White Paper

Liquid level measurement - Basics 101

Part 2

John Schnake

Executive Summary
The perfect level technology that works for every liquid level and point level application does not exist. Hydrostatic
pressure has been around, it seems forever, and is proven in many applications. Non-contact radar and guided wave
radar level instrumentation are popular and growing. Capacitance and conductivity have long histories of success in
certain applications. However, it is still true that certain level technologies work better for some applications than
other level technologies. This paper will explore a number of technologies for measuring liquid level and point level
and will allow the reader to understand the basics of each technology with its inherent advantages and disadvantages.
This paper is available in its entirety, or in three separate parts. The first part of this paper focuses on hydrostatic level
measurement. The second part focuses on continuous liquid level measurement utilizing newer technologies and the
third, and last part, focuses on point liquid level measurement.

About the Author

John Schnake is Manager, Marketing & Sales Support at Endress+Hauser GmbH+Co, Division Level+Pressure in
Greenwood, Indiana. He received his Bachelor of Science Degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of
Illinois and a Masters of Business Administration from Arizona State University.
John has 18 years of experience in the Automation and Instrumentation business holding positions in Applications
Engineering, Inside Sales, Outside Sales, Product Management and Marketing Management at Honeywell and
Applied Automation.
He is a member of ISA and has published several articles in instrumentation journals. John can be contacted at
Endress+Hauser (317) 535-1365 or via e-mail at: john.schnake@us.endress.com

CP 022F/24/ae/08.07
White Paper
US/INDD CS

Liquid level measurement - Basics 101 Part 2

Time of Flight technology
Time of flight devices are much newer
technology than hydrostatic devices and
consist of ultrasonic and radar devices
(non-contact and guided wave). Ultrasonic
waves are not electromagnetic waves, they
are mechanical sound waves. The speed
of mechanical waves travel is well known
about 1096 feet per second (334 meters/
second) through air at 68F. The liquid
level can be determined by measuring the
amount of time it takes for the ultrasonic
wave to travel to the liquid, reflect and
travel back to the device.
Radar, an acronym for Radio Detection
and Ranging, was patented by the British
in 1935. The technology, based on radio
waves, was used for locating aircraft.
Similar research for locating ships as well
as aircraft using radio frequency was
underway in the U.S. and Germany. Radar
devices used today for level measurement
operate with electromagnetic radiation
at much shorter wavelengths 1.5 to
26 gigahertz commonly known as
microwaves. Non-contact radar and guide
wave radar operate using the same principle
of microwaves; non-contact is considered
free space (not contacting the media) while

Diagram 6 Time of Flight principle

guided wave radar does contact the process

media because it uses a long wave guide to
better direct the microwave energy. Since
the speed of light is well known like the
speed of sound, the level of the liquid can be
measured by measuring the amount of time
it takes for the microwaves to travel to the
liquid, and reflect back to the Radar device.
Diagram 6 provides an explanation of how
Time of Flight devices can measure the level
of liquid in a tank.
Equation 3: L = E D
L = liquid level
E = distance from measuring device to zero
level
D = distance from measuring device to
liquid
Equation 4: D = C x T/2
D = distance from measuring device to
liquid
C = speed of sound or speed of light
T = amount of time for sound or light to
travel from device to liquid and back
Based on Diagram 6 and Equations 3 and 4,
the level of liquid can be determined from
the time it takes for sound waves or light
waves to travel from the measuring device
to the liquid and back to the measuring
device. One also needs to calculate E based
on the size of the tank.
Ultrasonic
The principle of ultrasonic devices is based
on the amount of time it takes to send
and receive a reflected ultrasonic sound
wave from the media. Ultrasonic waves
are similar to audible sound waves in that
they are mechanical waves. Most ultrasonic
transmitters and receivers operate from 10
KHz to 70 KHz, well above the frequency
of audible sound waves. The speed of
sound in air is well known at (1096 feet
per second (334 meters/second) through
air at 68F). In order for ultrasonic waves
to be reflected, they need a media with a
certain mass (density). In level measuring
applications, there must be enough mass
in the liquid (density) to reflect the sound
waves. Using audible sound waves as an
analogy, you can think of your ear drums
and what happens to them when hearing a

noise. Since the noise is traveling through

air (very low density compared to most
solids and liquids), there must be enough
difference in the mass of the reflector to
reflect the waves. In this case, it is your ear
drum. It has enough mass and the drum
vibrates when the sound is received. The
speed of ultrasonic waves can be more
easily influenced than the speed of light.
The temperature and type of gaseous
media have a tremendous effect on sound
waves. The temperature of the gaseous
media influences the speed of the wave.
The higher the temperature, the faster the
sound waves travel. While the temperature
at the level device can be compensated by a
temperature sensor in the ultrasonic device,
the level measurement will only be accurate
if the entire space between the sensor and
liquid are the same temperature. The type
of gaseous media also influences the speed
of the sound waves. For example, sound
travels almost three times faster in helium
than it does air. Most ultrasonic devices
can be programmed for the type of gaseous
media the sound waves will travel through.
See Diagram 7 below for Advantages and
Things to know.
Advantages
Non-contact (lowest cost)
Installation at top
Accuracy independent of density changes,
dielectric or conductivity
No calibration with medium required
Things to know
Minimum density required
Foam is an issue
Blocking Distance
Turbulent surfaces
Vapors/gas above the liquid
Temperature difference between liquid and
sensor
No vacuum (10 psia), no high pressures (44
psia)
Diagram 7 Ultrasonic level devices Advantages
and Things to know

Advantages of ultrasonic include: the device

is non-contact; it can be installed at the top
of the tank as a compact device or remote.
Measurement accuracy is not affected by
density, dielectric number or conductivity
changes. While ultrasonic level devices are
used in many liquid and solid applications,
they are traditionally used more in the
wastewater industry. There are things to
keep in mind though. Foam is an issue
since it is like air and does not have enough
mass to deflect the sound waves. Turbulent
surfaces can affect the angle of incidence
of the sound waves and therefore cause
multiple reflections. Large temperature
difference between the level of the product
and where the sensor is located is an issue
since temperature changes the speed of
sound. Remember too that different gases
affect the speed of sound. And, last but
not least, sound cannot travel through a
vacuum and most ultrasonic devices are
designed to only operate up to 45 50 psi.
Radar (non-contact)
Non-contact radar devices use microwaves
in the 6 to 26 gigahertz range to measure
liquid level in tanks. Like the speed of
sound, the speed of light (electromagnetic
radiation) is well known 186,000 miles
per second. Based on equations 3 and
4 above, the level can be calculated by
knowing the dimensions of the tank and
measuring the amount of time it takes for
the microwaves to reflect off the process
media. Why do radar level devices use
microwaves compared to other types of
energy in the electromagnetic spectrum?
Microwaves have little effect from type
of gases, temperature, pressure, buildup
and condensate. However, the ability
for the process medium to reflect or not
reflect microwaves needs to be taken into
account. One can determine this ability
to reflect light or microwaves by looking
at the dielectric number of the media.
The dielectric number is a measure of the
polarization power of an insulating material
or how much charge can be stored in a type
of material vs. air. Water has a dielectric
number of 80 and is considered a great
reflector of microwaves. Air has a dielectric
number of 1 and is considered a poor
reflector of microwaves. Aqueous mixtures
tend to work well with radar due to the
high dielectric number. However, while
hydrocarbon based liquids can be measured,
the measuring ranges may be lower due to
lower dielectrics numbers. Petroleum oil
has a dielectric number of 2 while gasoline
has a dielectric number between 2 and
3. Because, ambient conditions have little
effect on microwaves, radar devices are

generally accepted as the most accurate

level devices some can measure level to
0.5 mm or 0.02 inches. This is one of
the main reasons why suppliers, processors
and sellers of crude oil and other high cost
materials will use a radar device as part of
their tank gauging equipment to accurately
measure level. See Diagram 8 for a typical
non-contact radar device.

Advantages
Very accurate - 0.5 mm (0.02 inches)
Installation at top
Non-contact
Accuracy independent of dielectric constant,
density and conductivity
No re-setup required when changing
liquids
Things to know
Must take into account tank design
Foam can be an issue
Blocking distance
Turbulent surfaces
Minimum dielectric constant
Diagram 9 Advantages & Things to know with
radar devices

Diagram 8 Typical non-contact radar device

Great accuracy and contact-less

measurement are not the only positives of
non-contact radar. See Diagram 9 below
for Advantages and Things to know. Noncontact radar devices can be installed in
the top of the tank (unlike hydrostatic) and
are not affected by liquids with changing
dielectric number, conductivity or density.
When using non-contact radar, you must
also take into account the tank shape.
Nozzles and other devices protruding
into the tank can have some affect on
measurement. The liquid level should be
smooth and foamless. Agitated surfaces
and foam can have some affect on level
measurements. Similar to ultrasonic, some
radar devices will experience a blocking
distance. However, some other radar designs
(pulsed radar) do not experience blocking
distances. Blocking distance is when the
level gets too close to the radar device;
the reflections cannot be received while
the radar is emitting microwave pulses.
Last but not least, the liquid must have a
minimum dielectric number. Minimum
dielectric for free space installation is
generally 2. A radar device with a stilling
well or bypass tube can be used down to
1.6.

Guided wave radar

Guided wave radar devices use the same
principle as non-contact radar devices
it has the ability to transmit and receive
reflected microwave energy. Guided wave
(sometimes called TDR Time Domain
Reflectometry) operates at 1.5 GHertz.
While the electronics are mostly the same
as non-contact radar, the big difference is
the wave guide. The wave guide is a metal
rod or rope which guides the energy to the
process media. See Diagram 10 below. The
wave guide directs approximately 80% of
the available energy down the guide within
an 8 radius.

Diagram 10 Guide wave radar devices cable and

rod versions

Why would getting more energy directed

on the process media be of help? Its all
about the signal to noise ratio. Even with
interferences from nozzles or point level
devices, more energy can be reflected
back to the measuring device. More
energy also means being able to work
better with lower dielectric liquids as
well as applications that might have foam.
Just like non-contact radar, guide wave
radar devices are very accurate 2 mm
and the accuracy is independent of the
liquids conductivity, density and dielectric
number. No re-configuration is needed if
changing measuring liquids in the tank. See
Advantages and Thing to know in Diagram
11 below. The following things should
be remembered. Just like non-contact
radar, you must take into account tank
design. Agitators are an issue with guided
wave because the probe/cable protrudes
into the tank. While light foam is not
an issue, heavy foam can effect the level
measurement. Guided wave radar devices
work particularly well in a tank bypass.
Advantages
Very accurate - 0.2 mm (0.04 inches)
Works with some foam
Installation at top
Accuracy independent of dielectric constant,
density and conductivity
No re-setup required

Capacitance level measurement

Commercial capacitance level transmitters
are proven devices and were first introduced
in the 1950s. They are also extremely
versatile in that they can measure the
continuous level and point level of liquids,
slurries, liquid-liquid interface as well as
point level of solids. Capacitance technology
for level devices has also become known
as reactance, admittance or RF technology.
The theory for capacitance level transmitters
can be credited to Michael Faraday through
his work in electromagnetic induction,
electric generators and transformers. Part
of his work resulted in the measure of
capacitance which is defined as electric
charge per voltage. The SI engineering
unit for capacitance, farad, was named
after him. A capacitor consists of two
electrode plates and an electrical insulator
(dielectric). Charge can be stored in a
capacitor by directing direct current across
the electrodes. The amount of charge stored
or capacitance is dependent on the distance
between the electrodes, the area of the
electrode plate and type of dielectric. See
Equation 5 and Diagram 12 below.
Equation 5: C = (0.0884 * Er * A) / d
C = capacitance
Er = dielectric number of the electric
insulator
A = area of the electrode plates
D = distance between the electrode plates

Things to know
Must take into account tank design
Heavy foam can be an issue
Blocking Distance
Turbulent surfaces
Minimum dielectric constant
Diagram 11 Guide wave radar devices
Advantages and Things to know
Diagram 12 Simple capacitor

This theory of capacitors can be applied

to a cylindrical tank. For non-conductive
liquids, the metal capacitance probe is
one electrode, the metal tank wall acts as
the second electrode and the liquid is the
dielectric. Capacitance probes can also be
used with conductive liquids. The metal
probe will be insulated with a dielectric
Teflon as an example. The metal probe is
one electrode, the liquid in the tank coupled
with the metal tank wall is the second
electrode and the probe insulation is the

dielectric. See Equation 6 and Diagram 13

below.
Equation 6: c (Er 24 L) /(log D / d )

C = capacitance
Er = dielectric number of the electric
insulator
L = length of the capacitance probe
D = diameter of the tank
d = diameter of the capacitance probe
v

Diagram 13 Capacitance theory applied to a

cylindrical tank

Both the capacitance of the probe using

air as the dielectric (empty tank) and the
capacitance of the probe in the media to be
measured (full tank) must be calculated.
Equation 5 should be used for both of these
calculations only the dielectric of the
liquid to be measured will affect the second
calculation. This provides the change in
capacitance from empty tank (zero) to
full tank (full span). See Diagram 14 for a
summary of the Advantages and Things to
know. In general, capacitance devices work
well with non-conductive liquids that have
dielectric numbers less than 10. They also
work well with conductive liquids which
are considered to be conductive when the
dielectric is over 10. Capacitance probes
are far from expensive compared to radar
or ultrasonic. They are a well established
technology and operate with a fast speed of
response. See Diagram 14 for Advantages
and Things to know. A fast speed of
response is important when quickly filling
small tanks. Capacitance probes are quite
versatile and can be used for interface
measurement of oil/water mixtures. They
are also used in high pressure and high
temperature applications and can be used
in some applications with foam depending
on the conductivity of the foam. Things to
know include: There are many versions of
capacitance probes based on media type (is
the liquid conductive or non-conductive)
and tank wall material. A probe coating

must be used with conductive liquids and

you will need to take into account material
chemical compatibility with the liquid. The
capacitance calculation for empty and full
is important because a minimum change
of capacitance of about 10 pF is needed for
measurement. Last but not least, foam can
be tricky with capacitance probes. If the
foam is conductive, the capacitance probe
will see the liquid and the foam as the
complete level. Check with your supplier for
other cases.

Source +
Source
container

Advantages
Very versatile
Non-invasive, no-contact
No moving parts
When all else fails!
Things to know
Most expensive level device
Is gamma safe? Yes
Agencies track all sources
Requires extra documents/paperwork
Swipe tests

Advantages
Very cost effective
Established principle
Fast speed of response
Interface measurement possible
High temperatures and pressures possible
Things to know
Many versions
Conductive/insulator
Probe coating - chemical compatibility
Ground reference tube
Non-metallic
Re-calibration with different media
10 pF minimum span
Foam can be an issue
Diagram 14 Advantages and Things to know for
capacitance level measurement

Radiometric (gamma) level

measurement
Similar to radar devices, gamma level
devices use electromagnetic radiation
emitters and receivers to measure the
level of liquids in tanks. However, gamma
devices use electromagnetic radiation at
a different part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. They use gamma rays which
have much higher frequency and therefore
smaller wavelengths vs. microwaves. See
Diagram 15. A source of gamma radiation,
usually Cesium 137 or Cobalt 60 depending
on the application, is placed in a lead source
container. The container can be closed
(emitting no radiation) or open (emitting
gamma radiation). A detector, capable of
measuring the amount of radiation from
the source, is installed on the other side
of the tank. If the tank is empty, the
detector receives most of the available
gamma radiation. If the tanks starts to
be filled with liquid, the liquid level will
attenuate (absorb) some of the available
gamma radiation. When the tank is full,
the detector receives very little radiation
compared to the empty tank scenario.

Compacttransmitter
(Detector)
Diagram 15 - Gamma level measurement device

While the thought of having nuclear

material in ones plant can concern many,
gamma level devices have been proven to
be safe and reliable if safety procedures
and regulations are followed. The sale
of these devices is heavily regulated by
the governments (Nuclear Regulatory
Commission in the U.S. or Canadian
Nuclear Safety Commission in Canada
for example) of each country. There are
piles of documentation and procedures
that describe how qualified manufacturers
can safely build, store and distribute the
gamma devices, how qualified buyers can
safely use them, and how qualified service
personnel can safely commission, maintain
or decommission the devices. The safety of
personnel is number one and the amount
of radiation over time that one can receive
is well known and documented. All of
this must be taken into account when
purchasing gamma level devices. However,
used safely, some of the most critical level
measurements can be made with a gamma
device. See Diagram 16 for Advantages and
Things to know.

Regulations dependent on country

Diagram 16 Advantages and Things to know for
Gamma

Gamma is a versatile technology that can

be used to measure continuous level, point
level, density of the media or interface.
Gammas biggest advantage is that it is
not only non-contact measurement, it is
non-invasive; it is mounted on the side
of the tank and there is no intrusion into
the tank. Gamma devices have no moving
parts and are often only considered when
all other level technologies have failed.
Things to know include: You should expect
to pay more for a gamma device than any
other level measurement device. Also, you
should understand gamma radiation and the
precautions that your company will need to
take to make sure the product is working
safely. This includes performing swipe tests,
documenting them and being prepared to
be audited. It also includes documenting
the amount of radiation that operation or
maintenance personnel would receive when
working close to the gamma level device.
And lastly, radiation safety and regulations
to use gamma devices are country
dependent. If you are a global company with
operations in different countries, you may
need to implement different procedures and
process depending on which country you
are using the equipment in.
This paper is the second of three parts.
For the complete paper, please request
CP024F/24/ae.

References
Level Measurement and Inventory Tank Gauging, Control Engineering, May, 2006
Application Information of Radar Level Measurement for Hydrocarbon Measurement,
Endress+Hauser White Paper, Alexander Roettcher & Dieter Markanic, March 2006
In Control Part III Liquid Level Measurement, Ask Tom! 2001,
http://www.waterandwastewater.com/www_services/ask_tom_archive/in_control_part_
3.htm
Capacitance Level Measurement How it Works, Endress+Hauser White Paper, Robert A.
Green
Capacitor Theory, http://www.ece.uwaterloo.ca/~lab100/ls1notes.pdf
The Theory and Practice of Level Measurement Endress+Hauser Inc., Wim van de Kamp
504-1200 Series Installation and Operating Instructions, Ametek- Drexelbrook.
http://new.ametek.com/content-manager/files/STD//504-1200-000-LM2.pdf

ISO 9001:2000 Certified

08.07/SCUSA

USA

Canada

Mexico

International

Endress+Hauser, Inc.
2350 Endress Place
Greenwood, IN 46143
Tel: 317-535-7138
Sales: 888-ENDRESS
Service: 800-642-8737
Fax: 317-535-8498
inquiry@us.endress.com
www.us.endress.com

Endress+Hauser Canada
1075 Sutton Drive
Burlington, ON L7L 5Z8
Tel: 905-681-9292
800-668-3199
Fax: 905-681-9444
info@ca.endress.com
www.ca.endress.com

Endress+Hauser Mxico S.A. de C.V.

Fernando Montes de Oca 21 Edificio A Piso 3
Fracc. Industrial San Nicols
54030 Tlalnepantla de Baz
Estado de Mxico
Mxico
Tel: +52 55 5321 2080
Fax: +52 55 5321 2099
eh.mexico@mx.endress.com
www.mx.endress.com

For international locations

visit: www.endress.com/worldwide

CP 022F/24/ae/08.07
White Paper
US/INDD CS