Cartesian Tensors

Reference: H. Jeffreys Cartesian Tensors

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1 Coordinates and Vectors

z = x3
e3
y = x2
e2
e1
x = x1

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Coordinates
xi
x1 = x

i = 1, 2, 3
x2 = y

x3 = z

(1)

Unit vectors
ei
e1 = e x = i

i = 1, 2, 3

e2 = e y = j

e3 = ez = k

(2)

General vector (formal definition to follow) denoted by components e.g. u = u i

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Notation
The boldface notation for vectors is referred to as dyadic notation
The subscript notation is tensor notation.
Summation convention
Einstein: repeated index means summation:
3

ui vi =

ui vi
i=1
3

u ii =

(3)

u ii
i=1

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2 Orthogonal Transformations of Coordinates

The behaviour of quantities under orthogonal transformations of
the coordinate system is the basis of Cartesian tensors.
We want to formulate equations in such a way that they are independent of the specific coordinate system.

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x 3

x3

x 2

x2
x 1
x1

General linear transformation

x i = a ij x j
a ij = Transformation Matrix
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Position vector
Consider the position vector expressed in terms of coordinates
and unit vectors in two related coordinate systems
r = x i e i = x i e i

(4)

In view of the transformation from the unprimed to the primed

system:
r = a ij x j e i = x j ( a ij e i )

(5)

Therefore we can write:

e j = a ij e i

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(6)

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so that we have the two companion transformations:

x i = a ij x j

e i = a ji e j

(7)

Kronecker Delta
ij = 1 if i = j
= 0 otherwise
In matrix form
1 0 0
ij = 0 1 0
0 0 1
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(8)

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Substitution property
ij T jk... = T ik...

(9)

In the summation over j the only term of the sum that makes any
contribution is that for which j = i .
2.1 Orthogonal transformation
So far, what we have described is valid for any linear transformation.
Now impose the condition that both the original and the primed
reference frames are orthonormal
e i e j = ij and e i e j = ij
Cartesian tensors

(10)

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Use transformation of the unit vectors:

e i e j = a ki e k a lj e l
= a ki a lj e k e l
= a ki a lj kl

(11)

= a ki a kj
NB the last operation is an example of the substitution property
of the Kronecker Delta.
Since e i e j = ij , then the orthonormal condition on a ij is
a ki a kj = ij
Cartesian tensors

(12)

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In matrix notation:
aT a = I

(13)

We also have as a consequence of the properties of matrices, that

aa T = I

(14)

( aa T ) ij = a ik a jk = ij

(15)

In tensor notation:

Any of equations (12), (13), (14) or (15) defines an orthogonal

transformation.

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2.2 Reverse transformations

x i = a ij x j a ik x i = a ik a ij x j = kj x j = x k
x k = a ik x i x i = a ji x j
i.e. the reverse transformation is simply determined by the transpose.
Similarly, following from
e j = a ij e i

(16)

e i = a ij e j

(17)

we have

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Transformations for both coordinates and basis vectors

The complementary set of transformations is then
x i = a ij x j

e i = a ij e j

(18)

2.3 Interpretation of the matrix a ij

Since
e i = a ij e j
then the a ij are the components of e i wrt the unit vectors in the
original system.e.g.
e 1 = a 11 e 1 + a 12 e 2 + a 13 e 3
Cartesian tensors

(19)
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2.4 Example: 2D rotation

It is easiest here to determine the
relationship between the unit basis vectors:

y
y e
y

ey

x
ex

e x = cos e x + sin e y
e y = sin e x + cos e y

ex

(20)

x In matrix form:
ex

ex

cos sin 0
e y = sin cos 0 e y (21)
0
0 1 e
ez
z

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Then the transformation equation for the coordinates is:

x
cos sin 0 x
y = sin cos 0 y
z
0
0 1 z

(22)

3 Scalars, Vectors & Tensors

We define these objects by the way in which they transform with
respect to orthogonal coordinate transformations.
3.1 Scalar (f):
f ( x i ) = f ( xi )
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(23)

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Example of a scalar is f = r 2 = x i x i . Examples from fluid dynamics are the density and temperature.
3.2 Vector (u):
Prototype vector: x i
General transformation law:
x i = a ij x j u i = a ij u j

(24)

as the transformation law for a generic vector.

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3.3 Gradient operator

Suppose that f is a scalar. The gradient of f is defined by
f
( grad f ) i = ( f ) i =
xi

(25)

Need to show this is a vector by its transformation properties.

f x j
f
=
x j x
x i
i

(26)

x j = a kj x k

(27)

Since,

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then
x j

= a kj ki = a ij
x i

(28)

f
f
and
= a ij
x j
x i
Hence the gradient operator satisfies our definition of a vector.
Scalar Product
u v = ui vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3

(29)

is the scalar product of the vectors u i and v i .

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Exercise:
Show that u v is a scalar.
3.4 Tensor
Prototype second rank tensor x i x j
General definition by transformation of components:
= a a T
T ij
ik jl kl

(30)

Exercise:
Show that u i v j is a second rank tensor if u i and v j are vectors.

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Exercise:
u i

u i, j =
x j
is a second rank tensor. (Introduces the comma notation for partial derivatives.) In dyadic form this is written as grad u or u .
3.5 Divergence
Exercise:
Show that the quantity
v = div v =

Cartesian tensors

v i
xi

(31)

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is a scalar.
4 Products and Contractions of Tensors
It is easy to form higher order tensors by multiplication of lower
rank tensors, e.g. T ijk = T ij u k is a third rank tensor if T ij is a
second rank tensor and u k is a vector (first rank tensor). It is
straightforward to show that T ijk has the relevant transformation
properties.
Similarly, if T ijk is a third rank tensor, then T ijj is a vector.
Again the relevant transformation properties are easy to prove.

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5 Differentiation following the motion

This involves a common operator occurring in fluid dynamics.
Suppose the coordinates of an element of fluid are given as a
function of time by
xi = xi ( t )

(32)

vi

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The velocities of elements of fluid at all spatial locations within

a given region constitute a vector field, i.e. v i = v i ( x j, t )
If we follow the trajectory of an element of fluid, then on a particular trajectory x i = x i ( t ) . The acceleration of an element is
then given by:
v i
v i v i dx j
v i
d
= v i ( x j ( t ), t ) =
+
=
+ vj
(33)
fi =
x j
dt
dt
t x jdt
t
dv i

Exercise: Show that f i is a vector.

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6 The permutation tensor ijk

ijk = 0 if any of i, j, k are equal
= 1 if i, j, k unequal and in cyclic order
= 1 if i, j, k unequal and not in cyclic order

(34)

e.g.
112 = 0

123 = 1

321 = 1

(35)

Is ijk a tensor?
In order to show this we have to demonstrate that ijk , when defined the same way in each coordinate system has the correct
transformation properties.
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Define
=
ijk
lmn a il a jm a kn
= 123 a i1 a j2 a k3 + 312 a i3 a j1 a k2 + 231 a i2 a j3 a k1

+ 213 a i2 a j1 a k3 + 321 a i3 a j2 a k1 + 132 a i1 a j3 a k2

= a i1 ( a j2 a k3 a j3 a k2 ) a i2 ( a j1 a k3 a j3 a k1 )
+ a i3 ( a j1 a k2 a j2 a k1 )

a i1 a i2 a i3
a j1 a j2 a j3
a k1 a k2 a k3

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In view of the interpretation of the a ij , the rows of this determinant represent the components of the primed unit vectors in the
unprimed system. Hence:
= e (e e )
ijk
i
j
k
This is zero if any 2 of i, j, k are equal, is +1 for a cyclic permutation of unequal indices and -1 for a non-cyclic permutation of
. Thus
unequal indices. This is just the definition of ijk
ijk
transforms as a tensor.

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6.1 Uses of the permutation tensor

Cross product
Define
c i = ijk a j b k

(36)

c 1 = 123 a 2 b 3 + 132 a 3 b 2 = a 2 b 3 a 3 b 2
c 2 = 231 a 3 b 1 + 213 a 1 b 3 = a 3 b 1 a 1 b 3
c 3 = 312 a 1 b 2 + 321 a 2 b 1 = a 1 b 2 a 2 b 1

(37)

then

These are the components of c = a b .

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6.2 Triple Product

In dyadic notation the triple product of three vectors is:
t = u (v w)

(38)

In tensor notation this is

t = u i ijk v j w k = ijk u i v j w k

(39)

6.3 Curl
u k

( curl u ) i = ijk
x j

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e.g.
u 3

u 2

u 3

u 2

+ 132
=

( curl u ) 1 = 123
x2
x3
x2 x3

(41)

etc.

6.4 The tensor iks mps

Define
T ikmp = iks mps

(42)

Properties:
If i = k or m = p then T ikmp = 0 .
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 If i = m we only get a contribution from the terms s i and

k i, s . Consequently k = p . Thus iks = 1 and
mps = iks = 1 and the product iks iks = ( 1 ) 2 = 1 .
If i = p , similar argument tells us that we must have s i and
k = m i . Hence, iks = 1 , mps =
+ 1 iks mps = 1 .
So,
i = m, k = p 1 unless i = k 0
i = p, k = m 1 unless i = k 0
These are the components of the tensor im kp ip km .
iks mps = im kp ip km
Cartesian tensors

(43)

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6.5 Application of iks mps

[ curl ( u v ) ] i = ijk
( klm u l v m )
x j

= ijk klm
( ul vm )
x j

(44)

v m
u l
= ( il jm im jl )
vm + ul

x j
x j

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We then use the substitution property of ij to show that:

[ curl ( u v ) ] i =

u i
xm

vm vi

u j
x j

+ ui

v m
xm

uj

v i
x j

u j

(45)

+
+
2 =
= ---------------x i x i
x 12 x 22 x 32

(46)

u i

v i

v j

= vj
uj
+ ui
vi
x j
x j
x j
x j
= ( v u u v + u v v u ) i
The Laplacean
2

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7 Tensor Integrals
7.1 Greens Theorem
In dyadic form:
v
ni

( v ) dV =

( v n ) dS

(47)

In tensor form:
v i

xi

dV =

v i n i dS = S

(48)

= Flux of v through S

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Extend this to tensors:

T ij

x j dV = T ij n j dS

(49)

= Flux of T ij through S

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7.2 Stokes Theorem

In dyadic form:
ti
C
S

( curl u ) n dS =

u t ds

(50)

In tensor form:

Cartesian tensors

ijk

u k
x j

n i dS =

u i t i ds

(51)

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