In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For The Course

ChETE 02: Food Science and Engineering

A Written Report on
The Microbiology of Thermally Processed Food

Submitted By
Bayeta, Sheena Claire C
Caitor, Felizer Niere II

Submitted To:
Engr. Rex Manuel P. Paayas

June 21, 2016

I.

Introduction

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms it is the knowledge of small

living forms which can only be seen from a microscope. These includes
germs, bacteria, microbes, protozoa, fungi and other microorganisms. Anton
van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe these microscopic living forms
through the invention of the microscope on the 1700s.
The science of microbiology is applied in a number of fields such as
medicine, agriculture, industry and food preservation. Food microbiology is
the study of microorganisms that inhabit, create, or contaminate food. It is
also the basis for producing commercially sterile, shelf stable food.
II.

The microbiology of food processing

The history of canning of food began in 1810 with Nicholas Appert, a French
confectioner, when he discovered that placing food in glass containers,
sealing them with corks, and heating them in boiling water would usually
prevent spoilage. The science of microbiology was unknown at the time, and
he was unable to explain why his method was successful. He believed that
the combination of heat and the exclusion of air "averted the tendency to
decomposition".
Fifty years later, Louis Pasteur showed that certain microorganisms are
responsible for fermentation and decay in which he conducted experiments
on food preservation, and the term "pasteurization" bears his name.
Although Pasteur's findings could have explained why Appert's method was
successful, they were not applied immediately. Thus, in the early days, the
causes of spoilage incidents remained unknown. Research in food
microbiology, started at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1895,
ultimately concluded that the seemingly mysterious spoilage of canned foods
resulted from failure to apply sufficient heat to destroy microorganisms.
A. Characteristics and Behavior of Microorganisms
All raw food contains microorganisms that will eventually cause spoilage
unless they are controlled or destroyed. We attempt to preserve the food
that microorganisms attempt to utilize since food preservation is a
competition between the human species and microorganisms, which
requires to be controlled or destroyed. Thus, we need to know what they
are and how they behave.
The microorganisms of primary concern to the food processor are molds,
yeasts, and bacteria. They can grow in food or the processing
environment under suitable conditions. These microorganisms may be
divided into groups on the basis of their microscopic characteristics or
visual appearance in mass growths, called colonies. Other microorganisms

that of concern are viruses and parasites. Though they do not multiply in
food, they can get into food through contaminated water or other sources.
The following
microorganisms:

factors

are

also

important

in

the

classification

The materials they can use as food

Byproducts resulting from the breakdown of these food

Tolerance to oxygen

Growth temperatures

Resistance to such destructive agents as heat and chemicals

of

B. Useful functions of organisms

Many of the thousands of microorganisms that have been discovered and
identified performs some useful function. Without microorganisms, we
would not have some of the tasty food we enjoy, such as breads, cheese,
wine, beer, sauerkraut, sausages, and other fermented food.
Microorganisms are needed to make products useful to industry and
medicine, such as enzymes, antibiotics, glycerol and other alcohols. They
have the ability to break down organic matter and return it to the earth in
the form of smaller molecules that can be used by other organisms.
C. Some microorganisms cause disease
On 1865, the "Germ Theory of Disease" teaches that most diseases of
humans, animals or plants are caused by specific microorganisms. The
microorganism, or the substances it produces, must invade the human,
animal or plant body to cause the disease. Microorganisms that cause
disease are often referred to as pathogens. Fortunately, very few of the
known microorganisms are harmful to humans, only a few can be
transmitted through food. Although it is becoming recognized that the
vast majority of foodborne illnesses are caused by viruses such as
noroviruses, bacterial pathogens are most frequently identified as the
cause of illness because of better detection.
The majority of laboratory-diagnosed cases of bacterial foodborne
illnesses are caused by just a few microorganisms: Salmonella spp.,
Campylobacter, Shigella spp., Clostridium perfringens and Staphylococcus
aureus.
III.

Significant microorganisms in food processing

Some microorganism found in food processing are molds, yeast and bacteria.
All species of these organisms do not function as food enhancements and
some promotes food spoilage. Since food is a basic need to humans, it is only
given to make food processing effective and efficient in order to make food
products safe and suitable. This will serve as a basis to what necessary
measures engineers should do to counter or optimize the effects of the
microorganisms to food.
A. Molds
Molds are widely distributed in nature, both in the soil and in the dust
carried by air. Under suitable conditions of moisture, air and temperature,
molds will grow on almost any food. The black or green discoloration that
appears on moldy bread is a common example of mold growth. Molds are
also able to survive on a wide variety of substances not normally thought
suitable for supporting life (e.g. concentrated solutions of some acids,
water containing minute quantities of certain salts and certain pastes
used in labeling). Molds grow readily on the walls and ceilings of buildings
with high humidity and considerable moisture condensation. Mold growth
can occur even in refrigerators, because molds are much more tolerant to
cold than to heat.
Mold spoilage of food in closed, processed containers is rare but not
impossible. Most molds have little heat resistance and cannot survive the
thermal processes for low-acid canned food. Therefore, if present, it is the
result of serious underprocessing or post-processing contamination since
molds need oxygen to grow, only slight growth can occur unless the food
container has an opening to the outside environment.
Mold growth in thermally processed, commercially sterile foods does not
present a significant public health problem. In fact, mold is used in the
ripening process of some cheeses and sausages.
B. Yeast
Yeasts are widely found in nature and are particularly associated with
liquid foods containing sugars and acids. They are quite adaptive to
adverse conditions such as acidity and dehydration. Like molds, yeasts
are more tolerant of cold than of heat. Most yeast forms are destroyed on
heating to 170F. Spoilage may result from the presence of yeast in
canned food, but if this happens, severe underprocessing or leakage must
be suspected. Usually the growth of yeasts results in the production of
alcohol and large amounts of carbon dioxide gas. Yeasts are also used in
the production of bread and fermented beverages.
C. Bacteria

Bacteria are the most important and troublesome microorganisms for the
food processor. They are single-celled living bodies so small that
individually they can be seen only with the aid of a powerful microscope.
Those most important in processed food spoilage are either round in
shape (called cocci) or rod-shaped (called rods). Most bacteria in
themselves are comparatively harmless, but they excrete enzymes that
can produce undesirable changes in food. Some bacteria, however, are
pathogenic. In some cases, the microorganisms can produce poisonous
substances.
Bacteria
reproduce
through
binary
fission,
an
asexual
reproduction/division of one piece of bacteria into two daughter cells.
"Local doubling" is the description usually attributed to how the bacterial
population occurs. Studies about the bacterial growth show that the cell
divides once on the average of 20 to 30 minutes. At this rate, at the end
of an hour, approximately four bacteria are now present. Consequently,
for 15 hours, each parent cell will have produced 1,000,000 (one billion)
identical cells.
D. Source of foodborne organisms
Soil or water from which food is obtained is the most common source of
foodborne organisms and spores (e.g. leafy vegetables that grow close to
the soil, usually have high numbers of bacteria and bacterial spores).
IV.

Conditions affecting the growth of bacteria

The following factors will influence the growth requirements of bacteria: food,
moisture, oxygen, temperature and pH.
A. Food
Every living cell requires certain nutrients to multiply. Nutrients for
bacterial cells include solutions of sugars or other carbohydrates,
proteins, and small amounts of other materials such as phosphates,
chlorides and calcium. If the nutrient supply is removed, bacteria will not
multiply.
B. Moisture
The bacterial cell has no mouth; therefore its source of nutrients must be
in a soluble form to enter the cell through the cell wall. Without sufficient
available moisture, it would be impossible for nutrients to transfer into
and waste products to transfer out of the cell.
C. Oxygen

Aerobes are bacteria which requires free oxygen in order to survive, on

the other hand, anaerobes are bacteria in which the smallest quantity of
free oxygen prevents their growth. The majority of bacteria are neither
strict aerobes nor strict anaerobes but can tolerate to some degree either
the presence or absence of oxygen. These are known as facultative
anaerobes
D. Temperature
For each of the bacterial groups there is an optimum (most favorable)
temperature range for growth. Temperatures below and above the
optimum for each group adversely affect the growth of the organism.
Bacterial groups bear names that indicate their relationships to
temperature. These groups are classified as: Psychrotrophic (14 - 20C),
Mesophilic (30 - 37C) and Thermophilic (50 - 66C).
E. pH
The pH of foods can be adjusted to help control microbial growth. The pH
of a food is extremely important with respect to the control of Clostridium
botulinum.
Clostridium botulinum is of great concern to home and commercial
canners for the following reasons: when it grows it can produce a deadly
toxin or poison and it can be isolated from soil or water practically
everywhere in the world. Because certain types of C. botulinum spores are
very heat resistant and are able to survive five to 10 hours in boiling water, it is
necessary to apply much higher temperatures such as 250F to destroy the
spores. The toxin is not heat resistant; it can be inactivated by boiling

temperatures 212F.
V.

Control of bacteria by water activity

For thousands of years people have dried fruits, meats and vegetables as a
method of food preservation. Addition of sugar would also allow preservation
of foods such as candies and jellies and salt preservation of meat and fish
has been practiced over the ages. As late as 1940, food microbiologists
thought that the percentage of water in a food product controlled microbial
growth. Gradually they learned that it is the availability of the water that is
the most important factor influencing growth. The measure of the availability
of water in a food is made by determining the water activity.
Water activity is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by
the standard state partial vapor pressure of water. It is the unbound water on
food molecules and is different from the foods moisture content. A high level
of water activity in food tends to support more microorganisms.

A. Regulatory requirements released to water activity

Water activity has to be also regulated under law by specific categories.
For example for the food to be classified as a low-acid food it must have a
water activity of 0.85 and a pH greater than 4.6.
B. Methods of determining water activity
In order to determine the water activity, one could use a resistive
electrolytic hygrometer, a capacitance hygrometer or a dew
pointhygrometer. Another is through by measuring the equilibrium
relative humidity (ERH). Water activity represents the ratio of the water
vapor pressure of the food to the water vapor pressure of pure water
under the same conditions and expressed in fraction. Multiplying the ratio
by 100, we obtain the ERH that the foodstuff would produce if enclosed
with air in a sealed container at constant temperature. Thus a food with a
water activity of 0.7 would produce an ERH of 70%.
C. Salty and water activity
The use of salt is another method of preservation. This is particularly
applicable to salt-cured meats and fish. In salt-cured meats, salt is usually
supplemented with other ingredients, such as nitrite, that aid in spoilage
prevention. Salt decreases the available unbound water on the food and
because in itself is a preservative. A concentration of 10 % salt is
equivalent to a water activity of 0.93.
VI.

Spoilage of thermally processed, commercially sterile food

The most obvious indicator of spoilage in processed food is a swollen container

bulging at one or both ends. This implies that the food has possibly undergone
spoilage, possibly by the action of gas-forming bacteria.
A. Indications of bacterial spoilage
Most bacteria produce gas when allowed to grow in a canned food. This
production of gas is what causes the containers to swell. The appearance
and odor of the container contents may also indicate spoilage. If the
product is broken down and mushy, or if a normally clear brine or syrup is
cloudy, spoilage may be suspected. In jars, a white deposit may
sometimes be seen on the bottom or on pieces of food. This may be a sign
of spoilage, but could also be starch precipitated from certain food.
Microbial spoilage of thermally processed product may result from one of
five causes:
Incipient spoilage growth of bacteria and/or yeast and mold before
processing

 Post-process contamination growth of microorganisms that have gotten

into the product after processing
Under-processing growth of bacteria that have survived due to
inadequate
processing
Thermophilic spoilage - growth of bacteria that survive the thermal
process, but will only
grow if environmental conditions result in
suitable elevated temperatures
Spoilage by acid-tolerant spore-forming bacteria
B. Incipient Spoilage before processing
Processed food is sometimes held too long between closing the containers
and thermal processing. Such processing delays may result in growth of
bacteria and possibly yeasts and molds normally present in the food
resulting in spoilage before thermal processing. This type of spoilage is
referred to as "incipient spoilage" and may result in an adulterated
product. The degree of spoilage depends on the time and temperature
conditions during the delay.
C. Post process contamination
Post-process contamination is when microscopic examination of spoiled
product or cultures of spoiled product reveals a variety of microorganisms
consisting of non-sporeforming bacteria of various shapes and sizes and
possibly yeast and mold. Swollen containers begin to appear in the
warehouse shortly after processing and may continue to appear for a
considerable time afterwards. Generally with the mixture of microorganisms present there will be some that produce gas which causes the
swollen containers.
The cause of post-process contamination will depend on whether the
thermal process takes place after the product is filled and sealed into the
container or before the product is filled and sealed into the container.
D. Inadequate Heat Processing
Inadequate heat processing means that the product did not receive the
proper process.
E. Thermophilic spoilage by acid-tolerant sporeformers
Thermophillic spoilage refers to the growth of bacteria that survived the
thermal process and had grown due to favorable conditions. Spoilage by
acid spore-forming bacteria results from the survival of excessive preprocessing contamination and are caused by butyric acid forming
anaerobes.

F.

Non-microbial food spoilage

Aside from bacterial spoilage the following situations could cause food
spoilage to the processed food:

Chemical reaction of food components with the metal inner surfaces

of the container.
Chemical reaction of food acids on the surface of the metal cans
Overfilling of containers
Closing cans with zero or low vacuum

Reference:
Canned Foods: Principles of Thermal Process Control, Acidification and
Container Closure Evaluation (7th Edition) by Austin Gavin and Lisa M.
Weddig