Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis

Chapter 2
Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation
2.3. Boost converter example
2.4. Cuk converter example
2.5. Estimating the ripple in converters containing twopole low-pass filters
2.6. Summary of key points
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis
2.1 Introduction
Buck converter
1
SPDT switch changes dc

component
Vg
vs(t)
v(t)
Switch output voltage

waveform
vs(t)
Vg
D' Ts
DTs
Duty cycle D:
0D1
complement D:
D = 1 - D
0
0
switch
position:
DTs
1
Ts
2
t
1
Dc component of switch output voltage
vs(t)
Vg
<vs> = DVg
area =
DTsVg
0
0
DTs
Ts
Fourier analysis: Dc component = average value

vs = 1
Ts
Ts
vs(t) dt
0
vs = 1 (DTsVg) = DVg
Ts
Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching

harmonics and pass only dc component
L
Vg
vs(t)
v(t)
V
Vg
v vs = DVg
0
0
Three basic dc-dc converters

a)
+
iL(t)
Vg
M(D) = D
0.8
2
M(D)
Buck
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
b)
iL(t)
1
Vg
M(D) = 1 1 D
+
M(D)
Boost
3
2
1
0
0
0.2
0.4
c)
iL(t)
-1
M(D)
Vg
0.4
0
1
Buck-boost
0.2
-2
-3
-4
M(D) = 1DD
-5
Objectives of this chapter
Develop techniques for easily determining output

voltage of an arbitrary converter circuit
Derive the principles of inductor volt-second balance
and capacitor charge (amp-second) balance
Introduce the key small ripple approximation
Develop simple methods for selecting filter element
values
Illustrate via examples
2.2.
Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge

balance, and the small ripple approximation
Actual output voltage waveform, buck converter
iL(t)
Buck converter
containing practical
low-pass filter
L
+ vL(t)
Vg
+
iC(t)
v(t)
Actual output voltage

waveform
actual waveform
v(t) = V + vripple(t)
v(t)
V
Dc component V
0
The small ripple approximation

actual waveform
v(t)
V
Dc component V
0
In a well-designed converter, the output voltage ripple is small. Hence,

the waveforms can be easily determined by ignoring the ripple:
vripple << V
v(t) V
Buck converter analysis:

inductor current waveform
iL(t)
L
+ vL(t)
original
converter
Vg
+
iC(t)
v(t)
switch in position 1
iL(t)
L
+ vL(t)
Vg
+ vL(t)
iC(t)
R
Vg
v(t)
iL(t)
v(t)
iC(t)
Inductor voltage and current

Subinterval 1: switch in position 1
iL(t)
Inductor voltage
L
+ vL(t)
vL = Vg v(t)
Vg
Small ripple approximation:
iC(t)
R
v(t)
vL Vg V
Knowing the inductor voltage, we can now find the inductor current via
vL(t) = L
diL(t)
dt
Solve for the slope:

diL(t) vL(t) Vg V
=
L
L
dt
The inductor current changes with an

essentially constant slope
10
Inductor voltage and current

L
Inductor voltage
+ vL(t)
vL(t) = v(t)
Vg
iL(t)
+
iC(t)
R
v(t)
vL(t) V
Knowing the inductor voltage, we can again find the inductor current via
vL(t) = L
diL(t)
dt
Solve for the slope:

diL(t)
V
L
dt
The inductor current changes with an

essentially constant slope
11
Inductor voltage and current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg V
D'Ts
DTs
V
switch
position:
1
vL(t) = L
iL(t)
iL(DTs)
I
iL(0)
0
diL(t)
dt
iL
Vg V
L
V
L
DTs
12
Ts
Determination of inductor current ripple magnitude
iL(t)
iL(DTs)
I
iL(0)
Vg V
L
iL
V
L
Ts
DTs
(change in iL) = (slope)(length of subinterval)

Vg V
DTs
2iL =
L
V V
iL = g
DTs
2L
L=
13
Vg V
DTs
2iL
Inductor current waveform

during turn-on transient
iL(t)
iL(Ts)
iL(0)=0
Vg v(t)
L
v(t)
L
0 DTs Ts
iL(nTs)
2Ts
nTs
iL((n+1)Ts)
(n+1)Ts
When the converter operates in equilibrium:

iL((n + 1)Ts) = iL(nTs)
14
The principle of inductor volt-second balance:

Derivation
Inductor defining relation:
di (t)
vL(t) = L L
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
iL(Ts) iL(0) = 1
L
Ts
vL(t) dt
0
In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:

Ts
0=
vL(t) dt
0
Hence, the total area (or volt-seconds) under the inductor voltage
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
An equivalent form:
T
s
1
0=
v (t) dt = vL
Ts 0 L
The average inductor voltage is zero in steady state.
15
Inductor volt-second balance:

Buck converter example
Inductor voltage waveform,

previously derived:
vL(t)
total area
Vg V
DTs
V
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:

Ts
vL(t) dt = (Vg V)(DTs) + ( V)(D'Ts)

0
Average voltage is
vL = = D(Vg V) + D'( V)
Ts
Equate to zero and solve for V:
0 = DVg (D + D')V = DVg V
16
V = DVg
The principle of capacitor charge balance:

Derivation
Capacitor defining relation:
dv (t)
iC(t) = C C
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
vC(Ts) vC(0) = 1
C
Ts
iC(t) dt
0
In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:
0= 1
Ts
Ts
iC(t) dt = iC
0
Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
The average capacitor current is then zero.
17
2.3 Boost converter example

L
Boost converter
with ideal switch
iL(t)
+ vL(t)
1
Vg
+
iC(t)
D1
Realization using
power MOSFET
and diode
iL(t)
Vg
+ vL(t)
Q1
DTs
Ts
iC(t)
C
18
Boost converter analysis

L
iL(t)
original
converter
+ vL(t)
iC(t)
Vg
L
L
iL(t)
Vg
+ vL(t)
iL(t)
+
iC(t)
C
Vg
+
iC(t)
C
+ vL(t)
19
Inductor voltage and capacitor current

L
vL = Vg
iC = v / R
iL(t)
Vg
+ vL(t)
iC(t)
C
vL = Vg
iC = V / R
20
Inductor voltage and capacitor current

L
vL = Vg v
iC = iL v / R
iL(t)
Vg
+ vL(t)
+
iC(t)
C
vL = Vg V
iC = I V / R
21
Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms
vL(t)
Vg
DTs
D'Ts
t
Vg V
iC(t)
I V/R
D'Ts
DTs
t
V/R
22
Inductor volt-second balance

Net volt-seconds applied to inductor
over one switching period:
vL(t)
Vg
DTs
D'Ts
Ts
vL(t) dt = (Vg) DTs + (Vg V) D'Ts

0
Vg V
Equate to zero and collect terms:
Vg (D + D') V D' = 0
Solve for V:
Vg
D'
The voltage conversion ratio is therefore
V =
M(D) = V = 1 = 1
Vg D' 1 D
23
Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost converter
1 = 1
M(D) = D'
1 D
M(D)
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
24
Determination of inductor current dc component
Capacitor charge balance:
iC(t)
I V/R
D'Ts
DTs
Ts
0
iC(t) dt = ( V ) DTs + (I V ) D'Ts

R
R
Collect terms and equate to zero:

V (D + D') + I D' = 0
R
t
V/R
I
(V g / R)
8
Solve for I:
I= V
D' R
6
4
2
Eliminate V to express in terms of Vg:

Vg
I= 2
D' R
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
25
Determination of inductor current ripple

Inductor current slope during
subinterval 1:
diL(t) vL(t) Vg
=
=
L
L
dt
Inductor current slope during
subinterval 2:
diL(t) vL(t) Vg V
=
=
L
L
dt
iL(t)
iL
I
Vg
L
0
Vg V
L
DTs
Ts
Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):

Vg
2iL =
DTs
L
Solve for peak ripple:
iL =
Vg
DTs
2L
Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude

is obtained
26
Determination of capacitor voltage ripple

Capacitor voltage slope during
subinterval 1:
dvC(t) iC(t) V
=
=
C
RC
dt
v(t)
v
V
V
RC
Capacitor voltage slope during

subinterval 2:
dvC(t) iC(t) I
=
= V
C
C RC
dt
I V
C RC
DTs
Ts
Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
2v = V DTs
RC
Solve for peak ripple:
v = V DTs
2RC
Choose C such that desired voltage ripple

magnitude is obtained
In practice, capacitor equivalent series
resistance (esr) leads to increased voltage ripple
27
2.4 Cuk converter example

C1
L1
Cuk converter,
with ideal switch
i1
Vg
L2
i2
+ v1
1
C2
+
v2
Cuk converter:
practical realization
using MOSFET and
diode
C1
L1
i1
Vg
L2
i2
+ v1
Q1
D1
C2
+
v2
28
Cuk converter circuit

with switch in positions 1 and 2
L1
Switch in position 1:
MOSFET conducts
Capacitor C1 releases
energy to output
L2
i1 + vL1
Vg
v1
i2
+
iC1 + vL2
C1
iC2
C2
i1
Switch in position 2:
diode conducts
Capacitor C1 is
charged from input
iC1
+ vL1
Vg
+
C1
v1
29
L2
L1
v2
+ vL2
i2
iC2
C2
+
v2
Waveforms during subinterval 1

MOSFET conduction interval
Inductor voltages and
capacitor currents:
vL1 = Vg
vL2 = v1 v2
i C1 = i 2
v
i C2 = i 2 2
R
L1
i1 + vL1
Vg
L2
v1
+
iC1 + vL2
C1
i2
iC2
C2
+
v2
Small ripple approximation for subinterval 1:
vL1 = Vg
vL2 = V1 V2
i C1 = I 2
V
i C2 = I 2 2
R
30
Waveforms during subinterval 2

Diode conduction interval
Inductor voltages and
capacitor currents:
vL1 = Vg v1
vL2 = v2
i C1 = i 1
v
i C2 = i 2 2
R
i1
L2
L1
iC1
+ vL1
Vg
+
C1
v1
+ vL2
i2
iC2
C2
+
v2
Small ripple approximation for subinterval 2:
vL1 = Vg V1
vL2 = V2
i C1 = I 1
V
i C2 = I 2 2
R
31
Equate average values to zero

The principles of inductor volt-second and capacitor charge balance
state that the average values of the periodic inductor voltage and
capacitor current waveforms are zero, when the converter operates in
steady state. Hence, to determine the steady-state conditions in the
converter, let us sketch the inductor voltage and capacitor current
waveforms, and equate their average values to zero.
Waveforms:
Inductor voltage vL1(t)
vL1(t)
Volt-second balance on L1:

Vg
DTs
vL1 = DVg + D'(Vg V1) = 0
D'Ts
t
Vg V1
32

Inductor L2 voltage
vL2(t)
V2
DTs
D'Ts
t
V1 V2
vL2 = D( V1 V2) + D'( V2) = 0
Capacitor C1 current
iC1(t)
Average the waveforms:
i C1 = DI 2 + D'I 1 = 0
I1
DTs
D'Ts
t
I2
33

Capacitor current iC2(t) waveform
iC2(t)
I2 V2 / R (= 0)
DTs
D'Ts
i C2 = I 2
V2
=0
R
Note: during both subintervals, the

capacitor current iC2 is equal to the
difference between the inductor current
i2 and the load current V2/R. When
ripple is neglected, iC2 is constant and
equal to zero.
34
Cuk converter conversion ratio M = V/Vg

D
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
M(D)
-1
-2
-3
-4
V2
M(D) =
= D
Vg
1D
-5
35
Inductor current waveforms

Interval 1 slopes, using small
ripple approximation:
i1(t)
i1
I1
Vg
L1
di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg
=
=
L1
L1
dt
di 2(t) vL2(t) V1 V2
=
=
L2
L2
dt
Vg V1
L1
DTs
Ts
Interval 2 slopes:
di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg V1
=
=
L1
L1
dt
di 2(t) vL2(t) V2
=
=
L2
L2
dt
I2
V1 V2
L2
Ts
DTs
V2
L2
i2
i2(t)
36
Capacitor C1 waveform
Subinterval 1:
dv1(t) i C1(t) I 2
=
=
C1
C1
dt
v1(t)
v1
V1
I2
C1
I1
C1
Subinterval 2:
DTs
Ts
dv1(t) i C1(t) I 1
=
=
C1
C1
dt
37
Ripple magnitudes
Analysis results
VgDTs
i 1 =
2L 1
V + V2
i 2 = 1
DTs
2L 2
I DT
v1 = 2 s
2C 1
Use dc converter solution to simplify:
VgDTs
i 1 =
2L 1
VgDTs
i 2 =
2L 2
VgD 2Ts
v1 =
2D'RC 1
Q: How large is the output voltage ripple?
38
2.5 Estimating ripple in converters

containing two-pole low-pass filters
Buck converter example: Determine output voltage ripple
L
iL(t)
Vg
iC(t)
iR(t)
vC(t)
Inductor current
waveform.
What is the
capacitor current?
iL(t)
iL(DTs)
I
iL(0)
iL
Vg V
L
V
L
DTs
39
Ts
Capacitor current and voltage, buck example
iC(t)
Must not
neglect
inductor
current ripple!
total charge
q
iL
Ts / 2
DTs
If the capacitor
voltage ripple is
small, then
essentially all of
the ac component
of inductor current
flows through the
capacitor.
D'Ts
vC(t)
V
40
Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v
iC(t)
total charge
q
iL
Ts / 2
DTs
D'Ts
vC(t)
V
41
Current iC(t) is positive for half

of the switching period. This
positive current causes the
capacitor voltage vC(t) to
increase between its minimum
and maximum extrema.
During this time, the total
charge q is deposited on the
capacitor plates, where
q = C (2v)
(change in charge) =
C (change in voltage)
Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v

The total charge q is the area
of the triangle, as shown:
iC(t)
total charge
q
iL
Ts / 2
DTs
q = 12 iL
Eliminate q and solve for v:
D'Ts
v =
vC(t)
V
Ts
2
42
iL Ts
8C
Note: in practice, capacitor

equivalent series resistance
(esr) further increases v.
Inductor current ripple in two-pole filters

L1
Example:
problem 2.9
iT
+
i1
Vg
L2
Q1
C1
i2
vC1
D1
C2
vL(t)
total
flux linkage
Ts / 2
DTs
D'Ts
can use similar arguments, with

= L i
= inductor flux linkages
iL(t)
I
= inductor volt-seconds
43
2.6 Summary of Key Points

1. The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its average
value, or the integral over one switching period, divided by the
switching period. Solution of a dc-dc converter to find its dc, or steadystate, voltages and currents therefore involves averaging the
waveforms.
2. The linear ripple approximation greatly simplifies the analysis. In a welldesigned converter, the switching ripples in the inductor currents and
capacitor voltages are small compared to the respective dc
components, and can be neglected.
3. The principle of inductor volt-second balance allows determination of the
dc voltage components in any switching converter. In steady-state, the
average voltage applied to an inductor must be zero.
44
Summary of Chapter 2
4. The principle of capacitor charge balance allows determination of the dc
components of the inductor currents in a switching converter. In steadystate, the average current applied to a capacitor must be zero.
5. By knowledge of the slopes of the inductor current and capacitor voltage
waveforms, the ac switching ripple magnitudes may be computed.
Inductance and capacitance values can then be chosen to obtain
desired ripple magnitudes.
6. In converters containing multiple-pole filters, continuous (nonpulsating)
voltages and currents are applied to one or more of the inductors or
capacitors. Computation of the ac switching ripple in these elements
can be done using capacitor charge and/or inductor flux-linkage
arguments, without use of the small-ripple approximation.
7. Converters capable of increasing (boost), decreasing (buck), and
inverting the voltage polarity (buck-boost and Cuk) have been
described. Converter circuits are explored more fully in a later chapter.
45

Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis

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Chapter 2

Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

SPDT switch changes dc

Switch output voltage

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Dc component of switch output voltage

Fourier analysis: Dc component = average value

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Three basic dc-dc converters

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Objectives of this chapter

Develop techniques for easily determining output

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge

Actual output voltage

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

The small ripple approximation

In a well-designed converter, the output voltage ripple is small. Hence,

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Buck converter analysis:

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Inductor voltage and current

Small ripple approximation:

Solve for the slope:

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

The inductor current changes with an

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Inductor voltage and current

Small ripple approximation:

Solve for the slope:

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

The inductor current changes with an

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Inductor voltage and current waveforms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Determination of inductor current ripple magnitude

(change in iL) = (slope)(length of subinterval)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Inductor current waveform

When the converter operates in equilibrium:

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

The principle of inductor volt-second balance:

In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

Inductor volt-second balance:

Inductor voltage waveform,

Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:

vL(t) dt = (Vg V)(DTs) + ( V)(D'Ts)

Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

The principle of capacitor charge balance: