Lateral Earth Pressures and

Retaining Walls

RETAINING WALLS
are usually built to hold back soil mass

Types
Reinforcement

Assistant Prof. Berrak Teymur

1. Gravity

2. Semi-Gravity
Strectcher

Counterfort

Reinforcement

3. Cantilever
Headers Filled with soil

5. Crib Wall

4. Counterfort

Face of wall

Design
Basic soil parameters;
Unit weight of soil
Angle of friction
Cohesion
Then the lateral pressure distribution will be known.
There are 2 phases in the design of a retaining wall;
The retaining wall is checked for stability: overturning,
sliding and bearing capacity failures.
Each component of the retaining wall is checked for
adequate strength and the steel reinforcement.
Empirical relationships related to the design of walls (Azizi, 2000)

Lateral Earth Pressure

At Rest

pressure diagram will be as shown.

q

K0 q

If the water table is located at depth z<H, the at-rest

h = K 0 v + u

1
2

P1

K0: coefficient of atrest earth pressure

P0

K0 q

H1

At z=0, h=K0v=K0q
K0 (q+H1)
GWT

sat

P2
H/2
H/3

H2

z'

K0 (q+H)

1
P0 = P1 + P2 = qK0 H + H 2 K0 where
2

The total force:

P
z

H
2

+
P

H
3

=sat-w

K0 (q+H1+H2)

K 0 = 1 sin
for normally
consolidated soil

P0 = K 0 qH1 +

At z=H1,
h=K0v=K0(q+H1)
At z=H2,
h=K0v=K0(q+H1+'H2)

wH2

1
1
1
K 0 H12 + K 0 (q + H1 ) H 2 + K 0 H 22 '+ H 22
2
2
2

Rankine Active Earth Pressure

Relating the principal stresses for a Mohrs circle that

touches the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope;

Wall movement to left

45+/2

45+/2

z c

v
h

1 = 3 tan 2 45 + + 2c tan 45 +
Thus

v = a tan 2 45 + + 2c tan 45 +

a=vKa-2c
The Mohrs circle will touch the
Rotation of wall
Mohr-Coulomb
failure
envelope
about this point
representing the failure condition in
the soil mass. h=a, where a is the
Rankine active pressure.
The Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope is defined by;
= c + tan

1=v and 3=a

Ka

where Ka=tan2(45-/2); Rankine active pressure coefficient

However the active earth pressure condition will be reached only if the wall is
allowed to yield sufficiently.
The amount of outward displacement of the wall necessary is about 0.001H to
0.004H for granular soil backfills and about 0.01H to 0.04H for cohesive
backfills.

Coulombs Active Earth Pressure

is the angle, the
back face of the
retaining wall
makes with the
horizontal.

Pa

W
R
1-

The active force per unit length of the wall, Pa will be

inclined at an angle of to the normal to the back face

of the wall.

Pa =

1
K aH
2

is the angle that

the backfill makes
with the
horizontal.
is the angle of
friction between
the soil and the
wall.

Rankine Passive Earth Pressure

H: height of wall

The value of the wall friction angle, is between /2

and 2/3.

Rankine Passive Earth Pressure

Direction of wall movement

x

45-/2

Rotation of wall
about this point

The horizontal stress h at

this point is referred to as
the
Rankine
passive
45-/2
pressure,
c

p=vKp+2c

Kp

where
Kp=tan2(45+/2);
Rankine
passive
earth
pressure coefficient

The magnitude of the wall

movements, x required
to develop failure under
passive conditions are;

Soil Type
Dense sand
Loose sand
Stiff clay
Soft clay

x (for passive condition)

0.005H
0.01H
0.01H
0.05H

Rankine Active and Passive Earth Pressure for

Inclined Granular Backfill

Coulombs Passive Earth Pressure

1
Pp = H 2 K p
2

Kp =

sin 2 ( )

sin( + ) sin( + )
sin sin( + ) 1

sin( + ) sin( + )

Kp: Coulombs passive pressure

coefficient

c=0

Backfill material ()
Gravel
27-30
Coarse sand
20-28
Fine sand
15-25
Stiff clay
15-20
Silty clay
12-16

Application of Lateral Earth Pressure Theories

to Design
Cantilever

WC

Ws

H/3

Ws
H

cos + cos cos

H/3

1
Pp = H 2 K p
2

Kp =

cos + cos 2 cos 2

cos cos 2 cos 2

cos

Retaining Wall Stability

1) Safety Against Overturning (Rotational stability) :

Gravity

PA

a = zK a

Pa K = cos cos cos cos

a

2
2

a
H

Range of Wall
Friction Angle

1
Pa = H 2 K a
2

H/3

Wc

PA

WC

Ws

PV

Consider forces WC, WS, PV, PH

PA Take moment w.r.t C (TOE)
clockwise : resisting (MR) (WC,
PH
WS, PV) a.clockwise
:overturning (MO) (PH)

C
B

if not increase the base B ;use

piles ;increase wall dimensions.

Fs=2 (for cohesive backfill) and 1.5 (for granular backfill)

Retaining Wall Stability

2) Safety Against Base Sliding :
If base key : Pp =

use reduced c2 and 2 (design=(0,5~0,67) 2 , cdesign= =(0,5~0,67) c2)

if not increase B ; provide key ;stronger backfill (import soil
expansive) ; install tiedown anchors

Driving Force : PH
Ignore
: PV
Resisting force :R
Wc

R = c2 B + ( V ) tan 2 + Pp
Fs =

1
2 D1 2 K p + 2 c 2 D1 K p
2

c2 B + ( V ) tan 2 + Pp
PA cos

Ws

PV

Install tieback anchors

PA

Use stronger
backfill

PH

1 .5

c1,1,1

D1

c2,2,2

3) Bearing capacity failure. Fs=3=qu/qmax

Base Pressures :

Extend heel
Provide key

Install tiedown anchors(if large)

4) Deep Seated Shear Failure :

qall : allowable bearing capacity of

foundation soil
Wc

Ws

PV

PA

Sum of vertical
forces
Wc+Ws+Pv

PH
A

A
B

qmax

V e

qmin

qmin > 0 (no tension)

qmax < qall

x
B/2
B

M R M D
V
B
e= x
2
V
6e
qmax =
(1 )
B *1
B
min
x=

Weak soil

Possible failure
surface
CONVENTIONAL
ANALYSIS

5) CHECK FOR SETTLEMENTS (Conventional) :

6) REINFORCEMENT DESIGN (Structural Design) :

Gravity Retaining-Wall Design for

Earthquake Conditions

Comments Relating to Stability

The lateral force of the backfill will depend on (Casagrande,

1973);

Coulombs active earth pressure theory can be extended to

take into account the forces caused by an earthquake.

Effect of temperature (freeze and thaw),

Groundwater fluctuation,
Readjustment of the soil particles due to creep and
prolonged rainfall,
Tidal changes,
Heavy wave action,
Traffic vibration,
Earthquakes.

kvW
khW

H
~0,6H
0,5H Pae

k
= tan1 h
1 kv

Drainage from the Backfill of the Retaining

Wall

c=0

horizontal EQ acc .comp .

acc .due to gravity , g
vertical EQ acc .comp .
kv =
g

kh =

P = 1 H 2 (1 k ) K
AE
v
AE
2

K AE =

sin 2 ( + )

sin( + ) sin( )
cos sin 2 sin( ) 1 +

sin( ) sin( + )

Sheet Pile Walls

are widely used for both large and small waterfront
structures.
used for
Beach erosion protection
Stabilizing ground slopes
Shoring walls of trenches and other excavations
and for cofferdams.

Bowles, 1997

Sheet Pile Walls

Types:

Sheet Pile Walls

Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet Piles can be categorised as:

Wooden
Precast concrete
Steel
Construction Methods:

-Used for small retaining height (20 ft 6 m above dredge line)

Permanent : sands, gravels
Temporary : other soils
-Stability of cantilever sheet pile wall : due to passive
resistance developed below the lower soil surface

a) Cantilever
b) Anchored

1. Backfilled structure
2. Dredged structure

Sheet pile connections:

a) Thumb and finger type

b) Ball and socket type

Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls

Failure
mode
Dredge
line

0
Active

0
Passive

*fixing moment at 0

Additional support to sheet pile walls can be given by backs

(anchored) near the top of the wall (Used in deep excavation &
water front construction ).

Active

Active

Passive

Anchored Sheet Pile Walls

Tie Rod
(steel cables)

A
h

Passive

Design Idealisation

Net Passive Resistance below 0 : given with R .

design : Mc= 0 determine d.
Then d is increased arbitrarily by %20 to allow for simplification
of procedure . (1.2d : embedment)
Fh= 0 determine R
( Check Pp R
/ over 0,2d )

Passive

Active

Bending
Moment
Diagram

Note: depth of tension crack < depth of tie.

Anchored Sheet Pile Walls

Sheet Piles with Anchors

When there is a deep excavation

DESIGN PROCEDURE:
1- Calculate Active & Passive Pressures in terms of
(unknown) depth of embedment , d .
2- Usually Fs=2 is applied to passive pressures
3- Take MA =0 ; obtain cubic equation in terms of
d. Solve for d. Increase d by 20% in quay walls.
4- Take Fh=0 ; solve for T.
5- Plot moment diagram & determine maximum
bending moment. Determine required cross section.

Anchor

Active

Passive

Active

Active

Passive
Passive

Moment Diagram

Note: Solved with equivalent beam method.

Types of anchor used in sheet pile walls are:

1.

Anchor plates and beams

4.

Anchor beams supported by batter (compression and tension) piles

2. Tie backs

Das, 1995

3. Vertical anchor piles

Das, 1995

TERZAGHI & PECK (1967) EMPIRICAL PRESSURE DIAGRAMS

Braced Cuts (Braced Excavations)

Systems to support the sides of excavations

To support walls of deep or shallow narrow trenches.

Top view

Side view

wales

(sand)

0,50 H

0,75 H

0,25 H

0.65 KA H
medium to dense
SAND

Sheet
piling

EARTH PRESSURES AGAINST BRACING SYSTEMS

Earth Pressure function of Wall Displacement:

Fixed

0,25 H

cu (clay)

struts

Braced Cuts:

0,25 H

Bracing systems
Represented by
empirical pressure
envelopes
ACTIVE
(Retaining walls)

0.2 H to 0.4 H
Stiff CLAY

K A = 1 m

H KA
soft to medium CLAY

4c

TERZAGHI & PECK (1967) EMPIRICAL PRESSURE DIAGRAMS

1) 0,65 Times Rankine Active

2) N:stability number N= H

cu

if N < 4 (elastic equilibrium)

3) N > 4 plastic equilibrium at the bottom ( N=H/cu > 4)

m is usually 1,0 , but m=0,4 for soft NC clays.
4) N > 7 Heaving

Strut Loads:

HINGES
to make the
system
determinant

A
B
C
D

A
B1
C1
D

A=A
B=B1+B2
C=C1+C2
D=D

B2
C2

A,B,C,D Strut Loads

Braced Cuts

Wall construction & anchorage installation in stages.

1

REINFORCED EARTH
Reinforced earth is a construction material comprising
soil that has been strengthened by tensile elements
such as metal rods and/or strips, nonbiodegradable
fabrics (geotextiles), geogrids.
The beneficial effects of soil reinforcement derive from
a) soils increased tensile strength and

anchor
R/C wall

b) the shear resistance developed from the friction at the

soil-reinforcement interfaces.

REINFORCED EARTH

REINFORCED EARTH
Two types of geogrids: a) Biaxial and b) Uniaxial

Geotextiles have four primary uses in foundation

engineering:
1. Drainage
2. Filtration
3. Separation
1.Longitudinal rib

4. Reinforcement increases the load-bearing

capacity of the soil

2.Transverse bar
3.Transverse rib
4. Junction

REINFORCED EARTH

REINFORCED EARTH

Coarse grained
soil (drained)

Facing
(flexible)

Fill

Reinforcement
(tensile stresses)
*steel : life 120 years

0,3H

A
z

PASSIVE Zone

Footing

*other materials;
-aluminium alloys
-plastics
-geotextiles

: *Pre-cast concrete units (limited relative movement)

*U-shaped steel sections arranged horizontally
COST
: *more economic than concrete cantilever retaining wall
FAILURE : *Tensile failure of one element leads to progressive collapse of the entire
structure
*Local slipping leads to redistribution of tensile stress and gradual
deformation of structure (not necessarily collapse)

0,5H

ACTIVE Zone

At-rest

RESISTANCE

H
C

FACING

Lv

Le

Active

Max. tensile stress curve

Probable failure surface

Lateral Earth Pressure p

10