PRE SPM QUICK REVISION

CHAPTER 3
1. Type of substances moving through the
diff.parts of the plasma membrane.
a) Phospoholipids bilayer small lipid
soluble molecules, charged ions,
gases
Process involved : simple diffusion
b) Carrier protein large water soluble
molecules e.g glucose, amino acids
Process involved : facilitated diffusion
c) Carrier protein ions
Process involved: active transport
(When explain any process, make sure
to mention the
diff. in concentration and end up the
sentence with
the process involved)
(When discuss any process, do not
write like this : e.g facilitated
diffusion moves from high
concentration area to low
concentration area, but always write ,
in facilitated diffusion substances
move from high concentration area to
low concentration area.)
2. Metabolic / respiratory poison inhibits
the production of ATP energy, therefore,
inhibits active transport. Denaturing of
protein can cause destruction to the carrier
and pore protein, therefore, inhibits
facilitated and active transport.
3. 30% sucrose solution is hypertonic / Distilled
water is hypotonic towards the cell sap
(plant cell) / cytoplasma (animal cell)
4. Hypertonic / hypotonic:- Water molecules
diffuses out / into the cell sap (plant cell) /
cytoplasma (animal cell) through the plasma
membrane by osmosis
5. Hypertonic:- Plant cell becomes flaccid due
to plasmolysis / animal cell -crenates.
Hypotonic:- Plant cell becomes turgid /
animal cell burst (haemolysis)
6. When you draw flaccid cell, make sure the
cell still has two layers (cell wall), the
vacuole is smaller, the plasma
membrane is pulled away from the cell
wall. Turgid cell the vacuole must be
bigger than normal

7. Movement of water into root hair cells:Soil water is hypotonic towards . //

Excess fertilizers causes soil water to
become hypertonic towards

CHAPTER 4
1. DNA - Structure: Made up of two
polynucleotides. Double helix.
Function: Carries / stores all genetic
information
RNA Structure: Made up of one
polynucleotide. Single chain. Function:
Carries genetic information on protein
synthesis
2. DNA /RNA :- Elements:- Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus,
Nitrogen. Components:- Phosphate
group, pentose sugar, nitrogenous
base. Basic Unit:- Nucleotide
3.
First Class protein

Second Class
protein
Does
not contain
all
Unsaturated
Fats
essential
a.a
Liquid in room
Plant protein
temp.
Non essential
Double
bond isA.A
Can presence
be synthesized
still

Contain
all Fats
Saturated
essential
a.a
Solid
in
room
4.
Animal protein
temp.
A.A
NoEssential
double bond
Cant carbon
be
btwn
atom.
synthesized by body
cells
Points to remember in explaining the formation
of extracellular enzymes:a) DNA unwinds, exposing the codes
on protein synthesis
b) Protein from the ribosomes move to the
membrane of RER. The membrane
buds off forming transport vesicles
which moves towards Golgi
Apparatus and fuses with the
membrane of GA.
c) GA modifies, sorts and packages
the proteins and the membrane buds
off forming secretory vescicles
which moves towards Plasma
membrane and fuses with the
membrane to release the enzymes.

5. Lock and Key Hypothesis:- When name of

enzyme is given, make sure to specify
the explanation. E.g If Lactase is given.
a) Lactose binds at the active site of
Lactase to form Lactose- lactase
complex. Hydrolysis occurs which
breaks lactose into glucose and
galactose which later live the active
site living lactase unchanged.
6. Relating temp. and enzyme activity:Any increase towards optimum more heat
which increases kinetic energy of both
enzyme and substrate molecules, increases
the collision so more chances of the
substrate molecules to come into
contact with enzymes molecules.
7. Relating pH and enzyme activity:Changes in pH, changes the charges on
the active site and surface of substrate.
Active sites and subtrates must have diff.
charges. Low pH causes more H+
attach to the active sites. High pH
causes more OH- attach to the active
site.
CHAPTER 5

Bivalent
align
randomly

Centromere
does not
divide
Bivalents
separate
Sister
chromatids
move .

Meios
is 11

Sister
chromatids
align ..

Centromere
divides.
Sister
chromatids
separate
Daughter
chromosomes
move.

4. Points to remember in explaining

Tissue Culture:
a) Remove meristematic tissues
(explants) from a desirable plant
b) Place it in sterile cultures medium
c) Incubate at 37 C for 3 weeks until
callus is formed
d) Cut callus into smaller pieces and put
every cut into sterile growth
hormones to form embryo and
later plantlets
e) Plantlets taken to soil
5. Tissue Culture

1. Cell cycle:- the period from the time a

cell is produced until the time the cell
completes a division
2. G1:- Proteins and new organelles
produce.
S phase:- DNA
undergoes replication forming identical
sister chromatids. G2:- More proteins
and organelles produced
3. Chromosomal Behaviour

Mitos
is

Meios
is 1

Metaphase :Align at
equator /
metaphase
plate
Sister
chromatids
align ..

Anaphase:Move to
opposite poles
Centromere
divides.
Sister
chromatids
separate
Daughter
chromosomes
move.

Advantage
Inherit desirable
characteristics
Large quantity
produced in shorter
time

Disadvantage
No variation
Having the same
resistance towards
certain diseaseshorter life span

6. Points to remember in explaining

animal cloning
a) Somatic cells from desirable animal
removed
b) Unfertilised ovum from a donor is
removed and its nucleus is also
removed
c) Fusion between the somatic cell and
the ovum without nucleus
d) The embryo is implanted to the
surrogate mother.
CHAPTER 6
1. Balanced diet:- a diet containing all the
seven

classes of food in the correct

proportion
2. Diet for different groups:Pregnant ladies

Infants and children

Atheletes

More protein-fetus
tissue formation
More caliums and
phosphorus bone
dev. Of fetus
More folic acid
and ferum more
fetus RBC formation
More calcium and
phosphorus- teeth
and bone formation
More protein
enhance growth
More
carbohydrates
More proteinmuscle formation
More sodium - to
prevent muscle
cramp
More vitamins and
minerals- maintain
healthy

3. Symptoms of kwashiorkor:- distended

stomach due
to water retention
4. Explaining digestion, e.g:In the mouth, starch is digested /
hydrolysed into maltose by maltase in
the presence of water molecules
5. Digestion along the alimentary canal.
Organ

Digestion

Enzyme

Mouth

Starch into
maltose

Salivary
amylase

Stomach

Protein into
polypeptide

Pepsin

Duodenu
m

Polypeptide into
peptide
Starch into
maltose
Tiny droplets of
lipids into fatty
acids and glycerol

Trypsin
Pancrea
tic
amylase
Lipase

Ileum

Peptide into
amino acids
Maltose into
glucose
Sucrose into
glucose
Lactose into
Glucose

Erepsin
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase

6. Bile produced by liver and stored in

gall bladder. Is used to emulsify lipids
into tiny droplets of lipids.
7. No enzyme produced by duodenum. The
enzymes
in duodenum are produced by
pancreas
8. If any enzyme failed to be produced,
remember
that digestion still occurs but at
slower rate//
incompletely. So, dont write, no
digestion takes
place.
9. Structural adaptation of ileum
a) Long and forms folded structureincrease surface area for more
absorption and digestion
b) Contains numerous number of villiincrease surface area for amore
absorption of nutrients
10. Structural adaptation of villi
a) Long projection- increase surface areamore absorption of nutrients
b) Have numerous of microvilli ot the
surface- increase surface area
c) Wall thin-one cell thick- rapid
absorption of nutrients
d) Contain (not covered) network of
blood capillaries more transport of
glucose, a.a, water soluble vit. And
minerals
e) Contain a lacteal - transport of lipid
soluble vitamins and fatty acids and
glycerol
11. Glucose, a.a, water soluble vitamins and
minerals are transported to liver
through HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN.
REMEMBER:- Therefore, this vein
contains higher concentration of those
nutrients than other veins.

12. Fatty acids , glycerol and lipid soluble

vitamins are transported out from the villi
by lymphatic vessels to thoracic duct
and is drained into left subclavian
vein.
13. Assimilation in the liver

Glucose

Excess converted by insulin

into glycogen
Used by the liver cells for
cellular respiration

Amino
acids

Excess- converted into urea

(deamination) to be
transported to kidney for
excretion.
Used by liver cells to
produce new protoplasm
Synthesis plasma protein

14. Assimilation in other body cells

Glucose

Amino
acids

Lipids

Excess converted by insulin

into glycogen and stored in
muscles
Used by the cells for cellular
respiration
Used by cells to produce new
protoplasm
, repair injured tissues,
synthesize enzymes and
hormones and plasma
membrane
Phospholipids used by cells to
produce plasma membrane

15. Points to remember rin explaining

digestion in RUMINANTS
a)

Partially chewed food is taken to

rumen
b) Cellulose is digested by cellulose
which is produced by symbiotic
microorganisms ( WHY SYMBIOTIC
????) - The microbes use a part
of digested food.
c) Partially digested food enters the
reticulum for further digestion

( similar to the one in the rumen) and

cud is formed
d) The cud is regurgitated into the
mouth.
e) The cud is reswallowed and taken to
the omasum where large particles
of food is broken into smaller parts.
Water from the food is removed here
f) The food particles move to the
abomasums true stomach .
(WHY ???? - It contains gastric
juices like our stomach to digest
proteins and other substances.)
g) The digested food then taken to small
intestine to be absorbed
16. Points to remember rin explaining
digestion in RODENTS
a)

Cellulose is digested in its large

caecum
b) Soft faeces are produced at night
and are eaten to enable the animal to
absorb the products of digestion causing the second faeces to
become harder.
17. COMPARING THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF
HUMAN, RUMINANTS AND RODENTS
Similarities
All the three have stomach where
digestion of protein occurs
All the three cannot produce their own
cellulase

Human

Rumina
nt

Rodent

No.of
stomach
chambers

Cellulase
producing
bacteria

No

Presenc
e

Presenc
e

Place for
digestion
of
cellulose

None

Rumen
&
reticulu
m

Caecum

Regurgitati
on

None

Occurs

None

Size of

Small

Small

Large

caecum

packed and
contain abundant
of chloroplast

18. Nutrient deficiency in plants

Nitrogen

Magnesiu
m

Chlorosis - synthesized of
chlorophyll is inhibited
Stunted growth
Chlorosis

Phosphor
us

Poor growth

Potassiu
m

Reduce protein synthesispoor growth

19. Structural adaptation of a LEAF for

optimum rate of photosynthesis

Waxy layer on top

of epidermal
tissues

Prevent higher rate

of transpiration

Leaves are
arranged in an
arrangement called
leaf mosaic

Leaves are spread

out for optimum
exposure to sunlight

Thin lamina

Allows rapid
diffusion of gases
involved in
photosynthesis

No chloroplast in
epidermal tissue
(transparent)

Allow penetration of
maximum sunlight

Contains vascular
tissues-xylem and
phloem

Transport of water
and products of
photosynthesis

Pallisade
mesophyll cells
are closely
packed and
contain abundant
of chloroplasts

Maximum amount
of light receive

Spongy
mesophyll cells
are loosely

Allow the presence

of large air space
for exchange of

gases to occur

20. Adaptation of plants in different

habitats

Land plants

More stomata at the

lower epidermal
tissues- to
prevent excessive
lost of water

Floating plants

More stomata on
the upper
epidermis

Aquatic plants

Chloroplasts found
all over the surface
(therefore, the
whole leaves and
stem is green) as
low intensity of light
in water

Desert plant

Very few stomata

and some are
sunken stomataembedded in the
leaves to reduce
water lost
Chloroplasts found
mostly on stems

21. Points to remember in explaining

light reaction
a) Occurs in Grana
b) Chlorophyll captures light energy
which excites the electron in the
chlorophyll to leave the chlorophyll
c)
Light energy splits water molecules
into H+ and OH- (photolysis)
d) H+ receive electron to form H atoms
e) OH- releases electron to form hydroxyl
group
f) Hydroxyl group binds with other
hydroxyl group to form water
molecules and oxygen
22. Points to remember in explaining
dark reaction

a)
b)

Occurs in stroma
Hydrogen atom binds with carbon
dioxide to form glucose (reduction)

23. Comparing light and dark reaction

Light reaction

Dark reaction

Grana

Stroma

Requires light
energy, water

Produces water and

oxygen

Requires carbon
dioxide
Does not require
light energy
Produces glucose
and water

Forms hydrogen
atoms

Uses hydrogen
atoms

Occurs only in the

presence on light

Occurs with and

without light

25. REMEMBER: In highly industrial areas,

photosynthesis might be affected due to
dust and smoke covering the stomata ,
hence inhibits diffusion of carbon
dioxide.
26. The importance of photosynthesis is to
ensure continuous existence of life
on earth as photosynthesis supplies
oxygen to living organisms
27. Food preservation

24. How Greenhouse aids in ensuring crop

production takes place throughout the
year
Controlling Carbon
dioxide
concentration

Burning paraffin
to ensure
continuous supply
of CO2

Light intensity

The use of glass

allows penetration
of light. When light
intensity is low- use
artificial
lighting.When light
intensity is too high
- use shades or
light reflector

Temperature

Water

Always warm inside

as heat cant
escape through the
glass. If too hot,
use heat regulator,
shades and
ventilation
Automatic sprinkler

Drying

Food placed under

hot sun water in
the food
evaporated food
dehydrated- inhibit
growth of microbes

Pickling sugar and

salt solution

The solution is
hypertonic
towards , water
diffuses out by
osmosis. Food
dehydrated- inhibit
growth of microbes
Vinegar- acid
medium not
suitable for
microbes to live

Vinegar

Pasteurisation

Milk is heated:-63 C
for 30 minutes//
72 C for 15
seconds followed
by rapid cooling

Fermentation

Use yeast which

produces ethanol
inhibit the
activity of
microbes

CHAPTER 7
1.

Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic
Definati

Oxidation

Anaerobic
Breakdown of

on

of glucose
completely

glucose
incompletely

Substrat
es

Glucose &
oxygen

Glucose

Product
s

Carbon
dioxide,
water, 38
ATP

Human:Lactic acid, 2
ATP
Yeast:Ethanol, CO2

Mitochondri
a

Cytoplasma

Sites

2.

3.

4.

Respiratory surface of different

organisms
Human

Alveli

Frogs

Lungs, Skin

Fish

Lamella

Insect

Tracheol

Ameoba

Plasma membrane

General Adaptation of Respiratory

surface
Moist surface

Allow oxygen to
dissolve before
diffusion occurs

Thin wall

Allow rapid
diffusion of gases

Numerous in
number- alveoli,
tracheal and lamella

Large surface area

for more exchange
of gases to occur

Alveoli and frog

lungs covered
with network of
blood capillaries
Gills contain
numerous blood
capillaries

Allow more
transport of gases

REMEMBER:- Tracheols are embedded

in body
tissues. Therefore, no transport of
gases required

5.

NOTE:- Frog lungs : Unlike human

lungs , there is
no alveolus. Exchange of gases
occurs through the wall of the lungs.
Therefore, the wall is moist, thin and
covered with blood capillaries

6.

COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGE :- to
allow efficiency of the gases exchange at
the respiratory surface of fish. The
mechanism MAXIMIZES THE OXYGEN
TRANSFER BECAUSE AS WATER
FLOWS OVER THE GILLS IN ONE
DIRECTION, THE BLOOD FLOWS IN
THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION.

7.

Oxygen is transported to body tissues by

binding with haemoglobin in RBC to
form oxyhaemoglobin.

8.

Carbon dioxide is transported in three

ways:a) In a form of carbonic acid by
dissolving in blood plasma.
b) In a form of carbaminohaemoglobin
by binding with haemoglobin
c) In a form of bicarbonate ions

9.

J-tube experiment:a) The tube is immersed in potassium

hydroxide first as the solution only
absorb carbon dioxide.
b) Later the tube is immersed in
potassium pyrogallate solution to
absorb oxygen
c) Do not immerse the tube in
potassium pyrogallate first, as it
can absorb both carbon dioxide
and oxygen. Therefore, unable to
determine the concentration of both
gases.

10. Points to remember in explaining

regulatory mechanism of blood pH
a) During vigorous exercise, more
CO2 produced,
thus blood pH becomes lower
than normal
b) Detected by peripheral
chemoreceptor ( at the
carotid arteries and arch of aorta)
and central
chemoreceptor ( at the medulla
oblongata)

c) Receptors generate impulses which

are sent to
the breathing center at the
medulla oblongata
d) Breathing centre interprate the
information
and produces appropriate
responses

c)

Exposed to high intensities of sunlight

higher
rate of transpiration
d) Surrounded by sea water high
concentration of
salt
2.

e) Impulses are then sent to respiratory

muscles(intercostals and diaphragm
muscles)
and cardiac muscles.
f) Increase the contraction of the
three muscles
g) Increase breathing , ventilation
and heart beat
rate
h) Remove excess carbon dioxide,
return the
blood pH to normal

a) Long cable root provide support

b) Aerial roots (pneumatophores)allowing gases exchange during low
tide
c) Small leaves with sunken stomata
reduce transpiration
d) Hydathodes (pores on the lower
epidermis) remove excess salt
e) Cell sap of the root hair cell is always
hypertonic towards surrounding water
f) Viviparous seeds germinate while
still attaching to the mother plants
increase the chances of survival

11. Points to remember in explaining the

intake of oxygen by plants for
respiration
a)

When stomata opens, oxygen diffuses

in and dissolves in water found in the
air spaces
b) As oxygen in the air space is higher in
concentration than in the cells,
oxygen diffuses into the cells,
12. COMPENSATION POINT: The rate of
carbon dioxide production is equal to the
rate of carbon dioxide consumption. The
rate of photosynthesis is equal to the
rate of respiration.
13. REMEMBER:- For plants to grow, the
rate of photosynthesis must always
be HIGHER than the rate of
respiration as excess sugar can be
used for growth and other important
living processes.
CHAPTER 8.
1.

Problems faced by mangrove plants

a)

Muddy soft soil (water logged

condition) easy to collapse
b) Exposed to strong winds easy to
collapse

Structural adaptation of mangrove plants

and therefore no other plants can grow in
mangrove swamp

3.

REMEMBER THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF

ROOT BELONG TO DIFFERENT
MANGROVE SPESIES.

4.

REMEMBER THE ZONING AND BE ABLE

TO IDENTIFY THE ZONE IN WHICH
DIFFERENT MANGROVE SPESIES
BELONG TO

5.

Point to remember in explaining

colonization and succession in a
mangrove swamp
a)

The physical changes that cause

succession to occur are:i)
Soil becomes more compact
and firmer , and the river bank
becomes higher due to
accumulation of silt and mud which
are trapped by the root of the
mangrove plants
ii)
The shore extends further to
the sea as more sediments
deposited

6.

Point to remember in explaining

colonization and succession in an
abandoned pond

- Nostoc sp. live freely in soil

fixes atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonium

a) The physical changes that cause

succession to occur are:-

b) Decomposition
Dead plants and animals are
decomposed by microorganisms to
form ammonium compound

i)
The pond becomes shallower
due to :- soil erosion form the
sides of the pond
- The decomposition of
dead plants
which forms organic
matters. The
organic matters settled at
the bottom
of the pond.

c) Nitrification
- Oxidation of ammonium compound
into nitrites by Nitrosomans
sp.
-Oxidation of nitrites into nitrates
by Nitrobacter sp.
d) Denitrification

7.

8.

9.

REMEMBER ALL THE THREE

FORMULAE IN DETERMINING A
POPULATION USING QUADRAT
SAMPLING
REMEMBER ALL THE FORMULA IN
DETERMINING A POPULATION USING
THE TECHNIQUE CAPTURE, MARK,
RELEASE, RECAPTURE.

Denitrifying bacteria breaks down

nitrates into gases nitrogen
11. WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF DESTROYING
ANY OF THE MICROBES INVOLVED IN
NITROGEN CYCLE ON THE GROWTH
OF HERBIVORES ?????
a) If nitrogen fixing bacteria or
decomposer is killed no ammonium
can be produced, therefore, no nitrites,
no nitrates to be absorbed by plants.
REMEMBER, NITRATES IS
ABSORBED TO OBTAIN NITROGEN
TO SYNTHESIZE PROTEINS IN
PLANTS. IF PLANTS ARE LACKING
OF PROTEINS, LESS PROTEIN
TRANSFERRED TO HERBIVORSLESS PROTEIN FOR THE
HERBIVORES TO GROW.

Why Nitrogen cycyle is important ???

Plants cannot absorbed atmospheric
nitrogen directly. But they need nitrogen
to synthesize protein. Therefore,
nitrogen need to be converted in a
form of ammonium, nitrites or
nitrates as only these three can be
absorbed by plants

10. Nitrogen Cycle

a) Nitrogen fixation:- Lightning
- Nitrogen fixing bacteria
- Rhizobium sp. living in the root
nodules of leguminous plants .
It fixes atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonium

12.