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1.
Explain.
Directional selection is illustrated by the industrial
melanism of the English speckled moth. When tree trunks
were lighter and patchy, the lighter form of the
speckled moth was favored. When trunks became darker
because of industrial pollution, the population shifted
relatively quickly to the darker form of the speckled
moth. This form persisted until the environment was
cleaned up. As the tree trunks got lighter, the
population began to shift back toward the lighter form
of the speckled moth.
12 Why is genetic drift more likely to occur in small
. populations than in large populations?
In small populations, a chance change can lead to
significant changes in allelic frequencies while the
same change is less likely to have an effect on a larger
population. For example, consider two populations, one
consisting of ten individuals and one consisting of one
hundred individuals. Assume that 10% of the individuals
in each population carry a particular allele b of the B
gene. Thus, one individual in the smaller population
carries the allele, while ten carry it in the larger
population. While crossing the road, one member (10%) of
the smaller population is struck and killed by a
vehicle. If the individual killed by the vehicle was the
one carrying the b allele, that allele will be removed
from the population. If the larger population crosses
the road and 10% of their population is killed by a
vehicle, the most likely result is that nine of those
killed will not carry the b allele, while one will. The
b allele would still be found in 10% of the remaining
population. Thus, there is a good chance that a small
sample drawn from a larger population may not exactly
reflect the allelic frequencies of the population from
which it was drawn.
13 The founder effect and genetic bottlenecks are two examples
. of changes in gene frequencies that occur by chance. Explain
how these two mechanisms are similar and how they differ.
The founder effect occurs when there is a difference in
the gene pool allelic makeup due to the initiation of a
population by a small number of individuals. Bottlenecks
occur when a population undergoes a temporary decline to
low numbers from which survivors of all future
generations are derived. They are similar in that future
populations, in both cases, arise from a portion of a
parent population. Also, in both cases, the portions of
the population that establish the future generations do
not have the same allelic frequencies as the parent
population. In both cases, the allelic compositions of
the portions of the population that establish a new
population are determined by chance and not natural
1.
1.
outside the cell while potassium ions are present at higher concentrations
inside the cell. The resting potential of the neuron is -70 mV. Once a
neuron receives a stimulus, a depolarization begins at the point of
stimulation. The stimulus causes sodium channels at the point of
stimulation to open, allowing sodium ions to flow down their
concentration gradient into the cell. This causes the electric potential of
the cell to rise. The cell interior becomes more positive with the influx of
positive sodium ions. If the stimulus is too weak, the resting potential will
be reestablished. If the stimulus is strong enough, that is, if it raises the
potential level to the threshold, an action potential will be generated. The
sodium ions will rush into the cell if the threshold is reached and the
polarity of the potential will eventually reverse rising to about +30 mV
when the potential reaches maximum depolarization. This takes about
one msec after the initial stimulus. When the potential becomes positive
(after reaching maximum depolarization), the sodium channels close and
the potassium channels open. Potassium flows down its gradient and
leaves the cell. As potassium leaves the cell, it carries its positive charge
with it. The departing positive charges cause a drop in the potential,
which again becomes negative. The neuron does not return exactly to the
resting potential. It actually overshoots a bit and becomes
hyperpolarized. At this point, the potassium channels close preventing
further outflow of potassium ions. The sodium-potassium pump moves
three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions in to reestablish
their gradients. By pumping three positive charges out for every two
potassiums pumped in, the cell is able to reestablish the resting potential
at -70 mV. The ions that are moved during the action potential move
down their gradients by diffusion, thus no energy is required. The action
of the sodium-potassium pump to reestablish the resting potential pumps
sodium and potassium ions against their gradients; this requires energy
in the form of ATP.
4 What is myelin? What is it made of? What role does myelin play
. in neurons?
Myelin forms a sheath around the axons of neurons. It is
formed by Schwann cells that wrap themselves in a spiral
around most axons and some dendrites in several layers.
The whole sheath is formed by a series of Schwann cells
that line up along the axon. There are unsheathed spaces
between adjoining Schwann cells so the sheath is
interrupted. Thus, the myelin sheath is composed of
multiple layers of Schwann cell membrane since each
Schwann cell wraps around the axon a number of times.
Myelin helps to speed up the passage of nerve cell
impulses moving down the axon. The action potential jumps
from node to node, which accounts for the higher rate of
action potential passage.
5 Describe what happens when an action potential reaches a
. chemical synapse.
When an action potential reaches the end of the axon, it
generally best suited for slower delivery of more longlasting messages that control ongoing body processes,
although some responses to hormones can be more rapid.
The endocrine system conducts information via a
collection of chemical messengers called hormones.
Responses to hormones are usually involuntary and
unconscious, while responses to the nervous system can be
both voluntary and involuntary. Hormones can act on a
number of different cells/tissues at the same time and
can have different effects in these different cells. The
nervous system can only affect the tissues to which it is
directly connected via a nervous pathway.
9 Hormones circulate in the blood and reach every cell of the
. body, yet only certain cells respond to certain hormones.
Explain.
To respond to a certain hormone, a tissue or cell must
possess receptors for that hormone. Such a tissue (or
cell) is called a target tissue (or target cell) for that
hormone. Cells that do not contain a receptor for a
particular hormone cannot respond to it and, in fact, do
not even "know" that the hormone is present.
10 Compare the functions of the anterior and posterior pituitary
. gland. How are the hormones of the posterior pituitary
regulated by the hypothalamus? How are the hormones of the
anterior pituitary regulated by the hypothalamus? What are
the advantages to having one gland regulated by hormones from
another gland?
The anterior pituitary responds to hypothalamic
neurohormones called releasing hormones or releaseinhibiting hormones that cause or inhibit, respectively,
the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary. The
hormones of the anterior pituitary target many tissues
and coordinate a wide variety of functions. Many of
these hormones stimulate target endocrine tissue to
release yet another hormone or hormones to carry out the
final response. The hormones secreted by the anterior
pituitary are growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating
hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin,
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing
hormone (LH). The posterior pituitary secretes two very
similar neurohormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which
causes its target cells in the kidney to undergo changes
that act to conserve water, and oxytocin, which is
involved in reproduction. It causes uterine contractions
during childbirth and also causes the release of milk
into the breast during nursing. Both hormones are
synthesized in neural cells of the hypothalamus and
migrate down the axons of these cells to their release
sites, the axon endings in the posterior pituitary. They
are then released when they are needed. If these
hormones are needed in the posterior pituitary, they
and ovulation.
30 What role does the endometrium play in pregnancy?
. In the event of fertilization, the endometrium must be
prepared for the arrival of the embryo. The embryo will
implant into the endometrium, the cells of which along
with some cells from the embryo will build the placenta.
The placenta is used by the developing embryo to obtain
nutrients and O 2 from the mother's blood, which flows
through the built-up endometrium. Embryonic wastes are
also carried to the mother through the placenta and
transferred to the mother's bloodstream for removal from
her body to the external environment. Without the
endometrium, there would be nowhere for the embryo to
implant and nowhere for it to get the necessary
nutrients and O 2. The pregnancy would therefore not be
maintained.
31 The body has several avenues for warding off would-be
. invaders, including physical barriers, nonspecific immune
defenses, and specific immune responses. Give an example of
each. Which of these avenues of defense are mobilized by
vaccines?
The skin is an example of a physical barrier to a wouldbe invader. Most pathogens cannot cross it unless it is
damaged. It also possesses oil glands that secrete
chemicals capable of weakening or killing bacteria.
Phagocytes that recognize invaders and ingest them by
phagocytosis are examples of nonspecific immune
defenses. They engulf the invading particle, bringing it
into the phagocyte's cytoplasm within a vesicle that
fuses with a lysosome. The enzymes in the lysosome kill
and/or digest the particle. Specific examples of
phagocytes are the neutrophils found in the blood and
the macrophages found within the tissues. Macrophages
are called monocytes before they leave the bloodstream.
The third line of defense, the specific immune response,
recognizes familiar, repeat invaders. A small subgroup
of the body's lymphocytes recognize and binds to certain
chemical groupings (antigens) on the invader's surface
that are specific to it. The lymphocyte or lymphocytes
that interact with these antigens are stimulated to grow
and divide or to make antibody proteins that will be
secreted. The secreted antibodies bind specifically to
the invader and only to the invader. Invaders coated
with antibodies are recognized by the phagocytic cells
of the immune system, which ingest and destroy them. The
antibodies also activate chemical defenses that are part
of the nonspecific immune response like histamines and
cytokines. Some of the lymphocytes produced by this
process become memory cells that allow a quicker
response the next time this specific invader is
encountered. Vaccines directly mobilize the specific