Magnets

Unpaired electrons orbiting an atom act as small electromagnets pointing in various

directions. When
magnetic moments or spins
point in the same direction in
all the atoms, the material itself behaves like a magnet and it is called a ferromagnet.
Because a material like
iron consists of many
magnetic crystallites whose
magnetic
moments cancel each other until they
are aligned,
iron is not normally a
magnet, however, it can be magnetized by other magnets. If the atomic-scale
spins are in opposite directions, they cancel out, and the material is called an
antiferromagnet. Magnetite (Fe
3

O
) is a well-known magnet: It is one of the common
oxides of iron and is also cubic, with iron in two valence states. Many magnetic
structures are more complex. Neutron diraction has been used to identify the
topology of these more complex magnetic structures. Magnets are used in motors
of all types and sizes and in communication equipment (e.g., relays). In recent
years, giant magnetoresistance (GMR) oxides have being used by manufacturers
to make computer hard drives of much higher capacity. The phenomenon of GMR
relates to the decrease of electrical resistance of materials when exposed to a magnetic
eld. This phenomenon was rst observed (in the late 1980s) in multilayer
ferromagnetic/nonferromagnetic thin-lm systems; GMR has now also been
observed in granular nanocrystalline materials [91].