Entertainment Council Rough Guide to Live Sound

by Tim Kerbavaz – ASUCD Entertainment Council Production Coordinator 2008-2010

Adapted from Sweetwater Sound’s Live Sound Essentials - http://www.sweetwater.com/feature/livesound_2009/fundamentals.php

A sound system (otherwise known as a PA — public address — system) can be a pretty

intimidating thing. There are all those cables, different electronic components scattered about,
big black boxes, stands, knobs, switches, and sliders... where do you start if you want to either
assemble one or learn how to run it for yourself?

The good news is that a sound system is ultimately designed for simple tasks. The most basic of
these is to make a sound louder. Unless you're playing in a very small venue, such as a house, in
order for your audience to hear everything that is said, sung, or played will require some
reinforcement; most voices and acoustic instruments just aren't loud enough on their own to
fill a room with sufficient volume.

There are two other tasks required of a sound system: combining signals, such as all the voices
and instruments in a band, so they can be blended (mixed) and made louder, and routing the
required sounds to different areas of the venue, to the audience, and possibly to recording
equipment or overflow seating.

Though it may seem complex, a sound system can actually be broken down into easily
understandable pieces. Let's take a look at each of these components.

Sources:
Microphone – A device designed to take sound energy (moving air) and turn it into electricity.
There are several different types of microphones used in live sound. We’ll mostly be
using dynamic microphones, which use a diaphragm and a magnet to pick up vibrations
from the air and convert them to electrical impulses. Dynamic Mics work passively,
meaning they don’t need external power. Condenser microphones work differently, and
require electricity to function this can come from a battery, or more often, from
Phantom Power.

Direct Box – A Direct Box or DI (for Direct Insertion) is a tool to allow the connection of guitars,
keyboards and other unbalanced signal generators (like iPods or computers) to connect
to the balanced inputs on the sound board. These can either be passive or active.
Active DI’s require a battery or Phantom Power

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Plug it right in — Some devices, such as tape, CD, and DVD players, can be connected directly
into the mixer.

Transmission
Any of the sound sources that are located on the stage will need to be transmitted to the
location where the sound engineer is running the controls (Front-of House). This is almost
always a wire. Since we have so many signals, we would need a bunch of cables to get the
signal to Front-of-House. A "snake" is a large cable that contains within it many smaller cables,
each of which carries a separate signal. The snake takes the place of having to run a separate
long cable from the stage for each microphone or direct box. Instead, you can run one cable,
which is much easier to handle. We use a 24-channel snake with a “Stage Box” on one end, and
a “fan” on the other. The Stage Box goes on the stage (big surprise) for the various
microphones and other cables to plug into, and the “fan” plugs into the sound board. The
snake carries signals from the stage to the mixer, and then back from the mixer to the stage.

For more mobility, some performers choose to use wireless transmitters to send the signals
from the stage to the mixer. But even if wireless transmitters are used, there will probably still
need to be either separate cables or a snake run back to the mixer. We generally don’t use
wireless mics or transmitters, but some bands bring their own wireless units for their guitars.

Cables – they keep us connected

There are many different kinds of cables used in the professional public address system. It’s
easiest to identify a cable by its connectors and wire type. Here are the most common
connectors you’ll run into:

¼” Phono Plugs
These come in two flavors; TRS or Tip Ring Sleve, and
TS, or Tip Sleve. It’s easy to confuse the two. In the
image to the right, 1 is the Sleeve, 2 is the Ring, and 3
is the Tip. The spacers between segments are
labeled 4. The TRS connectors are used for balanced
signals, usually connecting outboard equipment to
the sound board, and TS connectors are unbalanced, Figure 1 - TRS and TS Connectors. Illustration by
Søren Peo Pedersen
and are usually used to connect guitars and
keyboards to amplifiers and connect amplifiers to speakers and monitors. We use them in all
three capacities.

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XLR Connectors
These three-pin connectors are used to connect
microphones and Direct Boxes to the mixing board. These
are balanced connectors. They come in both a male and
female version. Figure 2 - Male and Female XLR
connectors. Photo by Michael Piotrowski

Speakon Connector
Designed for use with amplified signals, the Neutrik Speakon connector
features covered pins and a locking mechanism. In our system, one of the
monitor amplifiers has Speakon output connectors. We use cables
that go from a Speakon plug to a ¼” connector. When plugging
in the connectors, twist the plug slighty to align the tabs on the
plug with the notches on the jack, insert, and twist to engage.
To disconnect, pull on the collar of the plug or use your thumb
to slide the metal tab, and then twist and pull the body of Figure 3 - Speakon Connector. Image
courtesy of Neutrik USA
the plug.

Other connectors include RCA and 1/8” Minijack plugs. These are commonly found on
consumer audio gear, such as CD players, Turntables, or iPods.

The actual wires used vary by application, but the basic types are Instrument/line cables, mic
cables, and Speaker Cables. Speaker cables are much thicker than mic or line cables to handle
the much higher signal the amplifier puts out. NEVER use a mic or line cable to carry a speaker
signal.

Stage Snake
One special kind of cable, called a Snake, caries many
signals in one large cable. A Stage Snake is designed
to carry mic and instrument signals from the stage to
the mixing board, and the mixed signals for the
speakers and monitors back to the stage. The snake is
terminated with a Stage Box on one end, and a Fan
or Tail of individual connectors on the other.
The Stage Box goes on the stage (big surprise)
Figure 4 - ProCo brand 24x4 Snake. Image curtsey
and the Tail plugs into the sound board. Sweetwater Sound.

Wrap cords while the sun shines

The most common cables you’ll see are the mic cables. These have an XLR male on one end
and an XLR female on the other. They come in many different lengths, but the most common

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are 25ft and 50ft. We have mostly 25ft cables, but we also have a couple of 50 ft cables. We
also have speaker cables with ¼” phono plugs and Speakon connectors. Because these cords
are the bloodlines of our PA, we need to keep them from getting tangled. There’s a special
technique we use to wrap our cables to prevent them from “learning” to be twisty. This
method, sometimes called “over-under” is tricky to get used to, but once you practice a few
times, you’ll be a pro.

The Board – The Heart of the System

The centerpiece of the sound system is the mixer, a.k.a., the console, the sound board, the
mixing console, or the mixing desk. The mixer takes in all the separate signals from the
microphones and direct boxes on the platform and combines them, along with any direct-
connected signals such as tape, CD, or DVD players. The mixer sets the volume and tone for
each signal, combines them all together, and routes them to whatever destinations you might
have chosen. We use a Mackie Onyx 24 Channel mixer.

Take one look at a professional sound board, and you may feel a bit overwhelmed. All those
knobs, buttons, lights, and faders look pretty intimidating. If you take a closer look, however,
you may notice a pattern. The main mixing surface is divided into identical vertical columns,
called Channel Strips. There are a few other controls to get used to on the board, but the first to
learn is the channel strip.

Channel Strips – An obstacle course for the signal

The first thing many people wonder when looking at the sound board is what are all those
knobs for? The fact that the board controls the volume of the individual microphones is pretty
obvious but isn’t that just the fader at the bottom? What do the Pad, Low Cut, Gain,
Parametric Equalizer, Aux Sends, Mute, and PFL controls do? They provide what we can call an
“obstacle course” for the sound signal. The signal travels from the top of the board down the
channel strip, being adjusted and shunted around as the signal moves along. Once the signal
reaches the bottom of the board, it travels along to the main buses, where signals from every
fader are mixed together to make the main mix. Signals that are “shunted” to the aux sends
allow a separate mix for the musicians’ stage monitors. For more in-depth information on how
to use the channel strip, see the Mackie mixer’s manual, which provides a great introduction to
mixer operation.

Proscessing
The mixer combines all the signals, but there are other processors that may be used for various
purposes in your system. These processors are either connected into the mixer, or a placed
between the mixer and other stages of the sound system.

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Equalizer - though the mixer sets the basic tone for each signal, most sound systems use
separate, standalone equalizers (a.k.a. EQs) for optimizing the overall sound quality and tone of
the sound, as well as to "tune" the system to help prevent squealing feedback.

Feedback Eliminators - these are specialized equalizers that can detect feedback and
automatically adjust the tone to reduce or prevent squeals. As of now, we don’t use one of
these.

DriveRack PA – We use processor called a DriveRack PA, that combines and automatic
equalizer with a crossover, a device that splits the high- and low-pitched parts of the audio
signal to send to the main speakers and to the subwoofer. This device has an input for a highly
sensitive reference microphone, allowing the DriveRack to automatically adjust the signal going
to the main speakers.

Reverb - reverb is the ambient wash of echo-y sound that follows a sound in a large room (clap
your hands in a cathedral or large gymnasium for a great example of reverb). Though all rooms
have some reverb, additional reverb can make the sound more spacious and natural.

Effects - a variety of other special effects can be applied to signals, such as echo and others.
These are primarily used to enhance the sound of instruments in the band, and are rarely
applied to sermons, lectures, or spoken word.

AMPLIFICATION
The next stages of the sound system are designed to make the combined signal from the mixer
louder so that the audience can hear it.

Crossover - In larger systems, the next piece of gear in the system will be the crossover. This
splits the signal into different frequency ranges so that various speakers can handle it more
efficiently. Some speakers feature built-in crossovers, but in many cases the crossover will be a
separate piece of equipment. We use the DriveRack PA as our system crossover.

Amplifiers - The amplifiers, or power amps, are the workhorses of the sound system; their job is
to make the small signal from the mixer loud enough for the whole audience to hear. If a
separate crossover is used, then an amplifier will be required for each frequency band the
crossover sends out, often an amp for the low or bass frequencies, one for the midrange
frequencies, and another for the high frequencies. Yet another amp may be required for the
very low, or "sub" frequencies.

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Speakers
The last stage in the sound system is the speaker. The speaker is the component where the
electronic signals from the amplifiers are converted back into sound and directed out into the
auditorium. If a crossover and amplifiers are used, then there will need to be a separate
speaker for each frequency range: a subwoofer for the very low frequencies, a bass speaker for
the low frequencies, a midrange speaker, and a high-frequency speaker (sometimes called a
tweeter).

We use what are called Active speakers. Active, or powered, speakers feature power amps built
into the speaker cabinet itself. This usually means that a crossover is also built into the speaker.
A powered speaker has many advantages: it's easy to set up (because several components are
in one unit), easy to connect, easy to move, and the amplifier and crossover that are built-in
can be optimized to work best with the rest of the speaker's components. This means that we
don’t have to have a whole rack of amplifiers just for our main speakers.

MONITORS
We're not quite done with the sound system yet. Though the sound system is designed to
enhance the sound in the room, there is one area where the sound may actually get worse: on
the stage itself. For a variety of reasons, the band, the singers, the pastor, or other speakers
may find it very difficult to hear themselves. To cure this problem, a monitor system, which is
an extension of the main sound system, is used. The monitor system is a smaller sound system
that is aimed back toward the performers so everyone onstage can hear clearly.

The monitor system is fed by a separate signal coming from the mixer. This signal is routed
through additional amplifiers to speakers called monitors (often "wedge" monitors are used,
which sit on the floor and are angled up so the band members can hear them) are used. In
some cases, "in-ear monitors," which are essentially small headphones, are used (these can
provide better clarity and control and help dramatically cut down on feedback problems). In
some cases, powered monitors are used, which are wedge monitors with built-in amplifiers.

For a much more complete guide to live sound, see the Yamaha Sound Reinforcement
Handbook by Gary Davis and Ralph Jones.

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Glossary
Amplifier –The amplifier, or Amp for short, takes the line-level signals output by the sound
board and turns them into a signal powerful enough to drive speakers or headphones.
We have speakers with built-in amplifiers, so we only have a few amplifiers to power the
stage monitors.

Direct Box – A Direct Box or DI (for Direct Insertion) is a tool to allow the connection of guitars,
keyboards and other unbalanced signal generators (like iPods or computers) to connect
to the balanced inputs on the sound board. These can either be passive or active.
Active DI’s require a battery or Phantom Power

Microphone – A device designed to take sound energy (moving air) and turn it into electricity.
There are several different types of microphones used in live sound. We’ll mostly be
using dynamic microphones, which use a diaphragm and a magnet to pick up vibrations
from the air and convert them to electrical impulses. Dynamic Mics work passively,
meaning they don’t need external power. Condenser microphones work differently, and
require electricity to function this can come from a battery, or more often, from
Phantom Power.

Mixer – Also called a console, the Sound Board or simply the Board, an audio Mixer is a
complex-looking device that takes several audio signals and “mixes” them into one
stereo signal. The mixer we use has 24 channels – 20 mic inputs and two stereo inputs
for an iPod or CD player.

Phantom Power – Phantom Power is electrical power, usually 24-48 volts, that the mixing board
provides to condenser microphones. This can be activated with a switch on the console.

Processor –A processor is any device used to change the sound. These are usually external to
the mixer, and are connected by means of cables to the mixer. Some processors include
Equalizers, Gates/limiters, and Effects Units. Our system has all these components
mounted in a “sidecar” rack that sits next to the sound board.

Speakers –Speakers turn the electrical signals from microphones, recorded music, and
instruments into sound that we can hear. We have three kinds of speakers: Main PA
speakers, a Subwoofer, and Stage Monitors. The main speakers produce most of the
sound the audience will hear, and the subwoofer provides additional bass sound to
adjunct the main speakers. The monitors allow the band to hear what they sound like
through the PA. Each set of monitors has a customized “mix” so that the band members
can each hear what they find most important.