EXERCISE NO.

8
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system consists of a pumping organ, conducting vessels and a
circulating fluid. This system functions primarily to convey much-needed nutrients and gases
to all tissues of the body. In the transport of essential elements, each of the components of
the circulatory system has a vital role to play. The heart generates pressure to propel blood
to the most distant part of the body through its pumping action. The blood vessels provide a
system of channels through which blood can be circulated. And the blood is the circulating
medium in which these essential elements are dissolved.
These next exercises will demonstrate the different aspects connected with the
circulatory system.

8-1. Blood tests

A

Bleeding Time

Bleeding, which is defined as the loss of blood, occurs when there is a break in the skin
or elsewhere in the body. This next exercise will shoe us the length of time it takes for
bleeding to stop.
Materials:
Alcohol
Blood lancet
Filter paper
Cotton
Procedure
1. Perform these following tests on a female and male subject for each group.
2. Clean the finger (site of puncture) with alcohol and allow to dry. With a firm quick stroke,
make a fairly deep incision on the finger using the blood lancet. The lancet should enter
the skin to a depth of 3 mm.
3. As soon as the first drop of blood appears, take note of the time. Do not squeeze the
finger. If the wound does not bleed spontaneously, repeat the procedure.

CAUTION: DO NOT HANDLE/TOUCH BLOOD IF YOU HAVE A WOUND IN YOUR HANDS!!!

4. At half minute intervals, blot the blood with filter paper until the bleeding has stopped
(End point). Avoid touching the skin while blotting or an error will result.
5. Enter data in the table below.

Note :

The blood lancet may be placed in a beaker filled with alcohol for use in the next blood
test by the SAME subject.
TABLE 8-1.Bleeding Time of Male and Female Subjects
__________________________________________________
Subject
:
Bleeding Time (minutes)
__________________________________________________
Male
:
__________________________________________________
Female
:
__________________________________________________

B. Clotting Time
The skin is considered as the bodys first line of defense against infection. If
unbroken, the skin provides a surface that is relatively impenetrable to microorganisms and
other potentially damaging agents. The problem occurs when there is a break in the skin
since microbes are allowed entry. To remedy this, the body through its blood proteins, seals
off this break. This is done through its clotting mechanism.
Materials:
Blood lancet
Alcohol
Glass slide
Pin or needle

capillary tube
nail file
cotton

Procedure
1. Slide Method
Make another puncture on a different finger and place a drop of blood on a clean
glass slide. At half minute intervals, draw the pin or needle through the drop of blood.
Observe for any fine red threads ( end point).
Repeat until the end point is reached. Sometimes the entire drop of blood forms a
gel, which is also considered as end point.
2. Capillary Method
Immediately after collecting the blood for the previous test, place the end of a
capillary tube on the edge of the drop until it becomes practically filled with blood. Do this
by holding the tube lower than the drop.
After 2 minutes, short sections of the tube (1/4 1/5 of an inch) should be gently
broken off with the use of a file.
Repeat at half-minute intervals until you arrive at one that has fibrin threads bridging
the gap between the broken sections of the tube (end point). Record results in the table
below.

TABLE 8-2. Clotting Time of Male & Female Subjects

______________________________________________________________
Subject
Clotting Time (min)
Slide Method
Capillary Method
______________________________________________________________
Male
______________________________________________________________
Female
______________________________________________________________
B

Blood Count
The bone marrow serves as a factory for erythrocytes and leukocytes. It churns out
erythrocytes, which are responsible for bringing oxygen to the farthest reaches of the
body. It also releases leukocytes, which perform defense functions. The total number of
either of these corpuscles in the body is a perfect diagnostic tool. Either a drop or an
increase in their numbers could be an indicator of a disorder.
Materials:
Blood lancet
Alcohol
Cotton
Hemocytometer
Procedure
D-1. RBC Count
1
2
3

4
5

Clean your finger and make a puncture with the use of the blood lancet.
Fill the rbc diluting pipette with blood up to the 0.5 mark. Dilute the rbc (Growers or
Hayems Fluid) up to the 11 mark. Avoid any backflow from the bulb to the calibrated
stem.
Close the tip of the pipette with your finger and remove the tubing with the other
hand. Plug the other end of the pipette with the thumb. Hold the pipette in a
horizontal position, then shake vigorously from side to side for 2-3 minutes. Make
sure that no air bubbles enter the sample.
Charge the hemocytometer (refer to Appendix II)
Count the erythrocytes observed in the central and four corner tertiary squares under
the HPO (refer to Appendix III for the RBC Counting Chamber). For cells touching the
margins, consider only the cells found on the upper and right margins. Make 3 trials
and take the average.
In computing for the total count, add the number from each corner and central
tertiary squares and multiply by 10,000.

D-2. WBC Count

1
2

Employ the same technique in RBC Counting, but this time use a WBC pipette and WBC
diluting fluid (Turks Fluid). Take the same precautions and charge the hemocytometer.
For the WBC count, count the cells observed in the four primary corner squares. Again,
cells touching the margins should be included only if these cells lie on the upper and
right margins of the squares. (Refer to Appendix III) Make 3 trials and get the average.

To compute for the total WBC count, tally all the cells found in the designated squares
and multiply by 50. Present data in tabulated form.

TABLE 8-3. Blood Count of Male & Female Subjects

____________________________________________
Subject
RBC
WBC
____________________________________________
Male
____________________________________________
Female
____________________________________________

D-3. Hematocrit
Materials:
Heparinized capillary tubes
Blood lancet
Cotton
Alcohol
Centrifuge
Clay
Procedure
1
2
3
4

Obtain 3 heparinized capillary tubes (per subject).

Fill of the tube with blood and seal the unheparinized end with clay.
Place the capillary tubes in a centrifuge and follow instruction on use of equipment.
Measure % of RBC/WBC. Compute % volume of packed cells based on:

Length of RBC
Total length of blood volume
5

x 100 =

Enter data in the table below.

TABLE 8-4.Hematocrit Values of Male & Female subjects
____________________________________
Subject
Hematocrit
____________________________________
Male
____________________________________
Female
_______________________________

Questions

What are the normal values for bleeding and clotting time, blood count and hematocrit?
Are they the same for male & female? Explain.

Red Blood Cells

Normal Range

Normal Count
White Blood Cells
Normal Count
Normal Range of
Hemoglobin

Normal Hb Levels
Normal hematocrit

Female

Male

Children

4.2 million -5.0

million

4.6 million- 6.0

million

3.8 million 5.5

million
(newborns: 4.8
million - 7.2 million)

4.2 million-5.4 million

per cubic mm

4.6 million - 6.2

million per cubic mm

4.6 to 4.8 million/uL

4,500 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter (mcL)

(Adult) 12 -16 gm/dl
(Adult) 14-18 gm/dl
(*After Middle Age)
(*After Middle Age)
11.7 13.8 gm/dl
12.4 14.9 gm/dl

14 to 18 g/dl
36 to 48%.

12 to 16 g/dl.
is 40 to 54%

*After Middle Age; after 65 years old (middle age range is between the age of 45-65, (DSM-IV 1994))

The reason why female has a lesser amount of RBCs and why male has many, is still
debatable. There are such theories, stating that it is because of male having more levels of
testosterone, thus producing more RBCs and due to males having a larger requirement for
oxygen. It has also been proposed that RBC production is basically mediated by
erythropoietin-a hormone secreted by the kidneys that increases the rate of production of
RBC due to the levels of oxygen falling in the tissue. Or maybe the difference in the male
and female RBC count is not because of a larger requirement in males for oxygen but rather
for a smaller requirement by females (quite a feminist theory).
https://www.quora.com/Zoology-Why-is-the-number-of-red-blood-cells-more-in-male-thanfemale-human-beings
https://www.quora.com/Biology-Is-it-true-that-women-have-less-red-blood-cells-per-mm-3-ofblood-than-men-Why-is-that-so

Why does the blood not clot in the vessels under normal conditions?

The clotting mechanism is a series of reaction involving chemicals (i.e platelet factors, and
others that are synthesized by the liver) that normally circulate in the blood and others that
are released when a vessel is damaged. Hence, blood clot occurs only when there's damage
in blood vessel, a cut perhaps that would cause bleeding. Our thrombin system that consists
of several blood proteins activates when bleeding occurs. If so, the thrombin system will
convert fibrinogen to fibrin - what the clot itself is made of. Fibrinogen can only polymerises
to fibrin wires, when it makes contact with oxygen, but the thing is that, all oxygen in blood
are only bound to hemoglobin and can't interact with fibrinogen thus not creating a clot in

normal circumstances. In other words, only a contact with air (still oxygen but outside the
blood) can activate fibrinogen to form the clotting substance called fibrin.

Will dehydration affect hematocrit value? Explain.

The plasma portion of blood is dependent on body water. (Note that, hematocrit is
the concentration of cells in the blood, measured by the relationship between the cells in the
blood (red and white) and the plasma.) And since, dehydration means loss of body water
hence making up more space, as plasma would shrink, hematocrit has no choice but to
increase.
4

What blood type is the universal donor? The universal recipient? Why? (Discuss in terms
of antigen/antibody)

Type O blood is considered the universal donor

Type AB+ blood is considered the universal recipient
Usually, a unit of type O negative blood may be given to people with any other blood type.
This is so because, type O RBCs have neither A nor the B antigens and will not react with
whatever antibodies the recipient may have . On the other hand, the AB blood type have
both antigens for A and B blood, since both antigens are present, the recipient won't reject
the blood since it will identify the blood as itself rather than it's foreign. And with O blood
having no antigens - and since type O is the universal donor blood, it also won't cause a
reaction for the recipient.
5

What are the advantages of plasma over whole blood transfusions? In what situations is
plasma as effective as whole blood?

Plasma is usually quoted as the substance that stays behind in the blood when the red blood
cells are taken out. It makes up 55 percent of the whole blood, and it is about 90 percent
water. As the major component of blood, it is more widely used for transfusion, especially for
victims of burns, trauma, and those suffering from physiological collapse. Plasma doesnt
only maintain blood pressure but also supply critical proteins for blood clotting and
immunity. Since plasma contains clotting factors that impedes excessive blood flow from
open wounds, hence plasma transfusion is often used to control bleeding. Patients who are
suffering from hemophiliac disease are frequently transfused with plasma.

8-2. Blood Capillaries

The capillaries are the tiniest of the blood vessels. They are also the thinnest since
they do not have walls. Instead, the outermost layer of these vessels is a thin endothelium.
Because of this thin membrane, certain substances and gases could freely enter and leave
the capillaries. These vessels are also of utmost importance since they are the sites of
gaseous exchange.
Materials:

Small goldfish
Gauze bandage

glass slide
microscope

Procedure
1. Place the fish on the wet glass slide strapping it to the sides with wet gauze bandage.
Only the tail should be left exposed.
2. Place the slide on the stage of a microscope with the exposed tail under the objective.
Focus the transparent part of the tail under LPO.
3. Look for a point where a small artery divides into capillaries. Notice the blood cells as they
pass through the capillaries.
4. Draw what you observe under the LPO.

Note : REMEMBER TO KEEP THE GAUZE BANDAGE WET ALWAYS!!!

Sketch

Movement of corpuscles as seen in the tail of a goldfish

Questions
1. Why does the gauze bandage have to be wet?
Moist gills would allow the fish to breathe.
2. Describe the direction and speed of blood flow. Is the movement slow, steady or
pulsating?
The blood in an arteriole moves with a pulsating rapid flow. In venule,
however, moves with a steady slower flow.

3. Does the blood move more rapidly in arteries or capillaries?

Compare to capillaries, blood moves at its fastest in arteries. Since capillaries has a greater
united area than that of arteries, hence, even with the same quantity of blood flowing, due
to a wider channel to flow in (in capillaries) blood flows through them more slowly.
4. What is the advantage of the RBCs passing through the capillaries one at a time?
The transport of oxygen is much more efficient when RBC pass through capillaries
individually, it also enables the nutrients (together with the oxygen) to diffuse to the cells
faster which allow the efficient removal of waste materials in the body.

5. Give the differences between the RBCs of a fish and those of human beings.
A human's RBC is spherical red blood cells, whereas in the fish's red blood cells are
elliptical. Also, unlike a human's pure red colored cell, fish have small black dots at the
middle of each cell. And in contrast, with human's, fish's RBC contains a nucleus that so they
could live longer (RBC life span in humans is 110-120 days) amd also because fishes can't
reproduce blood as fast as humans can.

8-3. Blood Pressure

Blood exerts pressure against the arterial walls as it surges forward. This force is
known as BLOOD PRESSURE. In some cases, the elderly, those with sedentary lifestyles
and those with unhealthy habits like smoking and indulgence in food, suffer from a blood
pressure that is higher than normal. This excessive blood pressure is caused by plaque that
accumulates on artery walls. Because of the constriction of the lumina of the vessels, blood
has to exert greater pressure in order to pass. This condition is known as HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE.
Materials:
Sphygmomanometer

stethoscope

Procedure
1. Have one classmate lie down in a flat position for a few minutes and get her blood
pressure.
2. Ask her to sit up immediately and get her blood pressure again.
3. Ask her to run around or to do some strenuous activity till she is tired. Get her blood
pressure and record the data in the table below.

NOTE: STUDENTS WITH KNOWN

FROM PERFORMING THIS EXERCISE!!!

HEART

AILMENTS

TABLE 8-5. Blood Pressure

_______________________________________________________________________
Subject
Normal
Upon getting up
strenuous exercise
_______________________________________________________________________
1
_______________________________________________________________________
2
_______________________________________________________________________
3
_______________________________________________________________________

ARE

EXEMPTED

After

Questions
1. Interpret your results. Explain the variation in blood pressure upon getting up and after
strenuous exercise.
Systolic pressure happens when your heart contracts, since it pushes blood into the arteries
causing an
increase in blood pressure. When a person start to exercise, the heart has to work harder to
pump
enough blood, causing an increase in systolic blood pressure. Diastolic pressure, on the
other hand,
happens when your heart relaxes and refills with blood, the pressure in the arteries
decreases. Hence,
blood pressure varies upon changing position. And also, a person who stands up suddenly
from a lying position, may feel light headed for a few moments, because the blood pressure
to the brain has decreased abruptly.
2. Explain the factors leading to increase in blood pressure.
Age. High blood pressure may not be common in children, but for some children, high blood
pressure is caused by problems with the kidneys or heart. Adults in middle age are often at
risk, more common in men though, since women most likely develop high blood pressure
upon menopausal stage
Being overweight and not being physically active. When you're not physically active
it would increase the risk of you being overweight. And when youre overweight, there will
be more blood to require your supply of oxygen and nutrients in your tissue. And people who

are physically inactive tend to have higher heart rates which cause a harder work for you
heart with each contraction and also a stronger force for your arteries.
Stress. High levels of stress can lead to a temporary increase in blood pressure. If you try to
relax by eating more, using tobacco or drinking alcohol, you may only increase problems
with high blood pressure.
Smoking. Doesn't only raise your blood pressure temporarily, but the chemicals in tobacco
can damage the lining of your artery walls
Alcohol. It won't do you any good, at all. Drinking too much will obviously affect not just
your liver but your blood pressure as well.
These are only few from many factors of high blood pressure.
3. Excessive salt intake leads to high blood pressure. Why is this so?
Too much sodium in your diet can cause your body to retain fluid, which increases blood
pressure.

4. Determine the blood pressure of the following subjects: Explain the variations, if any.
a

male and female____________________________________________

Males had higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure and increase in heart
rate in stress condition, compare to those of females.
b

overweight and slender person_________________________________

The more a person weighs, the more blood he/she needs to supply oxygen
and nutrients to the tissues. Thus, as the volume of blood circulated through the
blood vessels increases, so does the pressure on the artery walls.
c

pregnant woman and one who is not pregnant____________________

Unhealthy lifestyle choices may lead to high blood pressure during

pregnancy.
With women carrying more than one child are more likely to develop
hypertension, as their body is under additional stress from the pregnancy. And
also, physically inactive (due to pregnancy) and also weight gain are factors of
high blood pressure.

teenager and elderly person___________________________________

Blood pressure varies with age. The higher blood pressure becomes, the
more you age. Thus, elderly person may have higher blood pressure than those of
teenagers.
8-4. Pulse Rate

Pulse is a wave pressure produced in the arteries due to the contraction of the
ventricles. This can be felt readily where an artery is near the surface of the skin and over
the surface of a bone. Pulse rate is essentially the same as heart rate.

Material:
Wrist watch
Procedure
1. The pulse may be counted in areas all over the body, but conveniently the radial artery of
the wrist is used. To get your pulse, place your forefinger and middle finger on your wrist
and get your pulse rate/minute. This is your normal pulse rate.
2. Run around for a few minutes till you are tired. Then get your pulse rate/minute.
Record data in the table below.

TABLE 8-6. Pulse Rate

_________________________________________________________________
Subject
Normal
After Exercise
_________________________________________________________________
1
_________________________________________________________________
2
_________________________________________________________________
3
_________________________________________________________________
1

Determine the pulse rates of the following subjects:

a

male and female___________70bpm and 75bpm_____________________

infant and adult________________80bpm and 60bpm______________

c
d

large male and small male_________________75bpm and 66bpm______

athlete and non-athlete____________55bpm and 69bpm______________

rested person and one who just did 5-minute exercise___65bpm and 83bpm

a male after drinking one bottle of beer______________180bpm___________

a person who is in a severe emotional state___________82bpm___________

Discuss the effects of the different conditions tested on pulse rate.

Gender
Heart rate of men is lower than women because size of the heart in
men is 25% larger than in women. Larger heart can pump more blood than
smaller heart in one beat

body size
When you're larger in size, your heart must work much harder (in
correlation with how large you are) to pump blood throughout the body, with
this increase of work load, you heart beats at a faster rate than the person
with a smaller heart. Also, when you're overweight your body tends to give a
large gap between organs, thus your blood must move greater distance to
reach your organs, muscles and tissues.

active lifestyle
An active lifestyle leads to a healthy life. Regular physical
activity stimulates the production of new blood vessels. Hence, the more
blood vessels, there are more places for blood to flow, which results in more
efficient circulation.

age
According to the National Institute on Aging, the body's capacity to perform
vigorous exercise decreases 50 percent between 20 and 80 years-of-age. During such
activity, the heart rate rises but cannot rise as high when you are older. So basically, age
does affect heart's response to exercise.

exercise

When an athlete performs cardio, his blood flow is directed toward working muscles
and away from areas that aren't doing much (such as the arms during running). There is
increased blood flow, and blood volume returning to the heart.
f

alcohol
Alcohol can increase the blood flow. This is achieved by raising both the
rate at which the heart beats and also how much blood it pumps out at each
stroke.
g

emotions

Theres a natural "fight or flight" reaction, which speeds up the heart in

case of need of more blood flow for a fight or flight situation. And in this case,
when someone feels nervous, giddy, and etc, as an automatic response the
nervous system kicks in, and apply the fight or flight reaction.

8-5. Effect of the Valsalva Maneuver on Central Venous

Pressure and on the Volume of Blood Returning to the Heart
The Valsalva Maneuver is employed by doctors to equalize pressure in a patients
middle ear. Through a forcible expiration, air is pushed through the Eustachian tube into the
middle ear at a very high pressure.
seems.

In this next exercise, you will determine if this common practice is as harmless as it

Materials:
Mirror
Procedure
1. Observe your neck veins (jugular) while you perform the Valsalva maneuver. To do this,
hold your breath, fix your thorax (keep it stationary) and at the same time forcibly
contract your abdominal muscles. This action, the Valsalva maneuver, is commonly called
straining as for example in defecation.
2. Maintain the Valsalva maneuver a few seconds, then while watching your neck veins in a
mirror, suddenly exhale.
Questions
1. What change did you observe in your neck veins while performing the Valsalva maneuver?
The neck veins are rifer.
2

Did this change in the appearance of your neck veins indicate an increase/decrease in
the volume and pressure of the blood in them?
Yes. It has increase.

Do you deduce that this maneuver increases/decreases intrathoracic pressure and

therefore central venous pressure?
It decreases.

Do you conclude that the change in the intra thoracic pressure during the Valsalva
maneuver increases or decreases the volume of blood draining out of the jugular vein?
It increases.

Does this increase/decrease the workload put on the heart? For this reason, should
patients with weak/diseased hearts perform this exercise?
Valsalva maneuver increases the workload of the heart. Thus, a patient with heart
diseases cannot be permitted to perform this.