Prof. Dr. Zahid A.

Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

WIND LOAD
Wind load is produced due to change in
momentum of an air current striking the
surface of a building.
A building is less likely to experience the
other design loads in its life but it is almost
certain that the building is likely to be
subjected to the design wind loads.
If the building is very tall, the wind velocity
varies along the height and sophisticated
codes account for this effect.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

In designing for wind, a building cannot be

considered independent of its surroundings. The
influence of nearby buildings and of the land
configuration can be substantial.
The horizontal swings may not be dangerous but
may cause motion sickness in the occupants.
The modern skyscraper, which uses lightweight
curtain walls, dry partitions, and high strength
materials, is more prone to wind motion problems
than the early skyscrapers, which had enormous
weight of the masonry partitions, heavy stone
facades, and massive structural members.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Keeping the movements in the upper levels of

the building to acceptable human tolerances is
the goal of the structural engineer.
Wind loads change rapidly and even abruptly,
creating effects much larger than if the same
loads were applied gradually.
In designing tall buildings to withstand wind
forces, the following are important factors that
must be considered:

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

1.

Strength and stability requirements of the

structural system.

2.

Fatigue in structural members and

connections caused by fluctuating wind
loads.

3.

Excessive lateral deflection that causes

cracking of partitions and external cladding,
misalignment of mechanical systems and
doors, and possible permanent
deformations.

4.

Frequency and amplitude of sway that can

cause discomfort to the occupants.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

5.

Possible buffeting that may increase the

magnitudes of wind velocities on
neighboring buildings.

6.

Effects on pedestrians.

7.

Annoying acoustical disturbances.

8.

Resonance of building oscillations with

the vibrations of elevator hoist ropes.

The variations in the speed of prevailing and seasonal

winds are referred to as fluctuations in mean
velocity. The variations in the local winds, which are
of a smaller character, are referred to as gusts.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Wind speeds of 30 to 110 km/h are typically

reached in a thunderstorm and are accompanied
with swirling wind action exerting high suction
forces on roofing and cladding elements.
In a fully developed hurricane, winds reach speeds
up to 110 to 130 km/h, and in severe hurricanes
can attain velocities as high as 325 km/h.
Tornadoes develop within severe thunderstorms
and hurricanes and consist of rotating column of
air, accompanied by a funnel-shaped downward
extension of a dense cloud having a vortex of
several meters, typically 60 to 245 m in diameter
whirling destructively at speeds up to 480 km/h.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

The pressure at the center of a tornado is

extremely low, so that as the storm passes over a
building, the pressure inside the structure is far
greater than that outside, causing the building to
literally explode.
The average or mean wind speed used in many
building codes of the United States is the fastestmile wind, which can be thought of as the
maximum velocity measured over one mile of wind
passing through an anemometer.
The only accurate way to determine the gust factor
is to conduct a wind tunnel test.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

It is surprising for a beginner the wind also

produces forces in a direction perpendicular to it.
There appear to be three distinctly different
reasons why a building responds in a direction at
right angles to the applied wind forces; these
are:
1.

The biaxial displacement induced in the

structure because of either asymmetry in
geometry or in applied wind loading.

2.

The turbulence of wind.

3.

The negative-pressure wake or trail on the

building sides.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

For tall buildings it appears that the crosswind

response is caused mainly by the wake.
Consider a cylindrically shaped building
subjected to a smooth wind flow.
The original parallel stream lines are displaced
on either side of the cylinder, and this results in
spiral vortices being shed periodically from the
sides of the cylinder into the downstream flow
of wind which is called the wake.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

At higher speeds, the vortices are shed alternately

first from one and then from the other side of the
cylinder.
When this occurs, there is an impulse in the alongwind direction as before, but in addition, there is an
impulse in the transverse direction.
The transverse impulses are, however, applied
alternately to the left and then to the right.
This kind of shedding, which gives rise to structural
vibrations in the flow direction as well as in the
transverse direction, is called vortex shedding or
the Karman vortex street.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

It has become routine to obtain the design

information concerning the distribution of wind
pressures over the surface of the building by
conducting wind tunnel studies on small scale
models.
In the design of tall buildings it is recognized that
use of the wind tunnel approach is a more refined
method for arriving at design wind loads.
Wind tunnel model studies generally indicate
lower wind loads than prescribed in the codes
and lead to more cost-effective designs.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Buildings with unusual aerofoil shapes and which

are torsionally flexible need to be wind-tunneltested even when height is not a major design
consideration.
Prismatic shapes, as a rule of thumb, can be
considered as candidates for wind tunnel test
when the height exceeds the range of 40 to 50
stories.
Majority of wind tunnels range in size from 1.5 to
6.0 m and the essential features of a boundary
layer wind tunnel are the following:

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

1.

Be large enough to contain models with

enough clearance to facilitate easy
installation and removal.

2.

Be large enough to generate a natural wind

profile over a wide range of speeds. The
turbulence generated should match that
found in the atmosphere.

3.

Provide for a rotating model.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

4.

Be capable of employing a wide range of

testing techniques with very low wind speeds
of 1.5 to 3.25 km/h for smoke visualization
and higher speeds of 90 to 110 km/h for wind
pressure measurements and to meet the
dynamic similarity parameters.

A relatively stable turbulent boundary wind

layer with duplicated mean velocity profile can
be achieved in a 20 to 30 m long tunnel.
The floor of the tunnel is covered with
appropriately located roughness elements
consisting of blocks of Styrofoam or other
suitable material.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

At the test section located at the end of a long

fetch, a test model is installed in a surrounding
consisting of duplicate models of the actual
buildings that are around the building being
tested.
The structural engineer engaged in the design of
tall building relies on the wind engineer to obtain
the following quantitative data for use in the
building design:
1.

The intensity and scale of pressure

fluctuations on exterior panels and glass
surfaces.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

2.

The overturning moments and shears that

should be used in the building design.

3.

The oscillation response of the structure, in

terms of becoming a human comfort
problem.

4.

The change in the wind environment at the

ground in terms of it becoming
uncomfortable or even dangerous to
pedestrians.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Basic wind speed is defined as the fastest wind

speed in km/hr having a probability of
occurrence of 0.02 and measured at a point
10m high above the ground under exposure
category-C conditions, defined later.
The factors affecting the wind pressure in
addition to the basic wind velocity are:
a)

Gradient of wind velocity with height above

ground.

b)

Local variations of pressure due to vortices.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

The pressure is the highest at the corners,

relatively high at the edges and low at the center
of the building.
This affects cladding or minor element design.
Highest

Lowest

Figure.

Higher

Local Variation of wind Pressure.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

c)

Exposure of the structure.

For example, the coastal areas will have more

wind loads.
Buildings surrounded in other tall buildings will
experience less wind pressures.
The wind can be just a gust of wind or long wind
periods.
There are three Exposure Categories defined in
the UBC-97 Code.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Exposure B has terrain with buildings, forest or

surface irregularities, covering at least 20 per cent
of the ground level area and extending 1.6 km or
more from the site.
Exposure C has terrain that is flat and generally
open, extending 0.8 km or more from the site in
any full quadrant.
Exposure D is the most severe exposure in areas
with basic wind speeds of 129km/hr or greater and
has terrain that is flat and unobstructed facing
large bodies of water over 1.6 km in width relative
to any quadrant of the building site.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Exposure D extends towards the land from the

shoreline 0.4 km or 10 times the building height,
whichever is greater.
d)

Internal pressure.

When the wind enters the building from the

windward side and the leeward side is relatively
closed, internal pressure is developed that acts like
negative pressure.
Similarly, when high-speed wind passes by a
building, it produces a vacuum on the leeward side.
This vacuum results in internal suction producing
negative pressure fro the structure.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Wind

Windward
side

Building

Leeward
side

(a) Windward and leeward sides.

wind

Internal
Pressures

(b) Internal pressure.

Internal
Suction

(c) Internal suction.

wind

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

UBC-97 WIND LOADS

According to UBC 1621.2 and 1621.3, there are
two methods for the calculation of wind pressure.
Method 1 Normal Force Method may be used
for any structure but is the only method for the
design of gabled rigid frames.
In this method, the wind pressures are
simultaneously applied normal to all exterior
surfaces.
Hence, the wind loads will be inclined for parts of
the structure at an angle to horizontal and vertical
planes.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Method 2 Projected Area Method has two

restrictions:
Firstly, it is not applicable to gable rigid frames.
Secondly, it is not applicable if the height of the
structure is more than 60m.
In this method, only horizontal and vertical
pressures are applied.
The horizontal pressure is applied over the full
vertical projected area of the structure and vertical
pressure is applied over the full horizontal
projected area.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Wind pressure, P
qs

qs A Ce Cq Iw

= wind stagnation pressure

= V2

0.0475 V2

= air density

= basic wind speed (km/hr)

= effective exposed area

Ce

= combined height, exposure and gust

factor coefficient (Table 16-G of UBC)

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Cq

pressure or shape factor coefficient

for the structure or its portion under
consideration (Table 16-H of UBC)

Iw

importance factor (Table 16-K of

UBC)

1.15 for essential and hazardous

facilities like hospitals, fire and police
stations, disaster centers, water tanks
and buildings with occupancy more
than 300 people.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Iw

0.87 for buildings and other

structures that represent a low
hazard to human life in the even of
failure, such as agricultural facilities.

1.0 for all other buildings.

Combined Height, Exposure

And Gust Factor (Ce)
The values of this coefficient are given in Table.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Table. Values of Coefficient (Ce).

Height Above Average Level of
Adjoining Ground (m)

Exposure C

Exposure B

UBC

Approximate

0 4.57

0 4.5

1.06

0.62

6.10

1.13

0.67

7.62

7.5

1.19

0.72

9.14

1.23

0.76

12.19

12

1.31

0.84

18.29

18

1.43

0.95

24.38

24

1.53

1.04

30.48

30

1.61

1.13

36.58

36

1.67

1.20

48.77

50

1.79

1.31

60.96

60

1.87

1.42

91.44

90

2.05

1.63

121.92

120

2.19

1.80

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Pressure Coefficient (Cq)

The values of this coefficient for various parts of
the building are given in following Figure and
Table.
C = 0.7
p

Wind Direction
Cp= 0.5
Cp= +0.8

Elevation

Fig. Typical Values Of Pressure Coefficient.

Table. Pressure Coefficient (Cq). Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore
Part of Structure
Windward roof

Cq

Angle
0 to 9.5
9.5 to 37.0
37 to 45
> 45

0.7 outward
0.9 outward or 0.3 inward,
which ever is more critical
0.4 inward
0.7 inward

Leeward or flat roof

0.7 outward

Windward walls

0.8 inward

Leeward walls

0.5 outward

Chimneys, tanks and solid towers

square or rectangular
hexagonal or octagonal
round or elliptical

1.4 any direction

1.1 any direction
0.8 any direction

Signs, flagpoles, light poles or

minor structures

1.4 any direction

Roof eaves without overhangs

Overhangs at roof eaves and

canopies

< 9.5
9.5 to 30
30

2.3 upward
2.6 upward
1.6 upward
0.5 added to above values

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Other UBC Wind Load Provisions

1. Wind should be assumed to come from any
horizontal direction.
No reduction in wind pressure shall be taken for the
shielding effect of adjacent structures.
2. The base overturning moment for the entire
structure, or for any one of its individual primary
lateral resisting elements, should not exceed two
thirds of the dead load resisting moment.
Referring to Fig., the overturning of structure about
point A may be investigated as follows:

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

H
W
a
A
b/2
Fig. 10.5. Safety Against Overturning.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

Mw

overturning moment due to wind

Ha

MDL =

Mw

resisting moment due to DL for

overturning

Wb/2

2/3 MDL

FOS =

1.5 or 3/2 against overturning

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

where,

and

resultant horizontal wind

load

height of resultant H from

the base

resultant of dead loads of

the structure

width of the structure

For an entire structure with a height-to width ratio

of 0.5 or less in the wind direction and a
maximum height of 18m, the combination of the
effects of uplift and overturning may be reduced
by one third.

Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi, UET, Lahore

3.

For outward acting pressures on roofs and

leeward walls, Ce shall be evaluated at the
mean roof height and it is applied for the
entire height of the structure for the leeward
walls.

4.

A building structure or story shall be

considered open when 15% or more of the
area of the exterior wall on any one side is
open (doors & windows, etc.)