LAWS AND MODELS

Law and Ideology

If law is a system of enforceable rules governing social relations and legislated by
a political system, it might seem obvious that law is connected to ideology.
Ideology refers, in a general sense, to a system of political ideas, and law and
politics seem inextricably intertwined. Just as ideologies are dotted across the
political spectrum, so too are legal systems. Thus we speak of both legal systems
and ideologies as liberal, fascist, communist, and so on, and most people probably
assume that a law is the legal expression of a political ideology. One would expect
the practice and activity of law to be shaped by people's political beliefs, so law
might seem to emanate from ideology in a straightforward and uncontroversial
way.

However, the connection between law and ideology is both complex and
contentious. This is because of the diversity of definitions of ideology, and the
various ways in which ideology might be related to law. Moreover, whilst the
observation about law's link with ideology might seem a sociological commonplace,
the link between law and ideology is more often made in a critical spirit, in order to
impugn law.

At issue is an understanding of ideology as a source of manipulation. Law as

ideology directs its subjects in ways that are not transparent to the subjects
themselves; law, on this view, cloaks power. The ideal of law, in contrast, involves
a set of institutions that regulate or restrain power with reference to norms of
justice. Thus the presence of the ideological in law must, in some sense,
compromise law's integrity. Not only is the view of law as ideology at odds with a
lot of mainstream thinking about law, it seems difficult to reconcile with the central
philosophical positions on the nature of law, e.g. a positivist conception of law as a
set of formal rules, or a natural law conception where law is identified with moral
principles.
Darcy's law
In fluid dynamics and hydrology, Darcy's law is a phenomenological derived constitutive equation
that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium. The law was formulated by Henry
Darcy based on the results of experiments (published 1856)] on the flow of water through beds of
sand. It also forms the scientific basis of fluid permeability used in the earth sciences.
One-Dimensional Flow

Simple Discrete Form

A one-dimensional flow column is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Simple column.

For a finite 1-D flow, it may be stated as

_____[1]

where,
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s or ft3/s),
A = flow area perpendicular to L (m2 or ft2),
K = hydraulic conductivity (m/s or ft/s),
l = flow path length (m or ft),
h = hydraulic head (m or ft), and
 = denotes the change in h over the path L.

The hydraulic head at a specific point, h is the sum of the pressure head and the elevation,
or

h = (p/ g + z)_____[2a]

h = (p/ + z)_____[2b]

where,
p = water pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2),
 = water density (kg/m3),
= water specific weight (lb/ft3),
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2 or ft/s2), and
z = elevation (m or ft).

Equation [2a] is the normal SI form of the equation, while [2b] is the usual form used with
English units. The hydraulic head is the height that water would rise in a peizometer. Thus,
h is simply the difference in height of water in peizometers placed at the inlet and the
outlet (h = hin-hout). Substituting [2a] into [1] yields,

[3]

Equation [3] is approximately the form Darcy used to analyze his experimental data. Note
that the flow is not a function of the absolute pressure or the elevation. It is only a function
of the change in hydraulic head.

Differential Form

A more general form of the equation results when the limit of h with respect to the flow
direction l, as the flow path L goes to zero. Applying that step to equations [1] and [3]
yields,

_____[4]

The minus signs on the right hand terms reflects that the hydraulic head always decreases in
the direction of flow.
Flow Variables

Darcy Flux

The Darcy flux is defined as,

q = Q /A_____[5]

where q = Darcy flux (m/s or ft/s).

The Darcy flux is the volumetric flow per unit area. Substitution of equation [5] into [4]
yields,

_____[6]

Seepage Velocity

While the Darcy flux has the units of velocity, it is not the velocity of the water in the
pores. The solid matrix takes up some of the flow area. The average pore water velocity is
termed the seepage velocity, v, and is given by

v = Q/A = q/_____[7]

where  is the porosity of the porous media. The maximum pore velocity is a function of
the pore geometry and cannot be easily predicted except for simple shaped. In circular
tubes the maximum velocity is twice v.

One Dimensional Flow at an Angle to the Coordinate Axis

Darcy's Law is not a function of the flow direction in a homogeneous material. However,
the gradient of h is calculated along the flow path, l, and the flow area, A is measured
normal to l. Therefore, the geometry of flow must be accounted for if the flow is measured
relative to a different direction. Figure 2 shows the simple column tilted up.
Figure 2. Flow at an angle to the horizontal.

Assuming a 2-D space,

z = x tan()_____[8]

dl = dx / cos()_____[9]

dl = dz / sin()_____[10]

where,
 = angle to horizontal, and
x = horizontal distance (m or ft).

Substitution of equation [8] and [9] into [4] produces a relation relative to the x direction.

_____[11]

Simplifying produces,

_____[12]

If the area of flow is measured normal to the x axis, Ax will be larger than the area normal to
l. The two areas are related by,
 A = cos()Ax [13]

Substitution of equation [13] into [12] produces

_____[14]

By similar methods the flow may be expressed relative to the vertical direction by
substitution of equation [10] into [4]

_____[15]

where Az is the area of flow normal to the vertical axis.

Special 1-D Flows

Horizontal flow

In horizontal flow,  = 0 and equation [14] reduces to

_____[16]

Vertical Flow

In vertical flow up, sin() = 1 and equation [15] reduces to

_____[17]

Unit Gradient Flow

In vertical downward flow, if dp/dz = 0, equation [15] reduces to the unit gradient form.

Q = AzK (down)_____ [18]

Other Measures of the Flow Proportionality

Transmissivity
In saturated groundwater analysis with nearly horizontal flow, it is common practice to
combine the hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer, b into a single variable,

T = bK_____ [19]

where T = transmissivity (m2/s, ft2/s).

Permeability

When the fluid is other than water at standard conditions, the conductivity is replaced by
the permeability of the media. The two properties are related by,

K = kg /  = kg / _____ [20]

where,
k = permeability, (m2 or ft2),
 = fluid absolute viscosity, (N s/m2 or lb s/ft2) and
 = fluid kinematic viscosity, (m2/s or ft2/s).

Ideally, the permeability of a porous media is the same to different fluids. Thus, you may
predict the flow of one fluid, from the measurement of a second with equation [20].
However in practice, the solid matrix may swell or sink with different fluids and produce
different values of k. Substitution of equation [20] into [4] yields,

_____[21]

Likewise, substitution into equation [6] produces,

_____[22]

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 http://bioen.okstate.edu/Darcy/LaLoi/basics.htm
 http://plato.stanford.edu/search/searcher.py?query=MATH+SERIES
 www.wikipedia.org
