DESIGN ENGINEERING MANUAL

VOLUME 4II
ENGINEERING GUIDE

PDVSA N

TITLE

90618.1.072

0
REV.

AUG.93
DATE

APPROV. Eliecer Jimnez

PDVSA, 1983

CATHODIC PROTECTION

FOR APPROVAL
DESCRIPTION

22

L.T

PAG.

REV. APPROV. APPROV.

DATE AUG.93 APPROV. Alejandro Newski

DATE AUG.93

ESPECIALISTAS

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1

SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
3

DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
2

PRINCIPLES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
6

CRITERIA FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DIRECT CURRENT SOURCES FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION. . 4
6.2
6.3

Galvanic Anodes (Sacrificial Anodes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Impressed current systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4
6

FUNCTIONS OF CASING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SURVEY METHODS USED IN CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . . . . 9

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

9
9
10
11
12

APPLICATION OF CATHODIC PROTECTION FOR PETROLEUM

AND GAS PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

10

Types of Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement of Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage Drop IR (Flow of Current)
...........................
Soil Resistivity Measurements (or water) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current Requirement Surveys .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Well copper sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Unburied Vessels and Equipment
.................
Oil Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Off Shore Drilling and Production Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . .

14
15
17
18

INTERFERENCE OF CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . .

21

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1 SCOPE
This engineering guide describes some of the methods and basic design
procedures used to control corrosion in oil and fuel production, storage, and
transportation equipment, through cathodic protection.

2 DEFINITIONS
2.1 Cathodic protection is the technique used to reduce corrosion in metallic
surfaces, by passing sufficient cathodic current and making the dissolution
proportion of the anodes negligible. In simple terms, it is the use of direct current
from an external source to counteract the discharge of corrosive current in the
anodic areas of a metal structure, immersed in a conductive means or electrolyte,
such as soil and water. When a cathodic protection system is properly installed, all
the parts of the protected structure collect current from the surrounding electrolyte, and
the total exposed surface becomes a single cathodic area.

2.2 Cathodic protection is used only to control the resulting corrosion of a significant
flow of direct current, from an area of the structure (the anodic area) to another
(the cathodic area), through an electrolyte, This is called electrochemical
corrosion. The anodic area where the discharge into the electrolyte occurs is
corroded; on the other hand, the cathodic area takes the current and no corrosion
occurs; thus the element is cathodically protected

3 ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
3.1

Electrochemical corrosion may occur naturally or artificially. The second

type is known as electrolysis although that term is mistaken for both
types. Electrolysis originates in deviated direct currents that discharge
on earth or water (the electrolyte). By taking the current of an electrolyte in
an area of the structure (that doesnt belong to the electric network of the
cathodic protection system) and discharging it into another area of the
structure, electrochemical corrosion occurs in the area of the discharge
(anodic), as well as a degree of cathodic protection in the collecting area of
the structure (cathodic).

3.2

Naturally occurring electrochemical corrosion is a universal daily problem

in oil production; it is prevented or alleviated through cathodic protection.

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4 PRINCIPLES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION

4.1

Electrochemical corrosion currents may be reversed by properly applying

cathodic protection. This makes the whole structure cathodic, eliminating the
natural anodic areas with impressed direct current in the structure, from a more
potent external anode.

4.2

Cathodic protection doesnt necessarily eliminate corrosion. However, it

transfers the corrosion of the protected structure, and concentrates it in
another known point where the current discharge of the anode (s) may be
designed for a long life and can be easily replaced.

4.3

Cathodic protection is effective only on the surface of the metal exposed to

the same electrolyte as the anode.
.

5 CRITERIA FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION

5.1

Several criteria have been developed to establish the effectiveness of

cathodic protection in structures. The most commonly used include voltage
measurements (difference in potential) between the protected structure and the
electrolyte.

5.2

Perhaps the most widely used criteria are the ones that use copper sulfate-copper
electrodes as a half-cell of reference. This electrode is just a copper bar immersed
in a copper sulfate saturated solution, introduced in a plastic cylinder with a
porous contact in the lower end (to contact the electrolyte) and a copper bar that
extends outside (to connect with the high resistance voltmeter or potentiometer).

5.3

Experience has shown that when an electrolyte to electrolyte reading in the

structure reaches 0.85 volts or more negative, with respect to the copper sulfatecopper electrode, resulting from the application of cathodic protection current,
corrosion substantially stops in steel structures that are on natural soils and on
water. The over-protection of steel, which produces higher potentials (more
positive) than 0.85 volts, is not generally damaging, but is a waste and may
damage some layers of the structure, particularly the thinner coating layers.

5.4

A criterion associated with steel is to change the 300 millivolt potential (0.300
volts.) into the negative, or cathodic, direction of its initial value (natural potency).

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In many cases, the effectiveness of cathodic protection can be seen directly, or

samples of the same metal can be placed on the protected structure to
periodically check the degree of effectiveness of the protective current applied.

5.6

Finally, where experience has shown that a specific current density is

effective to protect the steel in a given environment that is relatively
uniform, then that current density uniformly applied, may be considered an
indirect protection criterion. Current densities of 1 milliamp per square foot of
non-cased steel pipe will give the desired potential response in most soils. In
salt water, between 6 and 8 milliamps per square foot are required to protect the
areas of corrosion in steel structures. The effects of polarization and amp-hour
tend to reduce the current density required to approximately half the initial value.

5.7

Another criteria is to use 100 MV between the ONOFF potentials.

5.8

In general, the maximum protection potential for cased pipes must be 2.0
volts.

5.9

The influence of IxR (electrolyte voltage drop) must be considered to apply the
0.85 V criterion.

6 DIRECT CURRENT SOURCES FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION

6.1

Two ways to supply the necessary cathodic protection current are:

6.1.1

Galvanic anodes, directly connected to the structure that will be protected,

and

6.1.2

Impressed current anodes, which are relatively inert and require a direct
current source of energy to force the flow of current.

6.2
6.2.1

Galvanic Anodes (Sacrificial Anodes)

These anodes are high purity special alloys of magnesium, zinc and aluminum,
with a potential that is high enough to develop a flow of useful current through the
electrolyte to the structure to be protected. The principle is that of the corrosion
cell of different metals, and the reason why magnesium and zinc work so well is
illustrated by their relative position in the practical galvanic series in Table l. The
use of aluminum alloy galvanic anodes is so far limited to salt water, where they

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work very well. Aluminum anodes have been tested on soil, but so far have not
been used for these purposes.
6.2.2 Magnesium anodes are used more on soil given their high driving potential.
Zinc is used mostly in low resistivity soils and water. Aluminum, as has already
been mentioned, is excellent in salt water and has the additional advantage of
having a high energy capacity per pound of anode. As a comparison, in regular
use magnesium is consumed at a rate of approximately 17 pounds per ampere
per year; zinc at a rate of 26 pounds; and an aluminum alloy that is commercially
available, at a rate of only 6.8 pounds.
TABLE I
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES OF METALS (1)
METAL
Magnesium
Aluminum

2.37
1.66

Zinc

0.76

Iron

0.44

Tin

0.14

Lead

0.13

Hydrogen

(1)
(2)

VOLTS (2)

0.00

Copper

+ 0.34 - + 0.52

Silver

+ 0.80

Platinum

+ 1.20

Gold

+ 1.50 - + 1.68

From: Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 41st edition, 1959 1960, Chemical
Rubber Publishing Co., pg. 1733.
Half-cell potential in salt solutions, measured with respect to the hydrogen
reference electrode.

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TABLE II
PRACTICAL GALVANIC SERIES
Metal

Volts.(1)

Pure commercial magnesium

Magnesium alloy, (6% Al, 3%Zn, 0,15% MN)

1.75
1.6

Zinc

1.1

Aluminum alloy (5% zinc)

1.05

Pure commercial aluminum

0.8

Sweet steel (clean, polished)

0.5

0.8

Rusted sweet steel

0.2

0.5

Cast Iron (not graphitized)

0.5

Lead

0.5

Sweet steel in concrete

0.2

Copper, bronze, tin

0.2

High silicon cast iron

0.2

Laminated steel

0.2

Coal, graphite, coke

+ 0.3

(1) Typical potential observed in neutral soils and water, measured with
respect to the reference copper sulfate electrode.

6.3 Impressed current systems

6.3.1

For large amounts of current, usually an impressed current system is required. In

a typical rectifier installation in a buried pipe, the AC current is transformed and
rectified into direct current, which is then impressed into a bed of anodes of
graphite or other inert material. The anode bed is connected to the positive
terminal (+) of the rectifier, while the pipe is connected to the negative terminal ()
to complete the circuit. This type of installation usually generates 10 to 100
amperes or more of protective current in a specific point.

6.3.2

Other types of anodes (called impressed current anodes) are iron-silicon alloys
and iron scraps, such as pipes or rails. Steel is quickly consumed (at a
discharge rate of approximately 20 pounds per ampere per year); the semi-inert
graphite or iron-silicon anodes are almost exclusively used on land. In salt water, a
type of alloy anode with 6% antimony 1% silver is used due to its low
consumption, generally 0.1 pounds per ampere per year.

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Thermoelectric generators may be used in case of lower currents.

6.3.3

In general, galvanic (sacrificial) anodes will be used if small amounts of

protective current is required, or if the current is well distributed, for example in a
pipeline without casing. However, their use is limited to low resistivity soil or
water, so that the amount of current generated by the anode is practicable. On
the other hand, impressed current systems may generate much greater currents
in a given environment, but require an external source of power.

6.3.4

When rectifiers are used as a source of power, there is a serious interference due
to the unprotected lines. When this happens, the extraneous line receives
protection where the current enters the pipe, but there is an accelerated corrosion
where the current leaves. If a proper metallic connection is made between the
protected and unprotected lines (extraneous) the problem doesnt occur. This
means, of course, that both structures are receiving cathodic currents and that the
current required for a proper protection is increased equivalently.

6.3.5

In all types of cathodic protection installations, the anodes must be well

installed so that there is minimum electrical resistance between the anode and
the surrounding surface. Wherever possible, the anodes shall be placed in low
resistance areas, like mud pits. Usually a low resistance filler material is placed
around the anode.

7 FUNCTIONS OF CASING
7.1

Casing has been used to control electrochemical corrosion with various

degrees of success. If a casing could be obtained at a reasonable cost that
forms a good electric insulation barrier between the structure and the
electrolyte, and if it could be applied and remain in perfect condition without
ruptures or unprotected surfaces, no other corrosion control would be
necessary. Corrosion cells could in fact be disconnected.

7.2

Almost all types of casings have imperfections, and corrosion occurs in the
ruptures of the insulation barrier, frequently at an accelerated rate on the small
metal area exposed. However, casing is a very effective weapon to control
corrosion, and when used together with cathodic protection, a complete control
may be obtained with a minimum amount of current applied.

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7.3

In many cases, casing cannot be justified from the economic point of view as a
means to reduce the cost of corrosion control through cathodic protection. An
example is the submerged areas of off-shore metal platforms. However, in many
cases casings are essential from the economic point of view, like in high pressure
buried pipelines. Of course, the existing uncased pipes will be accepted as such, and
only the hot spots are usually checked and protected for economic reasons.

7.4

Usually, the casing used in pipes is thick, bituminous material that is applied
hot, with several reinforcements and layers. Similar materials can be applied
in buried tanks or in the bottom of the tanks. This may be 99% effective or
more, by protecting the metal from making contact with the soil or the water, and
reduce the amount of cathodic protection current required.

7.5

Thin layers of casing are also frequently used. Great progress has been
made in the development of adhesive tapes for lining which are widely used
today, while the conventional casing made of thin layers of vinyl or epoxy
are used for the internal lining of pipes, tanks and vessels in oil fields. The
adhesive tapes give results similar to the bituminous lining applied hot on pipelines,
while vinyl and epoxy must be treated carefully when applying cathodic
protection.

7.6

Cement layers are frequently used around the casing of wells, and inside the pipes
that transport corrosive water. Their effectiveness in controlling corrosion is related
to their thickness and continuity of coverage. These layers are relative conductive,
and they dont reduce the cathodic protection current requirements, just as
conventional casing.

7.7

In time, a calcareous coating slowly develops in the structures, with cathodic

protection. Although these are poor linings in the conventional sense, they may
reduce current requirements by 50% or more in time, and are very useful to
distribute current through an uncased pipe, with cathodic protection, or cased pipe
in a well.

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8 SURVEY METHODS USED IN CATHODIC PROTECTION

8.1 Types of Surveys
Establishing the need and the applicability of cathodic protection requires
experience and special instrumentation. Since both corrosion and cathodic
protection are essentially electrochemical in nature, the survey of cathodic
protection for corrosion consists essentially of a correlative and well
organized series of electric measurements, and the most important ones
are mentioned next.
8.1.1

Measurement of the potential between the structure and the electrolyte.

8.1.2

Measurement of the voltage drop IxR (current flow), whether of the structure or
the surrounding electrolyte.

8.1.3

Measurement of the electrolyte resistance (resistivity).

8.1.4

Survey of the protection current requirements.

8.2 Measurement of Potential

8.2.1

These readings are generally in millivolts or volts. Since voltage is really a

difference between two potentials, the potential as it is registered, is a voltage
reading between the structure under investigation and a proper reference
electrode (usually a CU/CU SO4 half-cell) located in the electrolyte close to the
structure. The typical potential values for the different metals in neutral soil or
water, measured with respect to the CU/CU SO4 reference electrode, are
presented in Table l.

8.2.2

The structures may be any facility that is submerged or in contact with soil and
water. For the purposes of this specific section, it is easier to select a type of
structure, a buried steel pipeline for discussion, understanding that it applies to any
structure in the same environment.

8.2.3

Potentials usually vary between a few millivolts and several volts, and a high
sensitivity instrument must be used to obtain an exact measurement of the
potential against a reference CU/CUSO 4 electrode or any other.

8.2.4 This sensitive measuring instrument, plus two reference electrodes (usually
CU/CUSO4), test cables, and connection devices, form the minimum required
equipment to study voltage or difference in potential.

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For the test, the structure is connected to vertical conductors through valve
boxes, or using a connection device, for example a connection bar. It is
extremely important to establish a good low resistance electrical connection
with the buried structure. The negative terminal of the voltmeter is connected
through the proper conductors to the contact on the pipe, and the positive
terminal is connected to the reference electrode. If the CU/CUSO4 electrode is
used, the pipe will show a positive polarity. The potential of the structure is
taken with the electrode firmly buried directly on the soil over the structure.
The structure earth potential is recorded (P/E). This procedure is repeated at
proper intervals throughout the system analyzed. The areas with greater positive
potential indicate anodic or corrosive areas.

8.3 Voltage drop IR (Current flow)

8.3.1

The direction of the direct current flow in the structure (pipe) can be
established using a millivolt meter or a potentiometer. The area or point where
the current flows from the structure to the soil is where corrosion occurs. This
can be detected by looking at the direction and magnitude of the flow of current
on the pipe. The point where the maximum value is reached and the flow
direction changes is the point where corrosion is produced. The magnitude of the
flow of current, which may be calculated or estimated from the millivolt readings,
and the resistance of the pipe between the connection points, gives an
approximate loss of metal per year.

a.

Corrosion may even occur without a flow of measurable current on the structure,
due to the action of the element between the connection points. Thus, the
measurement of the flow of current on the structure is more useful for the
location of large anodic areas.

b.

Since measurements as low as one millivolt may occur, the resistance of the
test cables and the connections with the structure must be low, around one per
cent, compared to the internal resistance of the voltmeter.

c.

Knowing the resistance of the pipe, the flow of current may be calculated through
Ohms law, that is, I = E/R, where:
I = current in amps
E = difference of potential in volts
R = resistance of the pipe in Ohms (between connection points)

d.

If the resistance of the pipe analyzed is unknown, it may be estimated using the
published tables for steel pipes of different dimensions, or calibrating at the point,
applying a known current on a test section of the pipe.

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Given that the same current flowing on the pipe also flows on the adjacent
ground, where the much greater resistance of the soil produce greater millivolt
readings that on the pipe, a modified technique is widely used for unlined
buried pipes.
This method is called the Surface potential or the two electrodes study, a n d
requires a high resistance voltmeter or a voltmeterp o t e n t i o m e t e r w i t h a p o l a r i t y c h a n g i n g s w i t c h , t w o CU/CUSO4
electrodes, and proper test cables. The study group must also have a pipe locator
and a soil resistivity meter, since it is essential to stop immediately over the pipe
and read the soil resistivity in anodic areas.

8.3.3

The two CU/CUSO4 electrodes, which must give reading of around two
millivolts between each other, are placed over the pipe at a proper distance,
usually 20 feet, and the difference of potential (in millivolts) and of polarity of the
electrodes is read on the meter and recorded. The electrodes are in fact
alternated throughout the line, maintaining the separation of the set, and the
millivolt and polarity readings are recorded throughout the length of the pipe under
study. It must be noted that the pipe-to-soil potentials are not necessary, although
they may be considered desirable.

8.3.4

The anodic and cathodic areas are identified as points of change of potential.
Given the importance of the anodic areas, they are identified throughout the
study; soil resistivity measurements, usually paired with the millivolt readings,
are obtained at each point. The corrosion engineer will need them to correctly
interpret the severity of the anodic areas and select the number and size of the
anodes required for the change of flow of corrosion current in those hot spots. The
experience of the corrosion engineer in charge is of the utmost importance, and has
been a vital factor in the great success obtained with this technique in thousands of
kilometers of uncased pipes in the last years.

8.4 Soil Resistivity Measurements (or water)

8.4.1

Since the flow of current that comes and goes from the pipe will generally
occur in areas where the soil resistivity is lower, it makes sense to assume that
low resistivity areas are anodic. Thus, this method only determines the
possibility of corrosion occurring, and not whether corrosion occurs or not, or at
what speed.

8.4.2

The technique consists in determining the soil resistivity, expressed as

ohms-centimeters in pre-selected areas throughout the pipe. The resistivity
may be established by using a four pole instrument, such as the Megger, o
through tests in a single point such as the Aggra and Collins probe, or

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the Sheppard probe. Real resistivity values by themselves usually have little
significance. The great importance of the information obtained in the study is
the difference in soil resistance throughout the whole line. Some companies have
selected 2000 ohmscentimeters as the ideal value; for resistivities below this
value, severe corrosion is to be expected. However, it must be stated that
severe corrosion may also occur in uncased pipelines if there is an abrupt
resistivity change in the soil (for example, from 5,000 to 50,000 ohm
centimeters).
8.4.3

The results of the survey are used to select areas to install protection
systems, such as coatings and cathodic protection.

8.5 Current requirements surveys

8.5.1

The real amount of current required for the cathodic protection of a structure
may be obtained by the corrosion engineers in different ways. In this cathodic
protection selection, there must be a total corrosion control (as evidenced by
fulfilling some selected criteria, such as a potential of 0.85 volts for a
CU/CUSO4 electrode), rather than the protection of a hot spot. The latter has a
well-defined place in the economic scheme of existing uncased pipelines, which
almost never justify 100 percent cathodic protection.

8.5.2

If the uncased pipeline or another structure rests on land or on water with

general known characteristics, it is reasonable for an experienced engineer in
charge of corrosion to design a cathodic protection system based on the application
of a selected current density to the structure (milliamps/square foot.), assuming that
he properly distributes this current.

8.5.3

In large, unlined structures, it is impractical to temporarily apply the

amount of current necessary to reach protection potentials, so the
design is usually based on the previously described current density. In
areas where there is no prior experience (such as produced waters,
contaminated rivers or estuaries, etc.) the use of testing samples with a range
of current densities applied during a period of several weeks or months, has
been useful to reach the proper current density, on which the full design is
based.

8.5.4

In cased structures, for example a pipeline, it is possible to establish a

drainage point of temporal cathodic protection and determine how much
current will be required to protect whether the full line, if it is relatively short

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and isolated from other structures, or a given portion of the line. In long lines,
several tests may be required, especially if substantial difference in the
condition of the casing and/or the soil resistivity in different areas are
expected. Temporary test currents of up to 10 amps may be applied through a
battery, and up to 100 amps may be applied with a generator for welding. The
temporary anode bed used to discharge the test current on the ground may be any
existing non-critical structure, that is not electrically connected to the pipe being
tested, such as an abandoned line section or well casing. In many cases, a
temporal anode bed will be created for test purposes, made of steel bars,
aluminum sheets or real anodes that may be left in place for a later permanent
installation, or install it so they can be removed and reused. It is desirable to
place the test beds, at least for large current consumption, at a distance from the
pipe similar to that expected for the permanent anode bed.
8.5.5 Studies performed on well casing for the application of cathodic protection
may include several of the above mentioned techniques. A well casing potential
profile is used to initially locate thick anodic and cathodic areas, and then
determine the effect of the temporal cathodic protection currents applied at the
well head.
8.5.6

To preserve the log time (as well as the shutoff time of the oil or gas well being
logged) predicted current estimates are frequently done, and there are several
techniques used to do so. Some operators use a practical rule of a certain amount
of current per unit of area (1 ma per square foot is typical) to obtain an estimate to
be confirmed through the voltage log record. Others use the E log I test
described in the next paragraph to make an estimate.

8.5.7

Basically, the E log I test consists in applying current increments to the well
casing during fixed time intervals, usually two or three minutes. After each time
interval, the current is interrupted and an immediate open circuit potential of the
casing to the reference electrode in the surface is obtained. These data, plotted in
log-log paper, gives a curve similar to that shown in figure 1. Due to theoretical
considerations, the current given by the intersection of two straight portions of
this curve (point A on Fig. 1.) should indicate the proper current to polarize, that
is, to protect the casing. Due to other considerations, and a better correlation with
the effect of the currents applied in the casing potential profile, in practice it is

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more common to use the value of the current in the first point that falls on the
second straight portion of the curve (Point B) in the design of cathodic protection
systems for well casing.

9 APPLICATION OF CATHODIC PROTECTION FOR OIL AND GAS

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
9.1 Well casing
9.1.1

The current well casing requirements, with few exceptions, fall between 1 and
25 amps. Lower requirements may be frequently supplied using galvanic anodes.
In many cases, the soil resistivity is too high for galvanic anodes, even for small
currents, and then an impressed current system is necessary. For economic
reasons, a rectifier-anode bed unit is frequently installed to care for several well
casings at a time, whether through negative connections to the different wells,
or using the pipes as conductors to the wells. In any case, the well casing
must be isolated from the flow pipe. A current control resistance may be
placed through this isolating accessory to drain a small current from the
flow line to the well (to achieve some cathodic protection to the flow line, while
eliminating any possible cathodic interference in it,). Alternatively, the current may
be drained from the well to the flow line where the latter has been used as a return
current conductor to the negative rectifier.

9.1.2

In uncased lines, cathodic protection isnt justified, except under very corrosive
conditions. These could be refurbished, cased, and subjected to a full cathodic
protection, as has been mentioned, or they could be studied through the
surface potential log technique (two electrodes and then apply protection to
hot spots with galvanic anodes. The areas known as leaks or hot spots
may be treated satisfactorily through galvanic anodes, particularly if there are no
other areas with problems.

9.1.3

The main and secondary pipes are usually studied and protected if they are not
cased, or are subject to total cathodic protection if they are cased. Almost all new
pipelines that are important are well cased, making the cathodic protection very
economical and relatively simple.

9.1.4

Any pipe for which a full cathodic protection is required must be electrically
isolated (using joints, flanges, couples, or nipples) so that the cathodic

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protection current is confined to the target structure. For example, even a metallic
contact with a well casing without cathodic protection would cause a
substantial loss of protection in the flow line, due to the deviation of the
cathodic protection current to the casing, which has become part of the
cathodic protection circuit.

9.2 Unburied Vessels and Equipment

9.2.1

This equipment, such as salt water containment and evacuation tanks,

accumulators, separators and filters, tend to suffer corrosion due to salt
accumulation. High temperatures, and the presence of sulfate to reduce bacteria,
reduce the lifetime unless cathodic protection is used. This is particularly true in the
flame tubes of heaters-treaters.

9.2.2

The typical protection current densities vary between 5 and 10 ma/square feet,
and the selection of the current source depends mainly on the availability of
alternating current. Occasionally direct current generators or alternators have
been used (with rectifiers) mounted on the pumping unit.

9.2.3

If there is alternating current available, rectifiers may be used to protect one or

more vessels, using graphite or platinum plated titanium anodes (TiPt)
installed with special through the wall mountings. TIPE anodes are very small
and may be conveniently located outside and inside the mount, while the vessel
operates. However, certain inhibitors and demulsifiers tend to eliminate the flow
of current from the relatively small plated area (typically only 6 of a 3/8 in
diameter titanium bar is plated) so in large scale facilities these anodes must be
previously tested, or in a test facility. Although the performance of graphite is
somewhat reduced, due to the same reasons, their larger area allows the
development of a proper current flow in all these very are occasions.

9.2.4

Where there is no alternating current, a proper protection current may be

generated through magnesium or aluminum anodes mounted through the wall;
however, in this case the galvanic anode circuit is completed externally through a
jump cable to the wall of the adjacent vessel, so that the flow of current may be
measured and adjusted for each individual anode at its mounting point. Since
magnesium is very active, its current output to the vessel will be very restricted to
avoid a useless over-protection. However, this leads to a reduction in the
efficiency of the anodes, because the anode will keep corroding at the same rate

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and only a fraction of its current is used to protect the vessel.

9.2.5

Aluminum anodes have a smaller output but still enough, in salt areas of oil
fields, maintaining the current with efficiency between 60% and 70%.

9.2.6

Zinc anodes have a tendency to be regulated in some produced waters, in

the same way and for the same reasons mentioned for the TiPt anodes.
Magnesium and aluminum anodes are not significantly affected and may be
used in those places where zinc anodes may not be used.

9.2.7 Salt water storage tanks are usually protected from inside corrosion through
cathodic protection only, or a combination of coating and cathodic protection.
Whenever coating is used, it is important not to maintain a potential that is too high
through the coating layer, because blisters may occur causing severe damage.
This could easily happen if improper adjustments to the rectifying system are
made, and even magnesium anodes will develop damaging potentials unless
the current outflow is properly restricted. Again, aluminum with its low potential
provides a safe and better source of protection current for lined vessels.
9.2.8

Both the galvanic and the graphite anodes are typically suspended from the
tanks cover plates through special mountings on the plates. Thus, the anodes
may be easily inspected and replaced.

9.2.9 The outside bottom of production and storage tanks are in contact with the
soil, and although they arent usually corrosive, they frequently have this
condition due to salt water leakage or spillage. Thus, the protection of the
external tank bottom is important, whether with galvanic anodes located on the
ground around the tank, or installing impressed current. In smaller facilities it is
frequently possible to design an internal and external cathodic protection system,
using a simple rectifier. For larger systems it is better to use separate cathodic
protection systems, due to the issue of current control between very different
electric resistance circuits, where there are high currents involved.
9.2.10

Although fresh water isnt as corrosive as salt water, water treatment

equipment that handle surface waters in projects where there is a risk of
floods, must be protected against corrosion, to guarantee continuous
operation. Once again, a combination of casing and cathodic protection

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can be almost 100% effective against the corrosion of submerged surfaces in

those types of equipment. Unless the water is very conductive, an impressed
current system must be used with graphite or silicon iron anodes, to supply enough
protection current. Care must be taken when locating the anodes, so that there is
a proper current distribution to all the submerged surfaces in the equipment,
particularly when there are internal compartments or flow control devices.

9.3 Oil Storage Tanks

9.3.1 Internal Protection
Since the conductive sediment and water layer of the (FS & A) is very thin, the
cathodic protection of the bottom inside the tank is more difficult than if the tank were
partially filled with water. For this reason, the cathodic protection of the interior of
production tanks is not frequently done. However, in larger and more important
tanks, in terminals and refineries, galvanic anodes have been distributed
throughout the bottom of the tank over insulating pads, with surprisingly good
results, particularly if there is a 6 to 12, water layer in order to give the
protecting current a better means to spread between the anodes. To this end,
magnesium, zinc, and aluminum anodes have been used, where the aluminum
ones have the advantage of greater durability for the reasons previously
mentioned.
9.3.2 External Protection
a. In cases where the soil is known or expected to be corrosive (through resistivity
measurements) the cathodic protection of the exterior bottom of the tank is
justified, unless it has been built over a layer of clean rocks to effectively insulate
it from the soil. The sand fill, with our without oil saturation, isnt usually safe. If
good contact is developed in one or more points with underground water, clay or
the soil of the zone, there can be rapid corrosion and penetration of the steel, due
to an accelerated local cell effect.
b.

Given that small tanks or groups of tanks can be well protected with
galvanic anodes, the usual practice is to use large rectifying units together
with graphite or iron-silicon anodes, and distribute the necessary amounts
of current for the cathodic protection of these large areas of steel. A current
density of 1 ma/square foot is usually adequate, if the current is well
distributed.

c.

There is a problem when measuring the effectiveness of the cathodic protection

because the potential or voltage in the periphery usually does not represent the
real potential in the center of the tank. For this reason, a good practice is to

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have a potential between 0.15 V and 0.25 V greater (more negative) than the
minimum 0.85 V at the edge, to ensure that the central area will be close to or
at 0.85 V.
d.

In the case of new tanks, a permanent half-cell of reference can be placed,

in the form of a zinc anode packed with a large wire, 6 under the tank close to
its center. The wire is taken to a test box at the edge of the tank, where the tanks
potential to zinc can be measured once the cathodic protection is applied. Since
zinc, once it develops approximately 1.10 V measured with respect to a
CU/CUSO4 reference), the tanks potential to zinc may be easily converted
to the tanks reading to CU/CUSO4), with a level of accuracy to evaluate the
effectiveness of cathodic protection at the center of the tank.

e.

Recently, submarine steel oil storage tanks have been developed. These
tanks are of course subject to internal and external corrosion due to the
sea water. Since these are essentially marine structures, their protection
will be discussed in the upcoming off-shore equipment section:

9.4 Off Shore Oil Drilling and Production Structures

9.4.1

The oil industry has made a great investment in off-shore drilling and
production structures, both fixed and floating (movable), including several
types of maritime terminals The corrosion of these structures has been a
very costly issue, and in the last 20 years many lessons have been learnt
regarding corrosion rates, the design of structures to minimize the damage
caused by corrosion, and the methods to fight corrosion.

9.4.2

Corrosion in off-shore structures can be divided into four zones of attack. There
are differences regarding the corrosion rate in the same zone: the four zones
are:
a. The mud zone, that is, the part of the structure below the bottom of the sea.
b. The submerged zone or underwater, where the metal is always covered with
water.
c. The splash zone, above the water level where the wave action usually keeps the
metal humid.
d. The spray zone, where the metal appears to be dry most of the time.

9.4.3

In the mud zone, the lack of oxygen tends to keep corrosion at a low level,
typically less than one mil per year

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9.4.4

In the submerged or under water zone, corrosion is generally uniform, at a rate

of 5 mils per year, except in two areas. These are located right under the mid-level of
the low tide, and or just above the mud line. In both areas there is accelerated
corrosion due to the change in oxygen content at the interface, resulting in a
differential aeration cell.

9.4.5

Any action of the sand or sediments at the mud line, due to the waves or water
currents, will significantly worsen the corrosion caused by abrasion. This is called
erosion-corrosion.

9.4.6 Cathodic protection can be 100% effective in muddy and submerged

areas. The damage to off-shore structures is more severe in the splash
zone, as is to be expected. At that place, the wetting and washing
action of the waves keeps corrosion at a maximum level, spalling the
layer affected by corrosion as it is formed, and increasing in thickness. The
vertical extension of the splash zone depends on the tides and on the height of a
normal wave. The present practices lead to using greater thicknesses of steel
and superior coating systems to control corrosion in this area, where
cathodic protection is only partially effective .
9.4.7

The spray zone appears to be dry, but there is always a small layer of salt on
those surfaces. Nighttime is the moment of greater corrosion activity in spray
zones. As the structure cools during the night and moisture increases, the salt
absorbs water from the air and the surface is quickly covered by a moist and
salty layer. The sun dries the moisture and reduces the rate of corrosion. The
layer caused by corrosion tends to fall off in layers, and this irregular
spalling of oxide promotes pitting. In general, the pitting is deeper on the shady
side of a structure than on the upper surfaces exposed and dried by the sun.
Corrosion control is achieved by using quality coatings on those surfaces

9.4.8

Cathodic protection systems for maritime structures may be impressed current or

galvanic anodes, depending on the availability of alternating current, taking into
consideration the relative ease of maintenance between both systems.

9.4.9

Typical impressed current systems use rectifiers with a large current outlet to
minimize the number and the space occupied by those units. The anode
material mostly used in the last years is an alloy of lead with 6% antimony and
1% silver, which has a typical consumption rate of 0.1 lb./ampyear.

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Other anode materials used with some success are platinum-lead, graphite, and
an iron silicon-chrome alloy. Silver-antimony-lead anodes may be suspended or
placed on special steel supports to keep them well fastened to the submerged
elements of the platform. Suspended systems are somewhat more susceptible to
mechanical damage, but are easy to install and maintain.
9.4.10

Almost all galvanic anode systems installed in new structures use aluminum
anodes for the economic reasons previously mentioned in this chapter. The
anodes may be selected for a lifetime of 5, 10 or 20 years, and the shorter life
systems are more frequently selected for the movable equipment, and when their
replacement isnt problematic. Fixed structures have systems with 10 or 20 years
of duration, placed during their manufacturing process. Suspended magnesium
anodes are used where systems with a shorter lifetime are preferred, usually 1 1/2
to 2 years. These are frequently converted later on to systems that last 10 years using
aluminum anodes installed by divers.

9.4.11

Submarine oil storage units are frequently used in deep waters off-shore. Like
submergible drilling structures, they require internal and external protection. The
difficulty to maintain the electrical connections and the impressed current anodes
internally has led to the almost exclusive use of galvanic aluminum anodes for
the cathodic protection of the internal surfaces. The external cathodic protection
can be either impressed current or galvanic anodes, depending on each
specific case.

9.4.12 The dock, the columns, the breakwaters, etc., frequently have severe
corrosion, even in fresh water if it is flowing. Here the presence of alternating
current almost always leads to the installation of impressed current protection
systems. In known corrosive areas, particularly those where the current
density for cathodic protection is greater than normal due to contaminated water,
it is economically justified to coat the steel elements or pilots of those structures
before starting the construction. Impressed current anodes may be of the
different types described, and some constant current rectifiers have been used
in areas where the salinity is variable. Given the variability of some of the factors
affecting the design of cathodic protection for these structures, engineers
specializing in corrosion must deal with this issue, who must consider the
potential danger that unprotected vessels containing oil or oil products create
when fixed to a protected structure.

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10 INTERFERENCE OF CATHODIC PROTECTION

10.1

The corrosion or electrolysis of buried or submerged steel structures, caused

by the current deviated from C.C. railways or cathodic protection systems, has
been briefly mentioned earlier in this chapter. The condition that causes that
corrosion has been called interference or cathodic interference.

10.2

The design of cathodic protection facilities must minimize interference

with other structures. Also, when cathodic protection is installed, the
interference must be followed up, and if it exists, the corresponding measures
must be taken to eliminate it. This requires the effort and cooperation of the
several groups that may be involved.

10.3

The detection and elimination of interference through cathodic protection

facilities may be complicated, but the final desired result is just to cancel any
direct current that the extraneous structure has taken, and take it to the ground
through a metallic pathway. This return path is usually a cable that connects to
the protected structure, or the negative terminal of the rectifier, if it is in the
vicinity. Sometimes it is possible to use one or more galvanic anodes in the
discharge area of the deviated current (which isnt necessarily in the point of
intersection or as close as possible to the two structures) in the unprotected
structure. This is feasible only when the magnitude of the current to be
discharged is sufficiently small to be treated through galvanic anodes.

10.4

The most widely used criterion to determine if the interference has been alleviated
in an extraneous structure is to restore the potential of the structure to the
electrolyte, at the point of discharge of the current, taking it to its initial value,
that is, the level it had before the cathodic protection system was energized.

10.5

Interference with well casing by nearby cathodic protection systems is a major

issue because it is difficult to both detect and solve this interference. The
corrosion engineer will measure the surfaces with the help of a casing potential
profile, in cases where there is a suspicion of interference with a nearby well
casing. Fortunately, the tendency towards a greater use of cathodic protection
in well casings and the usually large separation between casings has minimized
the interference issues between them. There has been a greater issue with the
interference of cathodic protection systems of pipes in the casing of well pipes.

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