
shown below
at 1,
and never
is
always
as at 2 or 3.
its
it
octaves
and
fifth
want
of balance
between the
169
was a
different notes.
preceding chapters,
considerations just
chord
all
now made
it
is,
of
The
perfect chord
The conclusion
much
is
thus arrived
timbre.
chord of
added.
at,
all,
new
notes
new
note
is
is
necessary to understand
8.
which
The timbre
it.
of musical sounds
is
string
rubbed by a bow
170
heard
at the
of the air
is
hea,rd
distinctly heard as
rally speaking, as
from our
it
we
and so
hammer
on.
is
Gene-
above
that teach
all
may
be
much
fact, if
violin are always the same, as, with the exception of very
slight differences, is really the case, there is
practical
life
to analyse
may
no reason in
and examine as
be present.
to the extent to
which they
to be a
it
farther than
it
that
is, it
obtains its
purpose with the least exertion and the least labour posIt may be easily demonstrated that the ear does
sible.
not separate notes to the concomitance of which
it
has
in
short
itself gives a
If,
then, another
as, for
new
what
it
1,
is
not
be set vibrating,
but which
example, f
171
perceives,
the ear
and
all
tinctly heard.
to perceive the
harmonics of the
is
then induced
very
difficult
voice,
however
is
human
and
analysis,
of the
are
in
use.
greatest
But
at
the
same
of resonators,
for
numerous audience.
9.
tors
note
The apparatus
adapted to
c.
At
39)
is
by an
elastic
membrane.
In front of
this,
gas enters
When
tion is
communicated
observed, as
of a
is
described in the
In order to know
of the
to the flame,
human
s if
and
first
is
its
vibrations are
chapter,
by means
turned by a
handle.
what they
172
may
that
mental note.
is
to say, c
Then,
if
and a glance
them immediately.
By means
and
it is
of this
demonstrated that
all
said of the
If a
ment,
173
many
human
it
may
is
are.
which
voice,
But, following
fundamental note, and at the same time pronounce sucThe harmonics can thus
cessively the different vowels.
be easily observed, which accompany the fundamental
note in different degrees.
obtained in the case
The vowel
is
we
The following
are considering
results
are
nounced.
contains the fundamental note, the second harmonic
The vowel A
slightly.
fourth
is
fifth feeble.
fifth,
strongly
marked.
These
differences,
which are
from
174
pronunciation of
They
are
not
and
also
mental
is
note.
But
and I
if it
be understood .when
The
draw attention
to them.
stituted in the
way
it
size.
will only
may
mouth
is
con-
we ought
to
accomplished by Helmholtz,
who made
of stopped organ-pipes,
He
is
therefore complete,
CHAPTEE
1.
AND
OF PARIS
1.
6.
THE laws
4.
IX.
ART
2.
ITALIAN AND
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
5.
CONCLUSION.
of timbre
of the
theory of
Thanks
notes
must
more
perfect, the
more
the notes of
tlie
the
it
becomes
a necessary consequence
of
this
law.
of music.
happened
But
and could
easily create
anew
to be lost.
the minds of
it
my
mine
to raise in
176
that
escapes
all
it
In
art there
is
one thing
calculation,
when
it
As
Poetic Inspiration.
this is
mind
sible
with a
common
but the
critic will
critic.
my
readers in rapid
man may
unknown
to those great
men
who have
left
and
by
feeling, fancy,
inspiration.
And it
came afterwards and only explained.
The thought,
will always be thus even in the future.
to prophesy
mind
into
our
enter
will
never
therefore,
Science
what music
artistically
will be fifty or a
speaking,
it
will
the
descending branch of the parabola; the more so as
ITALIAN AND
aesthetic principles to
GERMAN
which the
But
MUSIC.
177
art successively
may
it
conforms
is
by
science.
And
with this
my
which
questions
have
latterly
been
to the artistic
much
agitated,
patrimony of modern
Europe.
2.
Much
The
is
features of difference
It is true
it
is
this has
error to
characteristic of the
two
it
would be a great
nations.
by immense complication.
most
artificial
17
to-
178
characteristics
polyphonic music up to
of Italian
comparison
first
who
Palestrina,
was, however,
After this epoch the two nations continued, in respect to style, almost on the
same
road.
Italy decidedly
and
to the considerable
number
men
of
of real creative
power.
From
this
moment
may
recitative.
its first
represents in architecture.
duced the
and
from the
recitativo obligate,
first
thoroughly
initiated
effected.
mony and
counterpoint.
and
its rigid
rules of har-
DEVELOPMENT OF OPEKA.
the bold innovator Claudio Monteverde,
179
on the contrary,
it,
notwithstanding
primitive.
This
music
the form
still
movement continued up
is
especially
whilst in opera,
remained very
to the eighteenth
Following close on church music, opera developed more and more, and with the history of this move-
century.
was communicated
This creative
Germany, where
to
a surprising development.
it
Men
took
like
must be considered
as the fruitful
and genial
out in
much
themselves.
To show how
little
we need
"
"
art,
of
school,
which the
first
180
cheerful,
the other.
much from
differ
last
century the
The
last
century
is
by the number
by
of distinguished
But
it
The
and
as the
and ornamentations
ment
of the composer
great
taste.
The
TWO
ROSSINI'S
things, being powerless to
who thought
remedy
Then came
it.
Rossini,
it
cadences,
scales,
181
STYLES.
and
difficulties
He
the head of a
able to control
movement
in the
but
suffer
it
hope
themselves at
it.
who put
is
There
is
only one purpose for which this light and varied style
seems fitted, and that is for comic opera; and in this
respect Eossini has left an undying model of grace and
freshness in the
"
Barbiere di Siviglia."
almost completely.
His
last opera,
In his
later works,
abandoned
this style
"
Guglielmo
Tell," is
second act
But
this
rises to
as,
an incomparable elevation.
Italy,
correct style
of Eossini's
by tendencies and
ideas
and
song
Donizetti,
cloying.
182
produced, and
felt
still
by the
make
sought
after.
Then came
who
Verdi,
and dramatic
that this
For
form.
was awaking to a new life she felt the want of movement and strong emotions. Patriotism therefore laid
;
it
freely.
has
all
it
entirely popular,
suffered immensely.
taste
Latterly,
made
to the
German
school, or
man school.
From " Nabucco
"
and
"
Ernani
"
to
"
"
Rigoletto
" II Ballo in
Maschera," and from these to
is
continuous.
"
and
Aida," the
These examples,
was
183
and eagerness.
side, it
Gluck
first
is
it
produces.
It is superior in
many
points to poetry
terrible,
and sometimes
To prove
We
need
and
"Der
lastly,
is
Music, which in
it
in others
itself,
many
on the
where dramatic
effect
184
From
this
with
the
lastly
Italian
school.
is
but
may
it
singers
also
orchestral instruments.
It
some too
realistic
exaggera-
tions
and some
Wagner.
We
trivialities,
owe
it
almost
The
closer
constitutes
perhaps the
most
salient
and most
most
rich,
music, which
185
is
almost always
to
an ideal
sphere.
future."
too refined,
calculation
"
music of the
and combination.
listen
to
it
number
to
"
"
of the beauties
which
The prelude
contains.
it
many
passages in
This
poem whose
tant
Finally,
we must
agent in
exercised
by
it
was
beyond the
written.
musical history
that
is,
the influence
If
it
may
is
this,
great
Not-
and incontestable.
Placed, as
it
were,
186
life
and
its
mania
for
amusement,
It
many
was there
It
honoured
post,
with his
leer,
make
his
fame immortal.
Finally,
of competent criticism,
Rossini's
" Don
"Guglielmo
fined
Tell," Donizetti's
Sebastian," finally,
in this manner.
their style.
"Favorita" and
The influence
of Paris
may
be thus de-
is
of its
It
This school
limited
it
to
dramatic expression.
Italian
It has
mate
relation
desire,
INFLUENCE OF PARIS.
187
The character of
composers
things, the
eclecticism
It
of.
must be considered
as
an
common
point of
were very
different.
And
tendencies
noble ideas and grand works of art which will exert a true
As
posterity.
scientific critic to
wish to foresee
is
its steps.
I shall there-
That which
it
was important
for us to demonstrate
was
which depended on unknown laws of nature since discovered, that it cannot be separated from these laws, and
that within
them there
the efforts of
human
is
field large
fancy.
THE END.
enough
for all
INDEX.
Dissonant intervals,
Dome, invention
95.
of the, 114.
Architecture,
of, 114.
178.
Ear of Dionysius,
41.
performed
Fifth,
in, 144.
harmony of
100.
Fourth,
Chants, Ambrosian and Gregorian, 121.
Chords, consonant, 101; major perfect,
its
position in the
harmonic
French music,
186,187.
of, 109.
intervals, 95.
18
Galileo's
ment,
discovery
regarding
move-
1.
German music,
Harmonic
INDEX.
190
by
165.
detection
Harmony, origin
Human
orchestra
of,
184.
Minor
the
122
to, 88.
Law
few notes,
87.
of, 122.
Madrigals, development
Major perfect chord, composition of
102; pieces founded on the, 104.
the,
12.
ObOe, 20.
Octave, of the fundamental note, 12;
number of vibrations per second in
the, 26; ratio of the, 85 harmony of
fundamental note with, 86; voices
of women, 86 fifth of the, 86 number of vibrations in a second made
by the. 100; no new notes found in
;
of, 144;
the, 167.
Orpheus's
the, 100.
Melody, cultivation
Nodes,
lyre, 117.
movement
105.
srale,
ed on
INDEX.
how
143.
57, 58.
Sounding-pipe vibration,
flue-pipes, 17, 20;
pipes, 18, 20.
16;
exan-ple of
examples of reed-
Speaking-tubes, 32.
St. Paul's Cathedral, construction of the
Resonance of sound,
how
40;
dome
remedied,
means
of, 41.
40, 41.
12;
com-
form of a vibrating
string, 155.
of, 101.
scale, 137; influence of Sebastian Bach, 137; progress in instrumental music due to, 138 comparison of exact, scale with, 138-142; re-
Temperate
Savart's bell, 53.
Scale, development of the Greek musical,
116: Scotch and Chinese, 118; Py-
properties of
modern, 125; major and minor, 125;
characters of major and minor, 131
temperate, 137.
Seventh harmonic, not used in practical
music, 93; effect of its introduction
into music, 94; represents the line
of demarcation between harmonics
and discords,
94.
periments, 36
Regnault's experiments, 36; velocity through water,
37; ve'oc'ty in different bodies, 3739; reflection of, 39-41: utilising of
the reflection of, 41
elegant mode
of demonstrating the refection of, 42;
the echo, 43, 44; different sounds,
;
Transposition, 132-136.
Trumpet, keyless, 87; curves obtained by
sounding a note on the, 159.
Tuning-fork vibrations, 7; graphic method of illustrating, 8, 9, 59; effect pro-
INDEX.
192
Uniform
pitch, its establishment in different countries, 69 ; pitch established by an international commission, 70.
of notes
50-52.
of,
146; range
of, 68.
W
Weber's " Der Freischiitz,"
Wind
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19.
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