Vlasov Equation

CHAPTER 6: Vlasov Equation
Part 1
6 1 Introduction
6.1
Distribution Function, Kinetic Equation, and Kinetic Theory :
The distribution function f (x,v,t ) gives the particle density of a
certain
t i species
i in
i the
th 6-dimensional
6 di
i l phase
h
space off x andd v att time
ti t.
Thus, f (x,v,t )d 3 xd 3v is the total number of particles in the differential volume d 3 xd 3v at point (x,v ) and time t.
A kinetic equation describes the time evolution of f (x,v,t ). The
kinetic theories in Chs. 3-5 derive various forms of kinetic equations.
In most cases,, however,, the plasma
p
behavior can be described byy an
approximate kinetic equation, called the Vlasov equation, which
simply neglects the complications caused by collisions.
By ignoring collisions,
collisions we may start out without the knowledge of
Chs. 3-5 and proceed directly to the derivation of the Vlasov equation
(also called the collisionless Boltzmann equation).
6.1 Introduction (continued)
The Vlasov Equation : As shown in Sec. 2.9, a collision can

result in an abrupt change of two colliding particles
particles' velocities and
their instant escape from a small element in the x-v space, which
contains the colliding particles before the collision.
However if collisions are neglected (valid on a time scale the
However,
collision time, see Sec. 1.6), particles in an element at position A in
the x-v space will wander in continuous curves to
v
position
iti B (see
(
figure).
fi
) Thus,
Th the
th total
t t l number
b iin the
th
B
element is conserved, and f (x,v,t ) obeys an equation
A
x
of continuity, which takes the form (see next page):
f (x,v,t ) [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )] 0
(1)
x, v
t
In (1), x, v [ ( x , y , z , v , v , v )] is a 6 - dimensional
x
y
z
divergence operator and (x , v ) [ ( x , y , z, vx , v y , vz )] can be regarded

as a 6-dimensional "velocity" vector in the x-v space.
To show that t f (x,v,t ) x, v [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )] 0 [(1)] implies

v
conservation of particles, we integrate it over

an arbitrary volume V6 enclosed by surface S6
in the x-v space:
d
dt
ds6
V6 S
6
V6
f (x, v, t )d 3 xd 3v V x, v [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )]d 3 xd 3v 0

6
N (t )
f (x,v,t )(x , v )ds6
s6
(by 6-dimensional divergence theorem)

d N (t )
(2)
s6 f (x,v,t )(x , v ) ds6 0,
dt
where N (t ) is the total number of particles in V6 , f (x,v,t )(x , v ) is the
6-dimensional "particle flux" in the x-v space, ds 6 is a 6-dimensional
differential surface area of S6 , with a direction normal to S6 pointing
outward. Thus, (2) states that the rate of increase (decrease) of the
total number of particles in V6 equals the partcle flux into (out of) V6 .
Rewrite:
f (x,v,t ) [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )] 0

x, v
t
(1)
I (1)
In
(1), x, v [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )]
x ( fx ) y ( fy ) z ( fz ) v ( fvx ) v ( fv y ) v ( fvz )
x
x ( fx ) v ( fv )
(6 1)
(6.1)
f x v + v x f f v v + v v f
where, because v is an independent variable, we have x v = 0 (3)
q
In general, v v does not vanish. But for v m (E 1c v B),
x v
we have
v E 0 [E does not depend on v]
v ( v B) B ( v v ) v ( v B) 0 0 0
q
v v = m v (E 1c v B) 0
q
Thus,, x, v [ f (x, v, t )(x , v )] v x f + m (E 1c v B) v f
which gives
and (1) becomes
f v f + q (E 1 v B) f 0,
x
v
m
c
t
which is the Vlasov equation.
(4)
(6.5)
4
Physical Interpretation of the Vlasov Equation :

q
The Valsov equation t f v x f + m (E 1c v B) v f 0 (6
(6.5)
5)
q
can be written
v
1c v B)
m (E
d f (x,v,t ) f dx
x f ddtv
v f 0,
0
(5)
t
dt
dt
df
where dt is the total time derivative of f . The total time derivative

(also called a convective derivative) follows the orbit
orbit* of a particle in
the x-v space. It evaluates the variation of f due to the change of the
particle position in the x-v space as well as the explicit time variation
of f . Thus,
Thus (6.5)
(6 5) or (5) can be interpreted as: Along a particle's
particle s orbit
in the x-v space, the particle density f (x,v,t ) remains unchanged.
*In the 6-dimensional x-v space, particles at a point (x,v ) have the
same velociy v. Hence
Hence, the orbit of a particle is also the orbit of an
infinistesimal element containing the particle. In the 3-dimensional
x-space, by contrast, particles at a point x have a range of velocities.
This interpretation is consistent with the fact that the sum of

(3) and (4) gives
x, v (x , v ) x x v v = 00,
(6)
i.e. the 6-dimensional divergence of the 6-dimensional "velocity"
(x , v ) vanishes. This implies that a collisionless
v
plasma
l
is
i incompressible.
i
ibl Hence,
H
the
th volume
l
off
B
an elements (thus the particle density f ) will be
A
x
unchanged as it moves from A to B.
A specific example :
Consider the simple case of a group of particles initially located in
a square
q
in the x-vx space
p
(area
(
A, lower figure).
g ) If the pparticles are
force free, those on the upper edge will move at the fastest (equal and
vx
constant) speed, while those on the lower edge
move at the slowest (equal and constant) speed.
speed
B
Then, some time later, the square will become a
A
x
parallelogram of the same area (area B, lower figure).
Effect of collisions :
If there are collisions, they will cause a variation of f at the
symbolic rate of ( t f )coll , which should be added to (6.5) to
give
f v f q (E 1 v B) f ( f ) ,
x
v
m
c
t
t coll
while the specfic
p
form of ( t f )coll depends
p
on interparticle
p
forces.
Throughout this course, the ( t f )coll term will be neglected.
Complete Set of Equations : We now have the following set

of self
self-consistent,
consistent coupled particle and field equations:
q
1
t f v f m (E c v B) v f 0
B 0
For simplicity, we shall
E 4
henthforth denote x by .
1
E c t B
4
1
B c t E c J
(6.5)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(x, t ) q f (x, v, t )d 3v
(11)
where
q f (x, v, t ) vd 3v
(12)
J (x, t )
Each particle species, denoted by the subscript " ", is governed

by a separate Valsov equation, and q carries the sign of the charge.
6.2 Equilibrium Solutions

General Form of Equilibrium Solutions : As shown in (5),
the Vlasov equation can be written as a total time derivative:
d f (x,v,t ) f dx f dv f 0,
v
t
dt
dt
dt
(5)
d follows the orbit of a particle whose position and velocity

where dt
at time t is x and v, respectively. Thus, any fuction of constants of the
motion along the orbit of the particle, Ci Ci ( x, v,t ), is a solution of
d f (C , C ...) f dCi 0,
the Vlasov equation, i.e. dt
1
2
C dt
i
because,, by
y the definition of constant of the motion,,
dCi
t Ci ddtx Ci ddtv v Ci 0.
dt
The equilibrium
q
solution ((denoted by
y subscript
p "0")) of interest to
us is a steady-state solution formed of constants of the motion that do
not depend explicitly on t , i.e. f 0 f 0 (C1 , C2 ...) with Ci Ci (x, v ).
6.2 Equilibrium Solutions (continued)
Examples of Constants of the Motion :

1 If B 0 E0 00, vx , v y , and vz are constants of the motion.
1.
motion
2. If E0 0, B 0 B0e z const., v , vz are constants of the motion.
3. The motion of a charged particle (mass m and charge q ) in EM
fi ld (represented
fields
(
t d by
b potentials
t ti l A andd ) is
i governedd by
b Lagrange's
L
'
equation: [Goldstein, Poole, & Safko, "Classical Mechanics," 3rd ed., p. 21]
q
d L L , i 1, 2, 3
(13) m dv qE c v B (13)
dt
dt qi qi
See Goldstein, Poole, &
qi is a position coordinate.
Safko, Sec. 1.5.
where
q
2
1
L 2 mv c v A q [L: Lagrangian; v: particle velocity]
In cylindrical coordinates, we have qi (r , , z ), qi (r, , z ),
r r A zA
z . If the fields A and
v 2 r 2 r 2 2 z 2 , and v A rA
d L L 0.
are independent
i d
d off , (13) gives
i
0 Hence,
H
dt
L mrv q rA const [canonical angular momentum] (14)
10
c
Examples of Equilibrium Solutions:

In contrast to the Boltzmann equation,
equation which has only one
equilibrium solution (the Maxwellian distribution), the Vlasov
equation has an infinite number of possible equilibrium solutions.
But they exist on a time scale short compared with the collision time.
time
The choice of the equilibrium solution depends on how the
plasma is formed. For example, if we inject two counter streaming
electrons
l
off velocity
l i v0 ez andd v0 ez into
i
a neutralizing
li i background
b k
d
of cold ions, we have the following equilibrium solutions for the
electrons and ions (of equal density n0):
f e 0 1 n0 (vx ) (v y )[ (vz v0 ) (vz v0 )]

2
(15)
f
n
(
)
(
)
(
)
i 0
x
y
z
0
which correctly represent the electron/ion distributions on a time
scale short compared with the collision time.
11
Given sufficient time, collisions will first randomize electron

velocities and eventually equalize electron and ion temperatures.
temperatures
The fianl state will be an equilibrium solution in the form of the
Maxwellian distribution for both the electrons and ions:
2
2
n0
f 0 (v) n0 ( m )3/2 exp( mv )
exp( v 2 )
3/2
3
2 kT
2kT
(2 ) vT
2vT
(16)
where vT kT / m is the thermal speed, T is the same for both

species
i , m me for
f the
th electrons
l t
andd m mi for
f the
th ions.
i
I (16)
In
(16),
f 0 has been normalized to give a uniform particle density of n0
in x-space [ f 0 (v)d 3v n0 ].
5(2n1)
x 2ne ax2 dx 13
a
0
2n1 an
Useful formulae:
( a 0)
2 n 1 ax2
n
!
0 x
e dx n1
2a
e ax dx 12
2
;
a
2
x 2e ax dx 41a a ;
(17)
2
x 4e ax dx 32 a (18)12
8a
Discussion: In constructing the equilibrium solution f 0 , we must

also consider the self
self-consistency
consistency of the solution. For example, using
(11) and (12), we find that both (15) and (16) give 0 e 0 i 0 0
and J 0 = J e 0 J i 0 0. Hence, the plasma produces no self fields and
the assumption of E0 B 0 0 (which makes vx , v y , and vz constants
of the motion) is valid. However, if f e 0 12 n0 (vx ) (v y )[ (vz v0 )
(vz v0 )] in (15) is replace by f e0 n0 (vx ) (v y ) (vz v0 ), then
J ez 0 and there will be a self magnetic field, in which vx , v y , vz are
no longer constants of the motion. As a result, f e 0 (vx , v y ,vz ) does not
satisfy the Vlasov equation
equation. In other words
words, the complete equilibrium
solution includes not just f 0 , but also the self-consistent fields.
When the air in equilibrium [(16)] is disturbed, sound waves will be
generated When a plasma in equilibrium is disturbed
generated.
disturbed, a great variety
of waves may be generated. Some may even grow exponentially. These
13
are subjects of primary interest in plasma studies.
6.3 Electrostatic Waves

Rewrite the Vlasov-Maxwell equations:
q
1
t f v f m (E c v B) v f 0
B 0
E 4
1
E c t B
4
1
B c t E c J
(6.5)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(x, t ) q f (x, v, t )d 3v
(11)
where
(12)
q f (x, v, t ) vd 3v
J (x, t )
Below we present a kinetic treatment

Below,
treatment of the problem in Sec.
Sec 1.4.
14
The electrons now have a velocity spread and, as a result, we will find
that the electrostatic plasma oscillation becomes an electrostatic wave.14
6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)
At high frequencies (e.g. ~ pe ), the ions cannot respond fast

enough to play a significant role. So we assume that the ions form a
stationary background of uniform density n0 . Since we consider only
electron dynamics, the species subscript " " in f will be dropped.
Equilibrium (Zero-Order) Solution :
Assume there is no field (including external field) at equilibrium.
then, v x , v y , and v z are constants of the motion and any fuction of v,
f 0 f 0 ( v ) f 0 ( v x , v y , v z )), is an equilibrium
eq ilibri m solution
sol tion for the electrons,
electrons
i.e.
f ( v ) v f ( v ) e ( E 1 v B ) f ( v ) 0
0
0
v 0
me 0 c
t
0
provided f 0 ( v ), which represents a uniform distribution in real space,

is normalized to the ion density n0 and it gives rise to zero current,
3
For clarity, all equilibrium quantities
f 0 ( v )d v n0
i
i.e.
(19)
are
denoted by subscript "0". They
3
f
v
v
d
v
(
)
0
are
treated
as
zero-order
quantities.
0
15
so that there are no fields at equilibrium (E0 B0 0).
First-Order Solution (Linear Theory) of Electrostatic Waves

by the Normal-Mode Method :
Consider small deviations from the equilibrium solution in (19)
[f f 0 ( v ), E0 B0 0] and specialize to waves without a magnetic
fi ld (th
field
(thus, E = 1c t B 0 E = )). W
We may th
then write
it
f ( x, v, t ) f 0 ( v ) f1 ( x, v, t )
( x, t ) 1 ( x, t )
E( x, t ) E1 ( x, t ) 1 ( x, t )
For clarity, we denote all

small quantities by subscript
"1"
1 . They are treated as
first-order quantities.
Sub. (20) into the Vlasov equation:
(20)
f v f e ( E 1 v B) f 0,
0
v
me
c
t
(6.5)
(6
5)
we find the zero-order terms vanish. Equating the first-order terms,
we obtain
f v f e f
1
1
v 0
me
t 1
Sub. E1 1 and 1 e f1d 3v into the first-order field

equation, E1 41 , we obtain 21 4 e f1d 3v
(21)
(22)16
f1 v f1 me 1 v f 0
(21)
e
Rewrite: t2
3
(22)
1 4 e f1d v
Consider a normal mode (denoted by subscript "k" ) by letting
f1 (x, v, t ) f1k ( v )eikz z it [f1k ( v ) : a small function of v ] (23)
ik z it
[1k : a small constant]
(24)
1 (x, t ) 1k e z
where it is understood that the LHS is given by the real part of the RHS.
The normal-mode analysis is general because a complete solution
can be expressed as a superposition of any number of normal modes.
((21),
), ((23),
3), aandd (24)
( ) give
g ve (i ik z vz ) f1k ( v ) mee ik z1k
f ( v )
f1k ( v ) mee kkz v 1k 0v
z
z z
(22)-(25) give k z21k
4 n e2
0
me
1
n0 k z1k
2pe
f 0 ( v )
vz
(25)
f 0 ( v )
vz
d 3v
kz vz
(26)
17
f 0 ( v )
vz
3
k z v z d v
f 0 ( v )
vz
3
1
n0 vz d v
k
R it (26) : k z21k 2pe n10 k z1k

Rewrite
For 1k 0,, we must have
2pe
kz2
(26)
((27))
The v x and v y integrations in (27) may be immediately carried out

to result in a one-dimensional distribution function g 0 ( v z ) [which,
[
, byy
(19), is normalized to 1]:
g ( v ) 1 f ( v )dv dv
(28)
x
y
n0 0
dg0 ( v )
2pe dvz
dispersion
Then, (27) becomes 1 2 v dv z 0
kz
z k
relation
0
(29)
(29) has a singularity at v z / k z , which will be addressed later.

For now, we circumvent this difficulty by assuming v z / k z for the
majority of electrons so that g0 (v z ) is negligibly small at v z / k z .
18
Since g0 ( v z ) 0, integrating (29) by parts gives

2 g0 ( vz )
2pe g0 ( vz )
1 pe
dv
dv z 0
2 (1 k
zvz )2
kz2 ( vz )2 z
k
(6.25)
Note: The z -direction here is the x -direction in Nicholson. g0 , k z ,

and v z are, respectively, g , k , and u in Nicholson.
Expanding (1 kzvz ) 2 and keeping terms up to second order in
kzvz , we obtain 1 2pe g ( v )[1 2 kzvz 3( kz vz )2 ]dv 0 (6.26)

z
2 0 z
A specific example : If the equilibrium soultion is Maxwellian:
vx2 v2y vz2
n0
f0 ( v)
exp(
)
(6.23)
2
3
2vTe
(2 )3/2 vTe
g0 ( v z ) n1
0
dx 12 a , we obtain
2
f 0 ( v )dv x dv y 1 exp( vz2 )
(6.24), (30)
2vTe
2 vTe
19
then, using the formula in (18):
ax
0 e
With g0 ( v z )
ax
0 e
1 exp( vz2 ) [(30)] and the formulae:

2
2vTe
2 vTe
dx 12 a and
2
x 2 e ax dx 41a a [(18)], we obtain
z g
0 ( v z ) dv z 0; v z g 0 ( v z ) dv z vTe
g0 (vz )dv z 1;; v
(31)
( )
an odd function of v z
2pe
k z vz
k z vz 2
g 0 ( v z )[1 2
3(
(
[(
)],
2
) ]dv z 0 [(6.26)],

2
k 2v 2 2
we obtain
1 pe2 3 z Te4 pe 0,
(6.27)
B assumption
By
ti (30),
(30) k z vTe . Thus,
Th to
t lowest
l
t order,
d (6.27)
(6 27) gives
i
pe and, to next order, we obtain the dispersion relation for the
Sub. ((31)) into 1
Langmuir
g
wave : (See
(
Sec. 7.3 for a fluid treatment))
2
2
2 2pe 3k z2 vTe
[ pe (1 23 k z2 vTe
)]
(6.28)
20
6.4 Landau Contour

We now address the singularity encountered in (29). First, a review
off relevant
l
t definitions
d fi iti
andd theorems
th
involving
i l i complex
l variables.
i bl
(Reference: Mathews and Walker, "Math. Methods of Phys.," 2nd ed.)
Laplace Transform : (M&W, Sec. 4.3)
L[ (t )] (t )e pt dt ( p ) A tilde " " on top of a symbol
0
indicates a p-space quantity.

initial
value
((32))
L[ (t )] p ( p ) (t 0))
initial
value
initial
value
L[ (t )] p 2 ( p ) p (t 0) (t 0)
Im( p)
Inverse Laplace transform:
p i
poles
(t ) 21 i p 0i ( p )e pt dp
(33)
of ( p)
0
Re( p)
Note: p0 ( 0) is sufficiently large so that all
p
path of
0
the poles of ( p ) lie to the left of the path of
p-integration
p -integration. Hence, (t ) 0 if t 0. (why?)
21
6.4 Landau Contour (continued)
Analytic Function : (M&W, Appendix A)
A function f ( z ) in the complex z -plane (z x iy rei ) is said

to be analytic at a point z if it has a derivative there and the derivative
f ( z h) f ( z )
[h: a complex number]
h
h 0
f ( z ) lim
is independent of the path by which h approaches 0.

0
The necessary and sufficient conditions for a function
W ( z ) U ( x, y ) iV ( x, y )
to be analytic are:
U V and V U
x
y
x
y
(34)
Examples: W z 2 , W z , and W e z are all analytic functions.

W z * (z*: complex conjugate of z ) is not an analytic function.
22
Single-Valued Function : (M&W, Appendix A)

A function W ( z ) in the complex z -plane
plane is single
single-valued
valued if
W ( z rei ) W ( z rei ( 2 n ) ) [n 1, 2,]
z
W z 2 iss a ssingle-valued
g e v ued function.
u c o .
r
Examples
E
l :
1/ 2
x
W z is not a single-valued function. 0
y
For W z1/ 2 , we may draw a branch cut from
z 0 to
t in
i the
th z -plane
l
andd forbid
f bid z to
t cross it.
it
z
r
1/ 2
Then, W z is single-valued in the z -plane

x
0
where is restricted to the range 0 2 , i.e.
branch cut
the value would have a 2 jump if z were to cross the branch cut.
Regular Function : (M&W, Appendix A)
A function is said to be regular
g
in a region
g
R if it is both analytic
y
and single-valued in R. Thus, W z 2 is regular in the z -plane with an

arbitray and W z1/ 2 is regular in the z -plane with a branch cut.
23
Cauchy' Theorem : (M&W, Appendix A)

If a function f ( z ) is regular in a region R, then
c f ( z )dz 0,0
where C is any closed path lying within R. Hence, the line integral
z2
z1
f ( z ) dz is independent of the path of integration
z2
z1
from z1 to z2 if the path lies within region R.
x
Theorem of Residues : (M&W, Sec. 3.3 & Appendix A)
If f ( z ) is regular in a region R, except for a finite number of poles,
es
then,
(35)
c f ( z )dz 2 i residues inside C ,
where C is any closed path (in the counterclockwise direction) within R
the residue of a pole
and of order n at z z 1 {( d )n1[( z z0 ) n f ( z )]}z z0 (36)
0
(n1)! dz
y
g ( z)
g ( z ) is regular
Example: z z dz 2 ig ( z0 )
z
0
with
c
i h no poles.
l
0
x
b g ( x)
x0 g ( x )
b g ( x)
Principal Value : P a x x dx lim a x x dx x x x dx (37)

0
0
0
0
24
Identity Theorem : (M&W, Appendix A)

If two functions are each regular in a region R, and having the
same values for all points within some subregion or for all points
along an arc of some curve within R, then the two functions are
identical everywhere in R. For example
example, in the the z -plane,
plane e z is
the unique function in the z -plane which equals e x on the x-axis.
R1
Analytic Continuation : (M&W, Appendix A)
f1(z)
If f1 ( z ) andd f 2 ( z ) are analytic
l ti in
i regions
i
R1 and
d R2 ,
f1 f2
respectively, and f1 f 2 in a common region (or line),
f2(z)
then f 2 ( z ) is the analytic continuation of f1 ( z ) into R2 .
R2
By identity theorem, it is the unique analytic continuation.
Example 1: f1 1 z z 2 z 3 is analytic in the region z 1.
f 2 1/(1 z ) is analytic everywhere except at the pole z 1. Since
f1 f 2 in the common region z 1, f 2 is the unique analytic
continuation of f1 into the z 1 region (except for the pole at z 1). 25
Example 2: Consider the following 2 analytic functions of p:
l ti in
i the
th upper vz -plane
g ( vz ) analytic
f1 ( p ) dv z
ip / k z (38)
vz ip / k z half plane, Re( p ) 0
(k z is real and positive.)

f 2 ( p ) dv z
L
g ( vz )
vz ip / k z
analytic in the
entire p -plane
g ( vz )
L d
Landau
dv z
,
vz ip / k z
contour
ppath of
integration
vz -plane
(39)
ip / k z
Re( p ) 0
ip
g ( vz )
ig
g ( ), Re(( p ) 0
P dv z
((40))
vz ip / k z
kz
definition
of Landau dv z g ( vz ) 2 ig ( ip ), Re( p ) 0
Landau contour
kz
vz ip / k z
contour
Since f1 ( p ) f 2 ( p ) in the upper half plane, f 2 ( p ) is the (unique)
analytical continuation of f1 ( p ) into the lower half plane.
26
Electrostatic Waves by the Method of Laplace Transform :

(Ref Krall & Trivelpiece,
(Ref.
Trivelpiece Secs.
Secs 8.3
8 3 and 8.4)
8 4)
f1 v f1 mee 1 v f 0
(21)
Return to (21) and (22): t2
3
((22))
1 4 e f1d v
Direct substitution of the nomal mode [(23), (24)] into (21) and
(22) results in a singularity in (29). Landau resolved this problem by
treating (21) and (22) as an initial value problem in t , while analyzing
a spatial Fourier component in z (denoted by subscript "k").
f1 ( x, v, t ) f1k ( v, t )eikz z By assumption, the wave
(41)
Let
has no x, y -variation.
variation
ikk z z
(42)
1 ( x, t ) 1k (t )e
Sub. (41), (42) into (21), (22), we obtain
f ( v, t ) ik v f ( v, t ) e ik (t ) f 0 ( v )
z z 1k
me z 1k
t 1k
vz
2
3
k z 1k (t ) 4 e f1k ( v, t )d v
(43)
(44)27
f ( v, t ) ik v f ( v, t ) e ik (t ) f 0 ( v )
(43)
z z 1k
me z 1k
1k
vz
Rewrite t
2
3
(44)
k z 1k (t ) 4 e f1k ( v, t )d v
Perform a Laplace transform on (43) and (44) [see (32)], we obtain
pff ( v, p ) f ( v, t 0) ik v f ( v, p ) e ik ( p ) f 0 ( v ) (45)
z z 1k
me z 1k
1k
1k
vz
2
3
(46)
k z 1k ( p ) 4 e f1k ( v, p )d v
f ( v, p ) f ( v, t )e pt dt
(47)
1k
0 1k
where
pt
(48)
1k ( p ) 0 1k (t )e dt
f ( v )
f1k ( v,t 0) mee ikz 0 1k ( p )
vz
(45) f1k ( v, p )
(49)
pikz vz
A note on notations: Subscripts "0"
0 and "1"
1 indicate,
indicate respectively,
respectively
zero-order and first-order quantities. Subscript "k" indicates a Fourier
component in z. Symbols with a " " sign on top are p-space quantities.28
Sub. (49) into (46), we obtain

f ( v,t 0) 3
1k
4 e
d v
pikz vz
1k ( p )
2pe
ikz f 0 ( v )
n0 vz
g1k (vz ,t 0)
dvz
i
vz ip
i 4 n3 0e
kz
kz
2pe
dg0 (vz )
dvz
(50)
i dvz
p ikz vz
kz2 vz ip
kz
g1k (vz , t 0) n1 f1k ( v, t 0)dvx dv y
Im(
p
)
0
where
(51)
1
g
(
v
)
f
(
v
)
dv
dv
x
y
n0 0
poles
l
0 z
( p)
of
1k
Inverse Laplace transform:
Re( p)
p0 i
By (33), 1k (t ) 1
1k ( p )e pt dp,
p
path
p
of (52)
0
2 i p0 i
p-integration
where p0 ( 0) is a real number. In (50), k z is
real by assumption. If k z 0, we see from (50)
Im(vz )
ip / k z
that the pole (ip / k z ) of the vz -integrals
integrals lies
Re(vz )
above the Re(vz ) axis. Hence, 1k ( p ) & 1k (t )
path of vz - integration 29
are valid solutions without any singularity.
k z2[1
kz2
d 3v]

p0 i
pt
Rewrite (52): 1k (t ) 1
( p)e dp,
2 i p0 i 1k
g (vz ,t 0)
Im( p)
1k
i 4 n3 0e
dvz
kz vz ip
kz
poles
where 1k ( p )
1
2pe
kz2
dg0 (vz )
dvz
vz ip
kz
of 1k ( p)
dvz
(52)
(50)
Re( p)
path of
p-integration
The mathematical solution (52) is in a form

in which the physics (e.g. normal modes and
Im(vz )
ip / k z
dispersion relation, etc.) is not transparent. We
Re(vz )
need more work to obtain a physics solution.
solution
path of vz - integration
This will require a detour of the path of the
p -integration into the Re( p) 0 region, which implies that the pole at
i / k z will
ip
ill cross the Re(vz ) axis,
a is on which
hich 1k ( p ) is sing
singular.
lar Th
Thus,
s the
analytic region of 1k ( p ) is bounded by the Re(p ) 0 line, and our first

step is to analytically continue 1k ( p ) from Re(p) 0 into Re( p) 0. 30
Step 1 : Analytic continuation : By the method in (38)-(40), we

may analytically continue 1k ( p ) from Re(p ) 0 into Re(p ) 0 by
by changing the path of vz -integration in (50) from the straight line
Im(vz )
dvz to the Landau contour: L dvz .
Thus, 1k ( p )
i 4 n3 0e
kz
1
g1k (vz ,t 0)
L vz ip dvz
2pe
kz2
kz
dg
g0 (vz )
dvz
vz ip
dvz
kz
Note that this path change will not affect the

p0 i
value of 1k (t ) 1
( p )e pt dp in (52)
2 i p0 i 1k
because 1k ( p ) in (52) is evaluated along the
Re(p ) p0 ( 0) line, for which the Landau path
is the same as the original vz -path (see figures).
ip / k z
Re(vz )
original path of
vz - integration (53)
vz -plane
ip / k z
same as
original path
Landau contour
31
S ( p ,k z )
vz -plane
Write (53) as 1k ( p )
,
(54)
D ( p ,k z )
ip
p / kz
4 n0e g1k (vz ,t 0)

S
(
p
,
k
)
i
dvz
z
kz3 L vz ip
kz
implying
where "source"
dg0 (vz )
source
dvz
D( p, k ) 1 2pe
dvz
(55)
z
kz2 L vz ip
kz
Landau contour
p0 i S ( p,k ) pt
z
1
then, (52) 1k (t )
e dp
(56)
2 i p0 i D ( p,kz )
Im( p)
Since 1k ( p ) is now regular (analytic and
poles
single valued) in the entire p-plane
single-valued)
plane (except
of 1k ( p)
at poles), we are free to deform the path of
Re( p)
p
path of
p-integration in (56) (by Cauchy's theorem),
0
p
integration
-integration
provided
id d the
th new path
th does
d
nott cross any pole.
l
Note: We now have 2 complex planes: p -plane and vz -plane, and
32
there are integrals along complex paths in both planes.
Im( p)
Step 2 : Deformation of the p -contour in (56):
p0 i S ( p,k ) ptt
z
poles
1k (t ) 21 i
e dp
(56)
p0 i D ( p ,k z )
of 1k ( p)
To bring out the physics in (56), we deform
Re( p)
p
original
the p -contour
the
contour as shown to the right.
right Cauchy
Cauchy'ss
0
p-contour
theorem requires the new path to encircle
(rather than cross) the poles it encounters. deformed
p-contour, Im( p) p i
0
radius
A
Assume
th
thatt all
ll the
th poles
l off 1k ( p )
[ S ( p, k z ) / D ( p, k z )] are at the (1st-order)
growing
roots p j (j 1,2, ) of D ( p, k z ) 0. Then,
mode
Re( p)
p t residues
S ( p,k )
1k (t ) ( p p j ) D ( p,kz ) e j
p p at poles
z
j
damped integrand
mode
p t ip t
e r i
transient effects [integrations away from poles]

(57)
p0 i
Path integrations away from the poles result in
1k (t ) 0 as t because e pt oscillates rapidly with pi [ Im( p )]. 33
Normal modes: Rewrite:
Define ip so that 1k (t ) e
then, (55) can be written 1
2pe
kz2
2pe
kz2
it
dg0 (vz )
dvz
i
vz ip
dvz 0
(55)
kz
and 1 ( x, t ) eit ikz z
(58)
dg0 (vz )
dispersion
dvz
0
dv
z
vz
relation (59)
k
z
vz
(corresponding Landau contour:
vz
vz )
i 0
i 0
i 0
and (57) can be written as a sum of normal modes
i t
S ( ,k )
1k (t ) 1i ( j ) D ( ,kz )
e j transient
(60)

z
effects
j
j
i t ik z z transient
S ( ,kz )
1 (x, t ) 1i ( j )
(61)
e j
D ( ,kz )
effects
j
j
where frequencies j ( ip j , j 1, 2, ) of the normal modes (in

gereral complex numbers) for a given k z can be found from (59).
34
Summary of techniques and theorems used :

A Laplace transform brings us into the complex variable territory.
Cauchy's theorem is then used to deform the p-contour (left figure).
This requires the analytic continuation of 1k ( p) to the entire p-plane,
which in turn leads to the Landau contour for the vz -integration
integration
(right figure). With the deformed p -contour, we are able to apply the
residue theorem to extract the essential physics by isolating the normal
modes
d from
f
th
the (non-essential)
(
ti l) transient
t
i t effects.
ff t
deformed Im( p )
vz -plane
p -contour,
radius
p0 i
ip / k z
growing
mode
Re( p )
damped integrand
mode
p t ip t
e r i
p0 i
Landau contour
35
A Recipe for Handling Singularities in Normal -Mode Method :

Rewrite the solution [(29)] obtained by the normal-mode method
in Sec. 6.3 and the new solution [(59) and (61)] obtained by the
Laplace transform method in this section.
1
2pe
kz2
dg0 (vz )
By comparison, we find that
dvz
dv
0
z
the Laplace-transform method
vz
kz
gives the additional information
dg0 (vz )
off mode
d amplitude
li d in
i terms off
dvz
the initial perturbation [see (61)].
dvz 0
(29)
2
1 pe
(59)
kz2 L vz k
i j t ik z z transient
t
i t
1 ( ) S ( ,kz )
(
x
,
t
)
(61)
1
j
i
D ( ,kz )
effects
j
j
p for the path

p
We find that ((29)) and ((59)) have the same form except
of the vz -integration. This provides a simple recipe for removing the
singularity in (29): replacing dvz with the Landau contour: L dvz . 36
The above recipe is of general applicability; namely, we may

solve
so
ve a variety
va ety of
o problems
p ob e s by the
t e (simpler)
(s p e ) normal-mode
o a ode method,
et od,
then remove similar singularities in the solutions by replacing the
dvz contour with the Laudau contour L dvz .

A question may arise as to whether the pole should remain above
or below the Landau contour. As just shown, this depends on whether
ip
the original position of the pole k is above or below the Re(v z )-axis
z
g ( vz ,t 0)
1k
i 4kn30e
dv z
z
vz kip
z
in (50):
1k ( p )
(50)
1
2pe
kz2
dg0 ( vz )
dvz
vz kip
dv z
p0 i
b f
before
we deform
d f
the
h p -contour in
i (52):
(52) 1k (t ) 21 i
( p )e pt dp
d
p0 i 1k
ip
i.e. we determine the original position of k by setting Re( p ) p0 0.37
(t ) 1 p0 i ( p )e pt dp,
(52)
2 i p0 i 1k
1k
g (vz ,t 0)
1k
dvz
i 4 n3 0e
k
z
vz ip
Rewrite
kz
((50))
1k ( p )
dg0 (vz )
2pe dvz
1
dvz
kz2 vz ip
kz
where
h
R ( p ) p0 00. W
Re(
We see, if k z 0,
0 the
th original
i i l position
iti off the
th
ip
pole k lies above the path of vz -integration, and should remain so
z
when the p-contour in (52) is deformed and the vz -contour in (50) is
changed to the Landau contour. If k z 0, then the original position
ip
of the pole k lies below, and should remain below, the vz -contour.
z
If we convert the variable p to a new variable ip so that

the solution has the form of a normal mode: exp( it ik z z ), the
original position of the pole can be similarly determined as follows:
38
Recipe for Landau path in normal -mode analysis:

k z 0 (poles remain above vz -contour) :
vz (62)
vz
vz
it ikz z
0
i 0
i 0
i
e
dependence:
k z 0 (poles remain below vz -contour) :
vz
vz
vz
(63)
i 0
i 0
i 0
k z 0 (poles remain below vz -contour) :
v z (64)
vz
vz
it ikz z
0
i 0
i
i
e
dependence:
k z 0 (poles remain above vz -contour) :
vz (65)
vz
vz
i 0
i 0
i 0
39
6.5 Landau Damping

We have shown that a Laplace transform elegantly resolves the
singularty problem in normal-mode analysis. The recipe is in the
form of the Landau contour for the v z -integration [(62)-(65)].
Waves considered so far are electrostatic in nature (i.e. without
a B-field component). The Langmuir wave derived in Sec. 6.3 is
only one example of such waves. In this section, we reconsider the
Langmuir
g
wave byy properly
p p y accountingg for the singularity
g
y through
g
the use of the Landau contour. This leads to a very important new
phenomenon known as Landau damping.
We will then go beyond the scope implied by the section title
with an examination of two types of electostatic instabilities, the
Landau growth and the two-stream instability, which occur in a
plasma with a non-Maxwellian
non Maxwellian electron distribution.
distribution We will also
consider a different type of (low-frequency) electrostatic wave, the
ion sound wave, which involves both the electrons and ions.
40
6.5 Landau Damping (continued)
Landau Damping in a Plasma with a Maxwellian g0 ( v z ) :

1
Rewrite (59):
2pe
k2
z
L vz 1 kz
dg0 ( vz )
dv z 0,
dvz
(59)
which was derived under the e it ikz z dependence. Thus, for k z 0,

vz
vz
vz
the v z -contour is [see (62)]
i 0
i 0
If i 0, we may take the path

Nicholson, pp. 279-284)
dg0 ( vz )
dv z P
dvz
kz
L vz
vz 1 kz
vz and write (see

dg0 ( vz )
dg0 ( vz )
dv z i dv
(66)
dvz
z v / k
z
z
If / k z vTe , we may expand the principal

value term to obtain
kz
[1
L vz 1 kz
i 0
dg0 ( vz )
dv z
dvz
g 0 (v z )
kz
vT e
dg
0
z z 2
z z 3
( ) ( ) ]dv z i dvz
k z vz
kv
vz
kv
(67)
vz / k z
41
L vz 1 kz
Rewrite (67):
kz
dg
dvz0 [1
dg0 ( vz )
dv z
dvz
dg
0
z z 2
z z 3
( ) ( ) ]dv z i dvz
k z vz
kv
kv
vz k
(68)
g ( v ) 1 exp( vz2 ) [see (30)]

2
2vTe
2 vTe
0 z
For a Maxwellian g 0 :
dg0 ( vz )
vz exp( vz2 )
(69)
dv
2
3
2vTe
2 vTe
z
2
2
we use 0 x 2 e ax dx 41a a and 0 x 4 e ax dx 8a32 a [(18)] to
obtain
b i
L vz 1 kz
dg0 ( vz )
dg
2
d z ( kz )2 3( kz )4 vTe
dv
i dv 0
dvz
z v
z k
(70)
Sub. (70) into (59) and using (69), we obtain

1
2 kz2vTe2
(1 3 z 2Te ) i 2
e
0
z Te
2
pe
2
k 2v 2
2
pe
3
k v3
(71)
42
kz2vT2e
2
2 2 k 2v 2
Rewrite (71): 1 pe
(1
3
) i 2 3pe3 e z Te 0
2
2
kz vTe
(71)
Let r ii and i 1 12 12 (1 i i ) 2 12 (1 2i i )
r
r
r
r
r
Keeping terms up to first order, (71) gives
r2
2
2
2
2
2
2
k v

r 2 kz2vTe
1 pe2 (1 3 z 2Te ) 2i pe2 i i 2 pe
(72)
e
0
3
r
r
kz3vTe
r
r
We may solve (72) by the method of iteration. To the lowest order,
(72) gives r pe . To first order, the real part of (72) gives
k 2v 2
k 2v 2
r2 2pe (1 3 z 2Te ) r pe (1 23 z 2Te )
(73)
pe
pe
and the imaginary part of (72) gives
i 8
4
pe
k 3v3
z Te
2pe
3
2 2
2 k z2vTe
[k z 0]
(74)
43
The electron Debye length (De ) can be written

vT2e
kTe
kTe me
2
De
me 4 n e2 2pe
4 n0e2
0
Thus, (73) and (74) can be written
(75)
2 2
3 k z vTe ) (1 3 k 2 2 )
(1
pe
pe
2 2pe
2 z De
r
(76)
2pe 3
21 2 3
4
2
2
2
2
pe e 2 k z vTe pe e 2 k z De
3
i 8 kz3vTe
8 k z3D3 e
where r and i agree with (6.52) and (6.53) in Nicholson.
D
Discussion
:
(i) (76) is derived under the e it ik z z dependence with k z 0.
t
g
number and e i , which implies
p
Hence,, i is a negative
that the wave is damped even though the plasma is assumed to be
collisionless. This is known as Landau damping.
44
Rewrite (76):
2 2
3 k z vTe ) (1 3 k 2 2 )
(1
pe
pe
r
2 2pe
2 z De
(76)
2pe2 3
21 2 3
4
2
2
pe e 2 k z vTe pe e 2 k z De
3
8 k z3D3 e
i 8 kz3vTe
(ii) In the limit of Te 0, we have r pe and i 0. Thus,
((76)) reduce to the (undamped)
(
p ) pplasma oscillation of a cold pplasma.
discussed in Sec. 1.4. This shows that the plasma temperature is
responsible for both the Landau damping and the change from an
oscillation phenomenon to a wave phenomenon.
phenomenon
(iii) Mathematically, contribution to i comes
g 0 (v z )
from the residue of the pole at v z / k z in the
k
z
v z -integration.
integration Physically,
Physically this implies that
vTe
vz
Landau damping is due to resonant electrons
45
moving at the phase velocity ( / k z ) of the wave.
Question : How will the result be changed if k z 0, while still

assuming the e it ikz z dependence?
Answer :
v z instead of
In this case, from (63), we use the contour
vz . Thus, the only change is to replace "+ i" in (66):
L vz 1 kz
dg0 ( vz )
dv z P
dvz
vz 1 kz
dg0 ( vz )
dg0 ( vz )
dv
i
z
dvz
dvz v / k
z
z
with " i". This will result in the same expression for r , but with
g 0 (v z )
a sign change in i i.e.
4
i 8 3 pe3 e
kz vTe
2pe
3
2 2
2 k z2vTe
8 3 pe3 e
kz De
1 3
2 2
2 k z2De
kz v
Te
vz
Since k z 0, i is still a negative number and the wave will be

damped at the same rate as is expected from symmetry considerations.
46
Landau Growth in a Plasma with a Bump-in-Tail Distribution :

C id a plasma
Consider
l
whose
h
electrons
l t
consist
i t off 2 spatially
ti ll uniform
if
components with densities n0a and n0b , and equilibrium distributions
g 0a (v z ) and g 0b (v z ) (see figure below). Assume that (1) n0a n0b ;
(2) g 0a (v z ) has a v z -spread of vTa centered at v z 0; and (3) g 0b (v z )
has a v z -spread of vTb centered at v z vb vTa . Thus, g 0b (v z ) looks
p in the "tail" pportion of g 0a (v z )).
like a small "bump"
To be self-consistent, we assume further that the ion density is
equal to the total electron density, and the ions drift to the right with
a current equal and opposite to the electron current.
current Thus
Thus, there is
no electric or magnetic field at equilibrium.
vTb
g 0a ( v z )
g 0b ( v z )
vz
vTa
vb
it ik z z
47
Assuming e
dependence with k z 0 and treating each
component separately as before,
before we obtain the dispersion relation:
1
2
pa
kz2
2pb
dg0 a ( vz )
dv z 2
dvz
kz
L vz
k
L vz 1 kz
dg0b ( vz )
dv z 0
dvz
(77)
( A)
( B)
For term (A), we assume /k z vTa (no resonant electrons). Thus,

g 0a (v z ) (v z ). An integration by parts gives: Term (A) k z2 / 2 (78)
Since g 0b (v z ) g 0a (v z ), the real part of term (B ) is negligible
compared with term (A). However,

kz
g 0a ( v z )
we must keep the imaginary part of
g 0b ( v z )
vTa
term (B ) because it determines i .
vz
vb
0
dg0b ( vz )
Thus, Term (B ) i dv
.
(79)
z
(77)-(79) give
vz / k z
2
2
pb
dg b ( vz )
pa
1 2 i 2 0dv
kz
z
v
z / k z
(80)
48

2
2pb dg0b ( vz )
pa
i
0
(80)
dvz v / k
2
kz2
z
z
Writing r ii and assuming i 1, we obtain by

r
2
expansion: 12 12 (1 i i ) 12 (1 2i i ). Then (80) gives
Rewrite (80): 1
r pa
r : due to g 0 a ; r : due to g 0b
2
3
(81)
pa ppb dg0b ( vz )
ppa n0 b dg0b ( vz )
2
2
n
i
2 kz
2 kz 0 a dvz v / k
dvz v / k
z
r z
z
r z
(81) shows that the sign of i depends on the sign of dg0b / dv z
at v z r / k z . Thus,
Thus i 0 (Landau growth) if r / k z falls on the
positive slope of g0b , and i 0 (Landau damping) if r / k z falls
on the negative slope of g0b . The
Landau
k
z growth
g
(
v
)
0a
z
Landau growth is our first example
g 0b ( v z )
vT a
of unstable equilibrium solutions.
v z 49
vb
0
A Qualitative Interpretation of Landau Damping and

Landau Growth :
vz
Assume that an electrostatic wave
v ph /kz
with phase velocity /k z is present in
the plasma. An electron moving with
velocity v z sees the wave at the Doppler-shifted frequency :
k z vz
((82))
If k z v z 0 (i.e. electron velocity phase velocity), the
electron experiences almost a DC electric field. In this field, it will
gain or lose energy for an extended period of time ( 2 / ). This
phenomenon is known as resonant interaction.
a slow electron
Divide the electrons into
a fast electron
slow electrons: k z v z 0
v ph /kz
fast electrons: k z v z 0
50
For both slow and fast electrons, some

a slow electron
will lose energy to the wave and some will
f t electron
l t
a fast
gain energy from the wave, depending on
v ph /kz
the position of the electron relative to the
phase of the wave
wave.
If a slow electron loses energy in the resonant interaction, its v z
decreases. Hence, its ( k z v z 0), which is a positive number
b
becomes
greater.
t As
A a result,
lt the
th time
ti for
f sustained
t i d interaction
i t
ti ( 2 )
becomes shorter. This will result in weaker resonance.
On the other hand, if a slow electron gains energy in the resonant
i t
interaction,
ti v z increases
i
andd becomes
b
smaller.
ll Hence,
H
the
th time
ti
for sustained interaction becomes longer (stronger resonance). This
give the electrons in the energy-gaining phase the advantage and, on
average, slow electrons gain energy from the wave.
Similarly, fast electrons will, on average, lose energy to wave.
51
We have just concluded that, on average, slow electrons (relative

to the phase velocity of the wave) gain energy from the wave and
fast electrons lose energy to the wave. Thus, if the plasma contains
more slow electrons than fast electrons (i.e. a negative slope of g 0
at /k z , see left
l f figure),
fi
) the
h net effect
ff is
i an energy transfer
f ffrom the
h
wave to the electrons (Landau damping).
By similar argument, if the plasma contains more fast electrons
than slow electrons (see right figure), there will be a net energy
transfer from the electrons to the wave (Landau growth).
g 0 (v z )
g 0a ( v z )
kz
g 0b ( v z )
kz
v
T
a
vTe
vz
vz
0
more slow electrons

than fast electrons
more fast electrons

than slow electrons
52
Kinetic Treatment vs Fluid Treatment :

We have just considered a case in which details of the particle
distribution function determine whether a wave grows or damps.
On the other hand, fluid equations (derived in Sec. 1.4 of lecture
notes
t by
b a simple
i l method)
th d) are formally
f
ll derived
d i d from
f
the
th Vlasov
Vl
equation (Sec. 7.2) by an integration procedure over the velocity
space, in which details of the distribution function are lost. Hence,
a fluid
fl id treatment will
ill miss
i the
h Landau
L d damping/growth
d
i /
h (Sec.
(S 7.3)
7 3)
and other effects sensitive to the distribution function, but results
of fluid equations are implicit in kinetic equations.
Chapter 7 contains a fluid treatment of important plasma modes
and instabilities. Here, as a supplement to Ch. 6, we will cover some
of these topisc in the framework of the Vlasov equation.
Our first study of fluid modes is on the two-stream instability.
More will be considered in subsequent sections of this chapter.
53
Two-Stream Instability I :
g the bump-in-tail
p
model for Landau ggrowth ((upper
pp
Consider again
figure). The dispersion relation obtained by the kinetic approach is
1
2pa
k2
z
2pb
dg0 a (vz )
dv
z
dvz
kz2
L vz
k
L vz 1 kz
dg0b (vz )
dvz 0
dvz
(77)
Suppose the velocity spreads (vTa , vTb ) of the 2 components vanish

(lower figure). We then have a situation where one component streams
through
h
h anothher component. Integrating
I
i (77) by
b parts andd letting
l i
g 0a (vz ), g 0b (vz vb ), we
obtain 1
g 0a ( v z )
2pb
0
( kzvb )2
2
pa
2
This example shows that the

the kinetic result [(77)] can be
reduced to the fluid result [(83)]
in the proper limit.
vT a
(v z )
0
vTb
g 0b (v z )
(83)
v
z
v
b
(v z vb )
vb
vz
54
2pb
2pa
0 [(83)] can be
2 ( kzvb )2
kzvb 2 2pb
2pa
(1 2 ) (1 ) 2
(84)

Da (, k z )
The dispersion relation: 1

written
Da ( , k z ) Db ( , kz )
pa
2pa
Db ( , k z )
Da ( , k z ) 1 2
where
kz
D ( , k ) (1 kzvb ) 2
/
v
pa
b
z
b
(84) can be regarded as the coupling between the plasma mode
(Da 0) and
d th
the beam
b
mode
d (Db 0).
0) The
Th coupling
li is
i strongest
t
t
near the intersection of the two modes (see Figure). The intersecting
point is at pa and k z vpa , which are solutions of

b
Da ( , k z ) 0
Db ( , k z ) 0
55
kzvb 2 2pb
2pa
Rewrite (84): (1 2 )(1 ) 2
(84)
To show that there is an instability, we will only look for the

value at k z pa /vb , i.e. at the point of strongest interaction. Letting
1 1 (1 );
1
1
pa , we gett
pa
pa ) 2 2pa (1 2 pa ) (85)
Sub. (85) and k z pa /vb into (84) and keeping terms up to first
order in small quantities and pb , we obtain
2
2
2
pa
pa
2pb n0b 2
2pa ( n0a )
i
2 2in
n
1 ( n0b ) 3 e 3 , n 1,2,3
3 12 3pa ( nb )2 21/3
pa n
a
2
1 ( n0b ) 3
21/3 pa n0 a
0a
1
1
3
2 i 2
1 i 3
2
2
(86)
Unstable mode
56
From (86), we find the frequency of the unstable mode:
pa
n
pa [1 1/1 3 ( n0b ) 3 ( 12 i 23 ))]
2
0a
n0b 23
1
r pa [1 24/ 3 ( n0 a ) ]
(87)
2
n
3 ( 0b ) 3 [growth rate]
i 24/ 3 pa n0 a
Likee thee case
c se of
o Landau
d u growth
g ow (upper
(uppe figure),
gu e), thee free
ee energy
e e gy
available in a non-Maxwellian plasma drives a two-stream instability
(lower figure) . However, in the latter
vTb
g 0a ( v z )
case there are no electrons at exactly
case,
g 0b ( v z )
vTa
the phase velocity of the wave. Thus,
vz
0
there is no singularity problem and a
r /k z vb
fluid treatment will also be adequate.
adequate
(v z )
r /k z (v v )
(See Sec. 7.13 for a fluid treatment of
z
b
v
a slightly different two-stream model.)
z57
v
0
b
Comparing the Landau growth rate in (81) and the two-stream

3
pa n0b dg0b (vz )
i 2 kz2 n0 a dvz v / k [Landau growth]

z
r z
growth rate in (87):
2
3 ( n0b ) 3
[Two
[Two-stream
stream instability]
i 24 / 3 pa n0 a
we may show that i [Landau growth] i [Two-stream instability].
This is because, in the Landau growth (upper figure), electrons
drifting slower than the wave absorb energy from the wave, whereas
in the two-stream instability (lower
vTb
g 0a ( v z )
figure), all electrons deliver energy
g 0b ( v z )
to the wave because they all drift
vTa
vz
faster than the wave.
0
r /k z vb
As the g 0b spread
p
increases from 0
(v z )
r /k z (v v )
to a large value, the fluid instability
z
b
will transition to a kinetic instability.
v
z58
vb
0
Two-Stream Instability II :
( v z vb )
(v z vb )
Consider two cold electron beams
of equal density nb streaming in an ion
vz
neutralizing background in opposite
vb
vb
0
directions (vb and vb ). In (83), we
2pb
have already obtained the term for the forward stream:
.
( kz vb )2
By symmetry, the backward beam will have a similar form, with
vb replaced by vb . Thus, following the same treatment leading to
(83), we obtain the dispersion relation:
1
2pb
( kz vb )2
2pb
( kz vb )2
0,
(88)
which gives a quadratic equation in 2 :
4 2( 2pb k z2vb2 ) 2 2 2pb k z2vb2 k z4vb4 0
(89)
59
Rewrite 4 2( 2pb k z2vb2 ) 2 2 2pb k z2vb2 k z4vb4 0
(89)
The solution for 2 as obtained from (89) is

1
2
2 2pb k z2vb2 pb ( pb
4k z2vb2 ) 2
(90)
It can be shown from (90) that for, k z2 2 2pb / vb2 , all value of
2
are real (no instability). However, for k z2 2 pb
/ vb2 , two values
of will be a pair of complex conjugates and one of them gives rise
to an instability.
We may find the wave number (k zmax ) for which the growth rate
maximizes by finding the value of k z2 for which d 2 / dk z2 0. The
3 pb
result is k zmax 2v , which corresponds to a maximum growth
b
rate of i pb / 2. We will return to this problem again in Special

Topic II in connection with a new subject: the absolute instability.
60
Ion-Acoustic Waves : (See Sec. 7.3 for a fluid treatment)

At low frequencies,
frequencies the ion contribution to the dispersion relation
cannot be ignored. For low frequency electrostatic waves, we simply
add to (59) the ion term (the species subscript "e" or "i" is also added),
1
2pe
k2
z
2pi
dge 0 (vz )
dv
z
dvz
kz2
L vz
k
L vz
kz
dgi 0 (vz )
dvz 0
dvz
(91)
Assume a Maxwellian distribution for both the electrons and ions:

g (v ) 1 exp( vz2 )
(92)
gi 0 ( v z )
2
e0 z
2vTe
2 vTe
ge0 (vz )
/ kz
vz2
1
exp(( 2 )
(93)
g i 0 (v z )
2vTi
2 vTi
vz
with vTe vTi . Assume further vTe / k z vTi (see figure) so that
there is negligible electron Landau damping (because dg e 0 / dvz 0)
and negligible ion Landau damping (because / k z vTi ). We will
61
therefore neglect the imaginary part of both integrals in (91).
For the electrons, sub.
dge 0 (vz )
vz
2 g 0 into
dvz
vTe
L vz 1 kz
and neglect k ( vTe ) in the denominator, we obtain

z
dge 0 (vz )
dvz 12
d z
dv
L z
vTe
kz
For the ion integral:
dge 0 (vz )
dvz
dvz
(75)
g0 (vz )dvz v1Te2 2pe1De2
L vz 1 kz
(94)
dgi 0 (vz )
dvz , we assume k vz and
dvz
z
follow the same steps leading to (70). This gives the cold ion limit:
L vz 1 kz
dgi 0 (vz )
kz 2
dv
(
z
)
dvz
(95)
2pi
0, (96)
2
2
kz2De
which is the most basic form of the dispersion relation because ion
thermal effects and electron Landau damp have all been neglected.
From (96), we find pi , i.e. this is indeed a low-frequency wave. 62
Sub. (94) and (95) into (91), we obtain 1
2pi
0
(94)
2
2
kz2De
2 2
kz2De
kTe 4 n0e2
kz2
kz2 kTe
pi
2
mi
2
2 4 n e2
2 mi
1kz2De
1kz2De
1kz2De
0
kT
kzCs
with Cs me
(95)
i
2
2
1kz De
The dispersion relation

gives
Physically, when the ions are perturbed, electrons tend to follow

the ions to shield their electric field, thereby reducing the restoring
forces on the ions. So the wave has a frequency lower than pi ( pi
would be the ion oscillation frequency if the electrons were immobile).
However, the electrons cannot effectively shield the ion electric field
if (wavelength) De (see Sec. 1.2). Thus, when De , or k z De
1,, (94)
( ) shows that will approach
pp
pi .
Since the plasma motion is longitudinal and Cs is similar to the
sound speed of a neutral gas, the wave is called an ion acoustic wave. 63
Part 2
We have so far treated only electrostatic waves in the absence of
an external
t
l field.
fi ld In
I this
thi section,
ti we lay
l the
th groundwork
d
k for
f a generall
theory of linear waves, both electrostatic and electromagnetic, in an
infinite and uniform plasma. We assume that the plasma is immersed
i a uniform
in
if
externall magnetic
i field
fi ld along
l
the
h z -axis:
i B 0 B0e z , but
b
there is no external electric field (E0 0).
Equilibrium (Zero-Order) Solution :
An equilibrium solution f 0 ( v ) must satisfy the zero-order Vlasov
6.10 General Theory of Linear Vlasov Waves
q
equation: t f 0 ( v ) v f 0 ( v ) m (E0 1c v B0e z ) v f 0 ( v ) 0
( v B0e z ) v f 0 ( v ) 0
(101)
Thus, any function of the form f 0 (v ,vz ) satisfies (101), provided

that the total charge and current densities of all species vanish so that
there is no net self field at equilibrium. This in turn makes v and vz
constants of the motion in the only field present: B0e z .
6.10 General Theory of Linear Vlasov Waves (continued)
Examples of equilibrium solutions (normalized to n 0 ) are:

n0
v2
f
(102)
0
3/2 v3 exp( 2v2 ) [Maxwellian]
(2
T
T
2
v2
n0
p( 2 vz2 ) [[bi-Maxwellian] ((103))
f 0 (2 )3/2 v2 v exp(
2vT 2vTz
T Tz
f n0 (v v ) (v )
(104)
0
z
0 2 v
In (103),
(103) the
h particles
i l have
h
two temperatures, vT andd vTz . In
(104), all particles have the same v ( v0 ) and vz ( 0). (104) is
approximately self-consistent if the self magnetic field due to the
gyrating particles is negligible.
First -Order Equations :
properties
p
of a pplasma is contained in the dispersion
p
The linear p
relation. To obtain the dispersion relation, we first linearize the set
of Vlasov/Maxwell equations by writing
(105)
f (x, v, t ) f 0 ( v ) f 1 (x, v, t )
E(x, t ) E (x, t )
(106)
1
As before, first-order
(107)
B(x, t ) B0e z + B1 (x, t )
quantities are denoted
(x, t ) (x, t )
((108))
byy subscript
p "1".
1
(109)
J (x, t ) J1 (x, t )
Sub. (105)-(109) into the Vlasov/Maxwell equations. Zero-order
terms give the equilibrium solution.
solution Equating the first
first-order
order terms
terms,
f 1 v f 1 mqc ( v B0e z ) v f 1
t
q
m (E1 1c v B1 )
v f 0
(110)
B 0
(111)
1
we obtain
E1 41
(112)
E1 1c B1
(113)
t
4
1
(114) 3
B1 c t E1 c J1
1 (x, t ) q f 1 (x, v, t ) d 3v
(115)
where
h
(116)
q f 1 (x, v, t ) vd 3v
J1 (x, t )
Note: In Nicholson (6.145)-(6.153), zero-order fields depends on

x and t. But from (6.154) on, E0 0 and B 0 B0e z , as in our model.
Particle dynamics: These first-order equations (110)-(116) are
coupled.
p
To examine the particle
p
dynamics,
y
, we start from ((110):
)
f v f q ( v B e ) f
0 z
v 1
1 m c
t 1
q
((110))
m (E1 1c v B1 ) v f 0
d f ] along the zero-order
The LHS is a total time derivative [ dt
1
q
orbit because the acceleration force is c v B0e z . Thus, (110) can
d f q (E 1 v B ) f
be written
(117)
v 0
m 1 c
1
dt 1
4
f 0 ( v ,v z )
d f ( x, v, t ) q [E ( x, t ) 1 v B (x, t )] f ( v ) ,
(117)
v 0
m 1
c
1
dt 1
Rewrite (117):
d follows the zero-order orbit of a particle, which we denote

where dt
b x(t ) and
by
d v(t )). U
Under
d th
the condit
ditions:
i
x(t t ) x andd v(t t ) v,
y
vx (t ) v cos[ (t t )]
v (t ) v sin[ (t t ))]
v
v (t ) vz
z
x(t ) x v sin[ (t t )] v sin
v
v
y(t ) y
cos[ (t t )] cos
z (t ) vz (t t ) z
we have
(118)
q B
where m c0 . (118) reduces to (1.25) if wes set (polar angle of

v ) / 2 and t 0. At t t , (118) gives x = x and v = v as required.5
Change the variable t in (117) to t and note that x(t t ) x and

v(t t ) v. A t -integration
integration of (117) from to t gives
d f [x(t ), v(t ), t ]dt f (x, v, t ) f [x(t ), v(t ), t ]

t
1
1
dt 1
t
q
m
dt {E1[x(t ),
) t ] 1c v(t ) B1[x(t ),
) t ]}
v f 0 ( v) (119)
We now consider a normal mode by assuming

E1k
E1 (x, t )
B
B (x, t )
it ik x
1k
1
J ( x, t )
e
J
1
1
k
As before, subscript "k"
f
(
x
,
v
,
t
)
f
(
v
)
denotes a normal mode.
mode
1k
1
(120)
where E1k , B1k , J1k are complex constants, and f 1k ( v ) is a complex

function of v. J1k can be expressed in terms f 1k ( v ) as
J1k q f 1k ( v ) vd 3v
Question: Why is 1 ( x, t ) not included in (120)? (see note below)
(121)
6
Sub. (120) into

f 1 (x, v, t ) f 1[ x(t )), v(t )), t ]t
q
dt {E1[x(t ), t ] 1c v(t ) B1[x(t ), t ]} v f 0 ( v) (119)
we obtain
f 1k ( v )e it ik x f 1k [ v(t )]e it ik x
it i (t t ) ik x ik ( x - x)
q
m
dt [E1k 1c v(t ) B1k ]e it ik x v f 0 ( v)
m eit ik x dt [E1k 1c v(t ) B1k ] v f 0 ( v)
e i (t t )ik ( x-x)
Note : In (122),
(122) the opertaor operates on f 0 ( v) only.
only
(122)
We assume i ( Im ) 0, then f 1k [ v(t )]e it ik x
0 and
(122) becomes
f 1k ( v )e it ik x
t
q
m e it ik x dt [E1k 1c v(t ) B1k ] v f 0 ( v)
Factoring out the eit ik x

q
f 1k ( v ) m
e i (t t )ik ( x-x)
dependence, we obtain
dt [E1k 1c v(t ) B1k ] v f 0 ( v)

ei (t t )iikk ( x-x))
(123)
Note:
(i) 1 (x, t ) is not in (120) because, with the assumed e it ik x
d
dependence,
d
1k iis implicit
i li it in
i J1k though
th
h the
th conti
tinuity
it equation:
ti
J t 0 ik J1k i1k 0 1k 1 k J1k
(ii) Although (123) is derived under the assumption of i 0,

the dispersion relation to be obtained from (123) can be analytically
continued to an arbitrary by the use of Landau contour for the vz g [[see ((135)].
)] The argument
g
follows the treatment of Landau
integral
damping.
(iii) v as a vector is a function of t . However, it is understood
that f 0 ( v) is a function of scalars v and vz , both being constants
of the motion. Hence, in writing f 0 ( v) in (119), (122), and (123),
v is not displayed as a function of t .
(iv) The method we employed to obtain (123) is called "method
method
of characteristics" or "integrating over unperturbed orbit".
Field equation: From the linearized Maxwell equations:

E1 1c B1
t
4
1
B1 c t E1 c J1
2
we obtain ( E1 ) 1c t B1 c12 t 2 E1 4c2 t J1
E1 (x, t )
E1k
B (x, t )
B
it ik x
1k
For a normal mode: 1
e
J1k
J1 (x, t )
f 1 (x, v, t ) f 1k ( v )
2
((113)) and ((114)) ggive
k (k E1k ) c2 E1k 4c2i J1k
(113)
(114)
(124)
(120)
((125))
A note on notations: Subscripts "0" and "1" indicate, respectively,

zero and first order quantities. Subscript "k" indicates a normal mode.
S b i t " " iindicates
Subscript
di t particle
ti l species.
i
(123) and (125) together with the orbit equations (118) form the
basis for our treatment of linear plasma waves in Secs. 6.11 and 6.12.
10
6-11 Linear Vlasov Waves in Unmagnetized Plasma

q
Rewrite ((123):
) f 1k ( v ) m
dt [E1k 1c v(t ) B1k ] v f 0 ( v)
e i (t t )ik ( x-x)
(123)
Assume the absence of an external magnetic field ( 0). Then,
v(t ) v const
(118) reduces to
, and (123) can be written
x(t ) x v (t t )
t
q
f 1k ( v ) m (E1k 1c v B1k )
v f 0 ( v ) dt e i (t t )ik v (t t ) (126)
Again, assuming i 0, we obtain from (126)

q (E1k 1c vB1k ) v f 0 ( v )
i ( kv )
f 1k ( v ) m
(127)
Note: (127) can be readily derived by setting B0 0 and sub. the

normal mode (120) into the linearized Vlasov equation (110):
f v f q ( v B e ) f q (E 1 v B ) f
0 z
v 1
v 0
m 1 c
1 m c
1
t 1
but in the presence of B0e z , we must use (123) (see next section).
11
6-11 Linear Vlasov Waves in Unmagnetized Plasma (continued)
q (E1k 1c vB1k ) v f 0 ( v )
i ( kv )
Rewrite f 1k ( v) m
(127)
Assume f 0 ( v ) is an isotropic function, i.e. f 0 ( v) f 0 (v).

Then, (v B1k ) v f 0 (v) 0. Since there is no external magnetic
field and f 0 (v ) is isotropic, the plasma properties are also isotropic.
Without loss of generality, we assume k k z e z . Thus, (127) becomes
v f 0 ( v )
q E1k
i ( kz vz )
f 1k ( v ) m
(128)
Sub. (128) into J1k q f 1k ( v) vd 3v [(121)], we obtain
J1k
E v f (v )
m v 1ik( kv0 ) d 3v
z z
q2
(129)
The field equation: k (k E1k ) c2 E1k 4c2i J1k [(125)]

2
may be written
k z2 E1kz e z ( k z2 c2 )E1k 4c2i J1k

2
(130)
12
Electrostatic waves :
E1k v f 0 (v ) 3
q2
1k m
i ( kz vz ) d v
Rewrite
k z2 E1kz e z (k z2 22 )E1k 4 2i J1k 0
c
c
( )
(129)
(130)
For electrostatic waves, E1k k ( k z e z ). So we set

E1k E1kz e z
(129) then gives
f (v )
(131)
J1k
q2
i m E1kz (vx e x v y e y vz e z ) vkz v d 3v
z z
(132)
IIn (132),
(132) f 0 (v) f 0 [(vx2 v 2y vz2 ) 2 ] iis an even ffunction
i off vx
and v y . Hence, the x and y components vanish upon, respectively,
vx and v y integrations,
g
and we have
f 0 (v )
J1k
vz
q2
i m E1kz e z kvvz d 3v
z z
(133)
13
f 0 (v )
Rewrite
i J1k
vz
q2
i m E1kz e z kvvz d 3v
z z
(133)
Defining g 0 (vz ) n1 0 f 0 (v)dvx dv y [as in (28)], we obtain

dg (v )
v 0 z
z
n 0q2
z
J1k i m E1kz e z dv
dv z
kz vz
Writing vkz v k1 ( 1 k v ), we have

z z
z
z z
2
dg (v )
n q
J1k i m0 E1kz e z k1 (1 k v ) dv0 z dvz ,
z
z
z z
The first term vanishes upon vz -integration because g 0 (vz ) 0

at vz . Thus,
J1k
dg 0 (vz )
n 0q2
z
i m k 2 E1kz e z v dv
dv z ,
z
z
k
z
(134)
14
n
Sub E1k E1kz e z and J1k i m0 k2 E1kz e z
Sub.
z
q2
into the field equation:
dg 0 (vz )
dvz
vz dv z
kz
k z2 E1kz e z ( k z2 c2 )E1k 4c2i J1k

2
(130)
we obtain the dispersion relation for electrostatic waves:

1
2p
kz2
dg 0 (vz )
dvz
vz dvz 0,,
((135))
kz
where, by the recipe in (62), we have replaced
dvz
with
L dvz .
In deriving (123) and (127),

(127) we have assumed i 0.
0 With the
Landau contour, in (135) can have any value provided the pole
/k z does not cross the Landau contour.
(135) agrees with the electrostatic disperson relations in Sec.
Sec 6.5
65
for the Langmuir wave, Landau damping/growth, two-stream instabilities, and ion acoustic waves.
15
Discussion: Rewrite B1 1c t E1 4c J1
(114)
For the normal mode in (120), the RHS of (114) gives

1 E 4 J ( i E 4 J )e it ikx
c t
Inserting J1k
(136)
c 1k
dg 0 ( vz )
n 0q2
z
i m k 2 E1kz v dv
dv z e z [(134)] and
z
z
k
c
1k
E1k E1kz
(136) we find
k e z [(131)] into (136),
i E 4 J
c 1k
c 1k
dg 0 ( vz )
2
n
q
z
ci E1kz e z 4c i m0 k2 E1kz e z vdv
dv z
z k
z
z
dg 0 ( vz )
2p
dvz dv } 0
c E1kz e z {1 2
z
k L vz
kz
0 by (135)
This shows that, the displacement current and particle current

exactly cancel out. Hence, we have an electrostatic wave.
16
Electromagnetic waves :
E1k
v f 0 ( v ) 3
q2
1k m v i ( kz vz ) d v
Rewrite
2
k z2 E1kz e z (k z2 2 )E1k 4 2i J1k 0
c
c
(129)
(130)
For electromagnetic waves, E1k k ( k z e z ). So, without loss of

generality (because the plasma is isotropic), we set E1k E1ky e y (137)
Then (129) and (130) give
Then,
f 0 (v )
2
vy
q
J i E
(
v
e
v
e
v
e
)
d 3v (138)
x
x
y
y
z
z
m
1
1
k
ky
k
v
z
z
(k 2 2 ) E e 4 i J 0
(139)
c2 1k
z c2 1ky y
f 0 (v) is an even function of vx . Hence, the x-component of (138)
vanishes upon vx -integration. v f 0 (v) is an odd function of v y .
y
Hence, the z -component of (138) vanishes upon v y -integration.
17
We are then left with only the y component of (138):

J1k
v y f 0 (v )
v
q2
i m E1ky e y k vy d 3v
z z
(140)
Integrating (140) by parts of over v y yields

q2
(v )
J1k i m E1ky e y 0k v d 3v
z z
Using the one-dimensional equilibrium distribution function:

g (v ) 1 f (v)dv dv ,
0
n 0
we mayy write ((140)) as
n q2
g (v )
J1k i m0 E1ky e y 0k vz dvz

z z
((141))
Sub. (141) and E1k E1ky e y into

2
2
4 i
k z2 E1kz
k e z ( k z c2 )E1k c2 J1k 0
2
g (v )
we obtain
k z2 2 2p 0k vz dvz 0
c
z z
(130)
(142)
18
Rewrite k z2 2 2p 0k vz dvz 0
g (v )
(142)
z z
EM waves in a plasma have a phase velocity c [see (143) below].

Hence, we may assume / k z vz and neglect the the k z vz term in
the demonamitor of the integral in (142)
(142).
g (v )
0k vz dvz 1 g 0 (vz )dvz 1

z z
This results in the dispersion relation:
pe
2 k z2c 2 2pe
kz
(143)
where we have neglected the small ion contribution.

The vs k z plot (see figure) is similar to that of the waveguide.
There is a cutoff frequency pe , below which EM waves can not
ppropagate.
p g
Short radio waves ( 10 MHz)) are hence reflected from
the ionosphere. This has been exploited for long-range broadcasting.
By comparison, the free space is non-dispersive with k z c.
19
6-12 Linear Vlasov Waves in Magnetized Plasma

(Ref.: Krall and Trivelpiece, Sec. 8.10)
Dispersion Relation : We begin this section with a derivation of
the general dispersion relation for waves in an infinite, uniform, and
magnetized plasma on the basis of the following linearized equations
derived in Sec. 6.10 for a normal mode with eit ik x dependence:
f ( v ) q t dt [E 1 v(t ) B ] f ( v)
1k
1k
v 0
m
c
1k
e i (t t )ik ( x-x)
(123)
4 i
(125)
k (k E1k ) c2 E1k c2 J1k
where we have assumed a uniform external magnetic field B 0 B0e z ,

and shown that the equilibrium distribution function in such a field is
f 0 ( v ) f 0 (v ,vz )). So the plasma is isotropic in the x, y -dimensions,
-dimensions
but it is 3-dimensional anisotropic. Thus, we expect the conductivity
to be in the form of a tensor : J1k E1k .

20
6.12 Linear Vlasov Waves in Magnetized Plasma (continued)
General form of the dispersion ralation:

xx xy xz E
1kx
Write
J1k E1k yx yy yz E1ky
k
zx zy zz E1kz
(144)
Without loss of generality (for a plasma isotropic in x, y ), we let

k k e x k z e z
(145)
Sub. (144) and (145) into the field equation:
2
k (k E ) E 4 i J
(125)
1k
c2
1k
c2
1k
the x, y, z components are

(1 kz2c2 4 i ) E 4 i E ( k kz c2 4 i ) E 0
xx 1kx xy 1ky
xz 1kz
2
2
2
2
4 i
kc
4 i
4 i
(146)
yx E1kx (1 2 yy ) E1ky yz E1kz 0
k k c2
2 2
( z2 4 i zx ) E1kx 4 i zy E1ky (1 k c2 4 i zz ) E1kz 0 21
(146) can be written

D
Dxy Dxz E1kx
xx
D E1k Dyx Dyy Dyz E1ky 0 or

D
zx Dzy Dzz E1kz
(147)
k kz c2 4 i
4 i
1 kz2c2 4 i
E
2
xx
xy
2 xz 1kx
2 2
4 i
4 i
E 0 (148)
1 kc2 4 i yy
yx
yz
1ky
2
2
2
kc
4 i
k kz2c 4 i
1 2 4 i zz E
zx
zy
1kz

For (147) or (148) to be solvable,
solvable the determinent
determinent of D must vanish:
Dxx
D Dyx
Dxy
Dyy
Dxz
Dyz 0
Dzx
Dzy
Dzz
(149)
(149) is the most comprehensive form of the dispersion relation.
22
Particle dynamics: In (149), the conductivity tensor is still

unknown To obtain the specific expression of the dispersion relation
unknown.
relation,
we need to work on the equations for particle dynamics.
Define t t and rewrite (123) and (118) in terms of
q 0
f 1k ( v ) m d [E1k 1c v ( ) B1k ] v f 0 ( v )
ei ik [ x( )-x]
y
vx ( ) v cos( )
v ( ) v sin( )
v
v ( ) v
z
z
x ( ) x v sin( ) v sin
v
v
y ( ) y cos( ) cos
z ( ) vz z
(150)
(151)
23
Using k k e x k z e z [(145)] and the orbit equations in (151),

we may write k [x ( ) x] k [ x ( ) x] k z [ z ( ) z ]
i ik [ x( )-x ]
kv
[ sin( ) sin ] k z vz
i ( kz vz ) i kv [sin( )sin ]
Using the Bessel function identity: eix sin J s ( x )e is ,

i kv sin( )
k v
e
J s ( )eis ( )
s
we obtain k v
sin
i
i
kv is

e
J
(
)e
s
i ( kz vz ) i kv [sin( )sin ]
x]
i ik [ x( )-x
e
e
k v
k v
i ( ss )
J s ( ) J s ( )ei ( kz vz s )
s s
(152)
24
Since f 0 ( v ) f 0 (v , vz ) and v ( v ), vz ( vz ) are constants

off th
the motion,
ti
we have
h
v f 0 ( v ) v f 0 (v , vz )
y
v / v
f
f
f
0 e v1 0 e 0 e z
vz
f
f
2 20 v 2vz 20 e z
v
vz
(153)
Thus,
h
E1k v f 0 ( v ) 2(( E1kx e x E1ky e y E1kz e z )
f
f
( 20 v vz 20 e z )
vz
v
f
2( E1kx vx E1ky v y ) 20 2 E1kz vz 20

v
vz
c k E . Then,
From (113) and (120),
(120) we obtain B1k
1k Then
v B c v (k E ) c [( v E )k (k v )E ]
1k
1k
1k
1k
(154)
(155)
25
(153) and (155) give

1 ( v B ) f 2 [( v E )k (k v )E ] ( f 0 v v f 0 e )
c
v 0
1k
1k
1k
v2 z vz2 z
2 [( v E )(k v ) (k v )( v E )] f 0
1k
1k v2
ff
[( v E1k )k z vz (k v )vz E1k ] 20
vz
2 [(v E v E v E )k v
x 1kx
y 1ky
z 1kz x
f
(k vx k z vz )(vx E1kx v y E1ky )] 20
v
f
[(vx E1kx v y E1ky vz E1kz )k z vz (k vx k z vz )vz E1kz ] 20
vz
2 [(k v E k v E k v E )v f 0
z x 1kx
z y 1ky
x 1kz
y v2
f
(k z vx E1kx k z v y E1ky k vx E1kz )vz 20 ] (156)
vz
26
Combining (154) and (156), we obtain

(E1k 1c v B1k ) v f 0
vz
2vx X 2v y Y 2 vz Z
v [ei ( ) ei ( ) ] X
iv [ei ( ) ei ( ) ]Y 2vz Z
(157)
f 0 vz
f 0 f 0
X E1kx v2 (k z E1kx k E1kz )( vz2 v2 )
f
f
f
v
where Y E1ky 20 z k z E1ky ( 20 20 )
(158)
v
vz
v
f 0
Z E1kz vz2
Note: (i) v , vz , and v are constants of the motion, but v ,vx

and v y are time dependent.
(ii) X , Y , and Z are functions of constants of the motion.
27
Combining (152) and (157) gives

(E1k 1c v B1k ) v f 0 ei ik[ x( ))-x]
v X [ei ( ) ei ( ) ] J s J s ei ( kz vz s )
i (
)
ivY [e
s s
i ( s s )
i (
)
e
] J s J s ei ( kz vz s )
s s
i ( kz vz s ) i ( s s )
2vz Z J s J s e
s s
Write
n s 1
n s 1
i ( ss )
(159)
ei ( ) i ( k v s ) i ( s s )
z z
J s J s i ( ) e
s s
e
ei[ kz vz ( s 1) )] i ( ss 1)
J s J s
i[ kz vz ( s 1) )] i ( s s 1)
s s
e
J J s i ( kz vz n ) i ( sn)
(160)
n1 e
n s J n1 J s
28

(E1k 1c v B1k ) v f 0 e i ik[ x( )-x]
[v X ( J n1 J n1 ) ivY ( J n1 J n1 ) 2vz ZJ n ]J s
n s
i ( kz vz n ) i ( sn)
e
e
the only factor that depends on
q 0
S b (161) iinto f 1k ( v ) m d [E1k 1c v ( ) B1k ]
Sub.
(161)
(150)
v f 0 ( v )e i ik[ x( )-x]
and carrying out the -integration,
integration we obtain
v X ( J n 1 J n 1)ivY ( J n 1 J n 1) 2vz ZJ n
q
J s ei ( sn)
f 1k ( v ) m
i
(
k
v
z z
n s
(162)
This is Eq. (8.10.8) in Krall & Trivelpiece. Note that all Bessel
kv
functions have the same argument: .
29
The conductivity tensor: The perturbed current [(121)] can be written:
J1k q f 1k ( v ) vd 3 v q 0 v dv
d 0 d dv
d z f 1k ( v ) v
First consider the x -component of J1k :
v cos e x v sin e y vz e z
J1kx q 0 v dv 0 d dvz f 1k ( v ) 12 v (ei e i )
(163)
By (144), J1kx can be expressed in terms of the conductivity tensor

as
J1kx xx E1kx xy E1ky xz E1kz
(164)
Then, xx is the coefficient of the sum of all E1kx terms in (163)

[which can be found from (162) and (158)]:
2
q2
xx m 0 v dv 0 d dvz 12 v (ei ei )
n s
v[
f 0
(1 kzvz ) kzvz f20 ]
2
v
vz
i ( kz vz n )
( J n1 J n1 ) J s ei ( sn) (165)
30
Using the Bessel function identities:

J x J x 2n J n x
x
n1
n1
J n1 x J n1 x 2 J n x
2n
kv
kv
kv
J n1 ( ) J n1 ( )
J ( )
kv n
we may write
(166)
(167)

2
nv
q2
xx m v dv d dvz
0
0
f 0
(1 kzvz ) kzvz f20
2
v
vz
ei ( sn1) ,
n s
(168)
where we see that only the s n 1 terms in the s sum will survive
the -integration.
i ( kz vz n )
J n J s ei ( sn1)
31
Carrying out the -integration in (168), we obtain
nv
2 q2
xx m v dv dvz
n 0
f 0
kz vz kz vz f 0
((1
)
2
v
vz2
i ( kz vz n )
2 q2
m
n 0
2v dv
dvz
n22 2
Jn
k2
2n
J
kv n
J n ( J n 1 J n1 )
f 0
kz vz kz vz f 0
(1
)
vz2
i ( kz vz n )
v2
f 0 kz vz kz vz f 0
(1 )
2p
vz2
n22 2 v2
2
J

v
dv
dv
z k2 n i(kzvz n ) ,
2 n 0
(169)
where f 0 n1 f 0 [hence f 0 d 3 v 1].
0
32
The general dispersion relation: Rewrite the dispersion relation:

Dxx Dxy Dxz
D D yx D yy D yz
Dzx Dzy Dzz
k 2c 2 i
1 z 2 4
xx
4 i
yx 1
kkzc2 4 i
2
4 i
2c 2
zx
xy
kkzc2 4 i
2
i
4
yy
4 i
zy
4 i
k2c2
2
xz
yz
0 (149)
i
4
zz
k 2c2 i , wee obtain

S b xx from (169) into Dxx 1 z 2 4
Sub.
xx
k 2c2
Dxx 1 z 2 2
p2 0
2v dv
dvz
f 0 (v ,vz ) kz vz kz vz f 0 (v ,vz )
(1 )
v2
vz2
n22 2 kv
2 Jn (
)
kz vz n
k
(170)33
By similar method, we obtain the other elements of the dispersion

t
tensor.
The
Th complete
l t results
lt are (see
(
Krall
K ll & Trivelpiece,
Ti l i
pp. 405-406)
405 406)
n22 2 kv
J (
)
k2 n
n
i 2 n v J ( kv ) dJn (kv / )
Dxy 2
p
n
k
d (kv / )
n
k k c2
n vz 2 kv
Dxz z 2 2 2p
Jn (
)

k
n
D yx Dxy
k 2c2
Dxx 1 z 2 2
D yy 1
(k2 kz2 )c2
2p
2p
n
v2 [
dJ n (kv / ) 2
]
d (kv / )
i 2 v v J ( kv ) dJn (kv / )
D yz 2
p
z n
d (kv / )
(171)
(172)
(173)
(174)
(175)
(176)
34
k k c2
Dzxx z 2 2
2p
n
vz
n 2 kv
)
J (
k n
i 2 v v J ( kv ) dJn ( kv / )
Dzy 2
z n
p
d (k v / )
k2c2 2
(177)
(178)
kv
)
(179)

n
F (v ,v )
F (v , v ) 2v dv dv
(180)
z
0 z kzvz nz
f 0 (v , vz )
kzvz ) kzvz f 0 (v , vz )
(1
(181)
where
2
v
vz2
f 0 (v , vz ) n f 0 (v , vz ) f 0 (v , vz )
[
] (182)

vz2
vz2
v2
Question: The plasma is isotropic in x and y. Why are Dxx and

D yy unequal?
35
Dzz 1
2p
vz2 J n2 (
Waves Propagating Along B0ez (k = kzez):

ex
The dispersion relation for waves propagating
B0
ez
along B0 = B0ez may be obtained by letting
k
ey
k 0 in (171)-(179).
F a small
For
ll argument,
t the
th Bessel
B
l functions
f ti
Jn(x)
( ) and
d Jn(x)
( ) can be
b
approximately written
x0
J n ( x) 1 ( x )n
n! 2
x0
all
x
J ( x) ( 1) n J ( x) (1)n ( x )n
n
n
n! 2
For n 0 and n 1, we have in the limit x 0,
J 0 ( x) 1,, J1 ( x) x , J 1 ( x) x
2
2
x
1
1
J 0 ( x) 2 , J1( x) 2 , J 1 ( x) 2
(183)
(184)
36
In (171)-(180), the argument of all Bessel functions is

U i (183) and
Using
d (184)
(184), we fi
find
d th
thatt iin th
the limit
li it k 0,
0
Dxz Dzx Dzy Dzy 0
kv
.
and the other elements become

D 1 kz2c2 2 2 1 v 2
2
p 4 n1 v n1
xx
2
D
D
xx
yy
2 1 2
2
2 i
Dxy D yx p 4 v n1 v n1
2
2
Dzz 1 p vz2
n 0
Thus, the dispersion relation (149) reduces to

Dxx Dxy 0
2
2
D yx D yy 0 Dzz ( Dxx D yy Dxy D yx ) Dzz ( Dxx
Dxy
)0
0 0 Dzz
(185)
(186)
((187))
(188)
(189)
(190)
37
2
2
Dzz ( Dxx
Dxy
)0
(190)
Several modes are contained in (190). To find these modes, we
assume, for simplicity, that the plasma is isotropic in all 3 dimensions,
i.e. f 0 (v , vz ) f 0 (v).
Rewrite the dispersion relation:
Electrostatic waves:
One of the solutions of (190) is Dzz 0, which, by (189), (180),
andd (182)
(182), can bbe written
i
vz2 2 f 0
vz
1 2 2p 0 2v dv dvz
0
k
z vz
vz d g 0 (vz )
dv
1 2
or
1
(191)
p dvz kzzvz 0,
where g 0 (vz ) 0 2 v dv f 0 (v , vz ).
38
The integral in (191) can be written

vz d g 0 (vz )
[ ( kz vz )] d g 0 (vz )
dvz
dvz
dvz kzvz k1z dvz
kz vz
d g 0 (vz )
d z
dv
1 dvz
1 dvz d g 0 (vz )
kz
kz vz
kz
dv
z
0
d g (v )
dv 0 z
2 dvz z
(192)
vz
kz
kz
d g (v )
2p
dvz 0 z
Sub (192) into (191)
Sub.
(191), we get 1 2 dvz
00,
vz
kz
kz
which agrees with the electrostatic dispersion relation [(135)] for an

unmagnetized plasma.
plasma This is because electrostatic waves involve
particle motion along B 0 , and hence are unaffected by the magnetic
field. The mode considered below will provide an opposite example.
39
2
2
Dzz ( Dxx
Dxy
)0
(190)
(193)
Dxx iDxy 0
(190) gives two other solutions:
D iD 0
(194)
xy
xx
We recall that the dispersion relation D 0 [(149)] is based on
the condition for the solvability of the field equations in D E1k 0

[(147)] For k 0,
[(147)].
0 we have Dxz Dzx Dzy Dzy 0,
0 Dxx D yy ,
Electromagnetic waves: Rewrite
and D yx Dxy [see (187)]. Then, for solutions (193) and (194),
(147) gives
i
Dxx Dxyy E1kx Dxx Dxyy E1kx

D
E D
E 0
D
D
yx
yy
xy
xx
1ky
1ky
E Dxy E
Dxx E1kx Dxy E1ky 0
Dxx 1ky
1kx

D
Dxy E1kx Dxx E1ky 0
E1kx Dxx E1ky
xy
(195)
(196)
40
E Dxy E
Dxx 1kyy
1kx
R
Rewrite:
it
(196)
Dxx
E1kx D E1ky
xy
The following information about the modes in (193) and (194) can
be immediately learned from (196):
2
2
(1) The 2 equations in (196) are consistent only when Dxx
Dxy
,
or when (190) is satisfied.
satisfied This is a specific example which shows the
dispersion relation as the condition for solvability of field equations.
We also find that (196) gives the relative amplitude (not the absolute
values) of the field components,
components as is typical of linear solutions.
solutions
(2) The fields in (196) are in the x - y plane. With k k z e z and
E (x, t ) E e it ikz z [see (120)], we find
1
1k
E1 ( x, t ) ik z e z E1k e it ikz z 0.
Thus, the two solutions represent electromagnetic waves.
41
Dxy
(3) Either of the equations in (196) gives E1kx D E1ky . Hence,

xx
iE1ky for Dxx iDxy 0
E [e x ie y ] (198)
E1kx
E1k 1k
iE for Dxx iDxy 0
E1k [e x ie y ] (199)
1ky
where E1k ( E12kx E12ky )1/ 2 .
y
Thus, both waves are circularly polarized*. Without

E1
loss of g
generality
y ((explained
p
later),
), we assume p
positive
x
and B0 . At any fixed position z, the field in (198)
E1k (e x ie y )eit ikz z
rotates opposite to the gyration of electrons in B0 e z .
left circularly
polarized
In another view,
view it rotates in the direction of left
left-hand
hand
y
fingers if the thumb points to the direction of B0 e z ,
E1
x
hence the name "left circularly polarized wave". In
contrast (199) gives a "right
contrast,
right circularly polarized
E1k (e x ie y )eit ikz z
wave" rotating in the same sense as the electrons.
right circularly
*Note: The circular polarization is due to Dxx D yy . polarized
42
Dxx iDxy 0
g to the dispersion
p
relations:
Turning
Dxx iDxy 0
Dxx and Dxy are given by (186) and (188), respectively.
(193)
(194)
kz2c2 2 2 1 v 2
v2
xx
4
1
n
Dxyy 2 i 2p 1 v 2
v2
4
n
1
n
k 2c2
Dxx iDxy 1 z 2 2 2p [ v2
v2
n1
Similarly,
v2
n1
(186)
(188)
n1
v2
]
n1
k 2c2
1 z 2
2p v2
0
n1
k 2c2
Dxx iDxy 1 z 2
2p v2
0
n1
(200)
(201)
43
Using (181) and (182), (200) and (201) can be written

f 0 kz vz kz vz f 0
(1 )
2
v2
vz2 3
2 2
2
v dv dvz 0 (202)
k z c 2 p
kz vz
[l ft circularly
[left
i l l polarized
l i d wave]]
f 0 kz vz kz vz f 0
(1 )
2
v2
vz2 3
2 2
2
v dv dvz 0 (203)
k z c 2 p
kzvz
[right circularly polarized wave]
These two dispersion relations in their present forms allow an

anisotropic f 0 [e.g. (103) and (104)], which may lead to an
instability (an example will be provided at the end of this section).
For an isotropic plasma
plasma, f 0 f 0 (v2 vz2 ) [e
[e.g.
g (102)]
(102)], wee have
ha e
f 0 f 0
2 . Then, (202) and (203) reduce to
v2
vz
44
f 0
2
v
2 2
2
2
k z c p k v v dv dvz 0
z z
[left circularly polarized wave]
f 0
v
2 k 2 c 2 2
p kzvz v2 dv dvz 0
z
Integrating by parts with respect to v , we obtain

f 0
2
2 2
2
k z c 2 p kz vz v dv dvz 0
[left circularly polarized wave]
f 0
2 k 2 c 2 2 2
z
p
kzvz v dv dvz 0
(204)
(205)
(206)
(207)
45
The basic properties of the waves can be most clearly seen in a

cold
ld plasma.
l
So,
S we let
l t
f 0 21v (v ) (vz )
(208)
Note:
f 0 d 3 v v dv
dvz f 0 1
Then, (206) and (207) give
2p
2
2 2
[left circularly polarized] (209)
k z c 0
2p
2 k 2 c 2
0 [right circularly polarized] (210)
As an exercise in kinetic treatment of plasma waves, we have

gone through great length to arrive at the above dispersion relations
for
o a co
coldd pplasma.
as a. In fact,
act, ((209)
09) aandd ((210)
0) ca
can be readily
ead y de
derived
ved
from the fluid equations [see Nicholson, Sec. 7.10; Krall &
Trivelpiece, Sec. 4.10].
46
Assume the plasma contains only one ion species of charge e and
q B
mass mi . In
I all
ll equations,
ti
( m c0 ) carries
i the
th sign
i off q andd B0 .
eB
eB
To be more explicit, we define the notations: e m c0 ; i m c0

e
i
Then (209) and (210) can be written
Then,
2pi
2
2pe
2 2
k z c [ ] 0 [left circularly polarized] (211)
e
i
2
2
2 k 2 c 2 [ pe pi ] 0 [right circularly polarized] (212)

z
e i
Each equation can be put in the form of a 4th order polynomial in .

So, for a given k z , there are 4 solutions for . However, with changed
to , one equation become the other equation. Thus, a negaitive-
solution
l ti off one equation
ti is
i identical
id ti l to
t a positiveiti solution
l ti off the
th other
th
equation. So there must be 2 positive- and 2 negative- solutions for
47
each equation. This results in a total of 4 independent solutions.
Furthermore, with a change of the sign of B0 , the two equations

also reverse
reverse. So,
So without loss of generality [confirming the statement
following (199)], we may restrict our consideration to positive-
solutions for a positive B0 (i.e. B 0 is in the positive z direction).
The 4 independent,
independent positivepositive solutions of (211) and (212) in a
positive B0 are shown in Fig. 1 or 2 in four branches, ranging from
very low to very high frequencies. Various waves in these branches
will
ill be
b classified
l ifi d below
b l according
di to their
h i frequency
f
range.
(See Nicholson, Sec. 7.10 & 7.11; Krall & Trivelpiece, Sec. 4.10).
Fig. 1
Fig.
g 2
2
1
whistler
(right circularly polarized)

1
(left circularly polarized)
kz
k z48
A. High frequency electromagnetic waves - Faraday rotation

For high frequency waves ( i ),
) the ion terms in (211) and
(212) can be neglected. Thus,
2pe
2
2 2
((213))
k z c 0 [[left circularlyy ppolarized]]
e
2pe
2 k 2 c 2
(214)
z
e 0 [right circularly polarized]
The high frequency branches are plotted in the top two curves
in Figs. 1 and 2.
Fig.
g 1
Fig.
g 2
2
1
whistler

1
( i ht circularly
(right
i l l polarized)
l i d)
kz
k z 49
Setting k z 0, we find the cut-off frequencies of the two branches:
1 2 e2 e
pe
2
4
2
(215)
The 2 figures differ in plasma densities. When pe 2e , we

have 1 e (Fig. 1). When pe 2e , we have 1 e (Fig. 2).
As B0 0 (e 0), the 2 branches coalesce with the same cutoff
frequency pe and the same dispersion relation 2 k z2 c 2 2pe 0,
consistent with (143).
2
1
Fig.
g 2
Fig.
g 1
2
whistler
((right
g circularly
y ppolarized))
1
kz
k z50
As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, at a given frequency, the right circularly

polarized wave has a greater phase velocity than the left ciucularly
polarized wave. Hence, if a linearly polarized wave is injected into
the plasma, it may be regarded as the superposition of a right circularly
polarized wave and a left circularly polarized wave of equal amplitude,
amplitude
each traveling at a different phase velocity. The combined wave is still
linearly polarized but its E field (i.e. its polarization) will rotate as the
wave propagates.
t This
Thi is
i called
ll d the
th Faraday
F d rotation
t ti andd is
i exploited
l it d
for plasma density measurement because the degree of polarization
rotaion depends on the plasma density.
In an unmagnetized plasma, there is no electromagnetic wave
below the cutoff frequency pe . A magnetized plasma, however,
can support other branches of electromagnetic waves at frequencies
below the cutoff frequencyies of the top two branches, as discussed
below.
51
B. Intermediate frequency electromagnetic waves - whistler wave

and electron cyclotron wave
In the intermediate frequency range, we still have i , hence
(213) and (214) still apply. (213) has no other solution in this range.
(214) has a solution marked as "whistler"
whistler & "electron
electron cyclotron wave
wave"
in Figs. 1 and 2. The electron cyclotron wave can be exploited for
electron cyclotron resonance heating since it has the same frequency
as the
th electron
l t
cyclotron
l t
frequency
f
andd it rotates
t t in
i the
th same sense as
the electrons.
2
1
Fig.
g 2
Fig.
g 1
2
whistler
((right
g circularly
y ppolarized))
1
kz
k z52
For the whistler wave, the group velocity vg ( d / dk z ) increases

as increases.
increases When a lightning stroke on earth generates a pluse of
EM waves containing many frequencies, the pulse may reach the
ionosphere and propagate along the earth magnetic field as a whistler
wave Some the wave will eventually leave the ionosphere to impinge
wave.
on the earth, where it can be received by a radio and generate a sound
like that of a whistle, hence the name whistler wave. The radio signal
h a dduration
has
ti longer
l
than
th the
th original
i i l pulse
l because
b
components
t att
different frequencies travel at differnet vg in the ionosphere.
2
1
Fig.
g 2
Fig.
g 1
2
whistler
((right
g circularly
y ppolarized))
1
kz
k z53
C. Low frequency electromagnetic waves - Alfven wave and ion

cyclotron
l
wave
As the frequency gets lower, the ions participate more and more.
At frequencies near or below i , the ions play a major role and we
must use (211) and (212). In the vicinity of i , (211) gives the lowfrequency end of the whistler wave (slightly modified by the ions),
and (212) gives a new wave called the ion cyclotron wave.
2
1
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
2
whistler

1
kz
kz
54
When i , we have
1
1
1
1
(1 ) (1 )
e,i
e,i
e,i
e,i
(216)
e,i
1
1
1
e,i e,i (1 e,i ) e,i (1 e,i )
(217)
Sub. (216) and (217) into either (211) or (212), we get the same
results (i.e the two low-frequency branches merge into one):
kz c (
2
Since
2ppe
e2
2 2
2ppi
ei
kz c
2
2 2
2ppi
i2
2pi
i2
2pe
e2
2pi
i2
) 0,
(218)
, we neglect the electron term to get
2 k z2 c 2 2
4 ni 0e2 mi2c2
mi e2 B2 0
0
2
4 ni 0mc
i
((219))
B02
55
Defining a speed VA (called the Alfven speed) in terms of B0

and the ion mass density i ni 0 mi :
B0
VA
,
(220)
i
4
we obtain from (219) the diepersion relation of the Alfven wave:
2 2
k z c c2 0 or 2
2
2 2
VA
2
1
(221)
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
2
k z2VA2
1 VA2 / c 2
whistler
hi l

1
kz
((right
g circularlyy polarized)
p
)
k z56
Physics of the Alfven wave : We first develop the useful concept of

magnetic pressure and magnetic tension. Using
the static law: B 4c J (approximately
applicable at very low frequencies), we may
express the magnetic force density f (force per
unit volume) entirely in terms of the B-field:
B-field
a solenoid
lines
f 1c J B 41 ( B) B
( a b ) ( a ) b + ( b ) a + a ( b ) + b ( a )
a uniform
if
electron beam
2
8B 41 (B )B

(222)
magnetic pressure magnetic tension force density,

as if a curved B-field line
force density
tended to become a straight line.
line
In regions where J 0, we have f 0, i.e. the
pressure and tension force densities cancel out.
B-field
lines
li
uniform current
57
Return to the Alfven wave. Since the two lower branches merge
at i , the left and right circularly polarized waves have the
same phase velocity. So a linearly polarized wave will remain linearly
polarized (no Faraday rotation). The figure below shows a linearly
polarized wave with B1 in the y -direction
direction and E1 in the x-direction.
direction
Since i , e , the electron and ion behavior can be described
by their E1 B 0 drift motion (same speed and same direction). The
wave electric
l t i field
fi ld E1xe x cause both
b th the
th electrons
l t
andd ions
i
to
t drift
d ift in
i
the y -direction, while the wave magnetic z
total B-field
field B1 y e y bends the external B 0 in the
direction of the plasma drift (see figure).
y
A quantitative analysis (Nicholson,
Linearly polarized
p. 163)) shows that the field lines and
p
E1 = E1xe x ; B1 B1ye y
the plasma move together as if the field
lines were "frozen" to the plasma (or the plasma frozen to field lines).
58
On the other hand, when the magnetic field lines are bent, there
is a "tension
tension force density"
density on the plasma,
plasma which acts as a restoring
force to drive the plasma back so that the field lines (which are frozen
to the plasma) become straight. As the field lines are straightened, the
momentum of the plasma carries the field lines further back,
back thus
bending the field lines again, in the opposite direction. The tension
force then acts again to start another oscillation cycle.
N t th
Note
thatt we have
h
assumedd k k z e z ; hence,
h
all
ll quantities
titi vary
only with the z -variable. This implies
z
total B-field
that, at a given time, the E1x e x B 0
drift in the y -direction has the same
y
speed at all points along y. Thus,
Linearly polarized
the drift motion will not compress/
E1 = E1xe x ; B1 B1ye y
decompress the plasma to produce
a density variation. The plasma remains uniform in the processes.
59
Alternative derivation of the Alfven wave dispersion relation:

Th E1 B drifts
The
d ift cause the
th plasma
l
electron
l t
andd ions
i
to
t move in
i
the same direction with the same speed, hence generating no current.
However, there is another drift motion due to the time variation of E1 ,
which results in a polarization drift current given by (2.43) of Sec. 2.5:
c2 E1 imc2
J p m2
E1k eit ikz z

B0 t
B02
imc2
E1k ,
(223)
B02
where m ni 0 mi ne 0 me is the plasma mass density.
density Note that the
polarization drift speed is much greater for the ions than electrons.
J pk plays a critical role in the Alfven wave. It generates the wave
or
J pk
magnetic
ti field
fi ld B1k andd hence
h
the
th magnetic
ti tension
t i force
f
density.
d it In
I
fact, we may derive the dispersion relation based on (223).
60
Sub. J1k J pk
imc2
E1k [(223)], E1k E1kx e x , and k k z e z
B02
into the field equation derived earlier:

2
k (k E ) E 4 i J
1k
c2
1k
c2
1k
(125)
we obtain
2
4m 2
(k z2 2
) E1kx e x 0,
c
B02
which gives the same dispersion relation as (221):
2 2
2 k z2c 2 c2 0
VA
61
Waves propagating perpendicular to B0 e z (k z 0) :

Assume isotropic distribution, f 0 f 0 (v2 vz2 ), we have
f 0 f 0
2 . Then, with k z 0, we obtain from (173)-(178)
vz2
v
ff
vz J n2 20
vz
n
Dxz 2 2p
v
dv
dv
2
(224)
n
k 0
n
f 0
dJn
vz v J n
d (kv / ) vz2
i 2 2v dv dv
D yz 2
(225)
z
p 0

n
n
f
vz J n2 20
v
n
Dzx 2 2p
v
dv
dv
2
(226)
z
n
k 0
n
ff 0
dJn
vz v J n
d (kv / ) v2
i 2 2v dv dv
(227)
Dzy 2
p 0

z
n
62
n
Factoring out the vz -integrals from (224) and (225), we have

f
D yz , Dxz dvz vz 20
vz
f
12 dvz v 0 12 f 0 (vz )
0
z
Factoring out the vz -integrals from (226) and (227), we have
Dzx , Dzy dvz vz
f 0
0
v2
because f 0 is an even function of vz .

Thus,, D yz Dxz Dzx Dzy and ((147)) reduces to
Dxx
D yx
0
Dxy
D yy
0
0 E1kx
0 E1ky
k 0
Dzz E
1kz
(228)
( 8)
63
where
2p
Dxx 1 2
n 2p 0
Dxy D yx
2 i
D yy
2p
2v dv dvz
n 0
n
n22 2 f 0
Jn
(229)
k2
v2
2v dv dvz
n v
k
f
dJ
J n d (k v n/ ) 20 (230)
v

2p
k2c2 2
2
1 2
2
v
dv
dv z v
n
2p
f
dJ
[ d ( k v n/ ) ]2 20
(231)
f 0
(232)
vz2
n
In (229)
(229)-(232),
(232) the argument of all Bessel functions is k v / .
In the limit of a cold plasma (v , vz 0), we only need to keep the
64
lowest-order, non-vanishing terms in the sum over n.
Dzz 1
k2c2 2
2
n 0
2v dv dvz vz2 J n2
(1)n x n
Using (183): lim J n ( x) 1 ( x ) n ; lim J n ( x)
( ) ,
n! 2
n! 2
x 0
x 0
we find that the lowest-order, non-vanishing terms for Dxx are the
n 1 terms. Thus, the sum over n in Dxx is
2p
n n 0
2v dv
dvz
n22 2 f 0
Jn
k2
v2
2p
2p
2 k2v2 f 0
[
] 2v dv dvz
0
k2 42 v2
2p
f
2 2 dv2 dvz v2 20
0
v
integration by parts over v2
2
p 2
2 2 dv dvz f 0
0
for
f a cold
ld plasma:
l
f 0 21v (v ) (vz )
2
(233)
2 ( 2 2 )
65
2p
2
2

Dxx 1
(234)
y the lowest-order, non-vanishing

g terms for Dxy , D yx , and
Similarly,
D yy are also the n 1 terms, and we obtain
2p
2 2 )
(
2p
k2c2
1 2 2 2
Dxy D yx i
((235))
D yy
(236)
The lowest-order, non-vanishing term for Dzz is the n 0 term,

which gives
Dzz 1
k2c2
2
2p
(237)
66
Dxx Dxy E1kx

((228)
8) gives
g ves
a d Dzz E1kz
0
(238)
( 38)
E 0 and
k =0
D
D
xy
yy
1ky
Using (234)-(237), we find from (238) the dispersion relations:
2p
2p
1 2 2
i
2
2
Dxx Dxy

( )
0 (239)
Dxy D yy
2p
2p
k2c2
i
2 2 ) 1 2 2
2
Dzz 1
and
k2c2
2
2p
2 0

Note: We have assumed k k e x k z e z

[(145)]. Thus, with k z 0, (239) and (240)
apply to waves with k k e x . This explains
why Dxx and D yy are unequal, although the
system is isotropic in x and y
(240)
ex
B0
ez
ey
67
Ordinary mode: (see Nicholson, Sec. 7.9 for a fluid treatment)

Rewrite
Dzz 1
k2c2
2
Since ppe pi
p , we may neglect
the ion contribution and get
2 k2 c 2 2pe 0
(240)
pe
(241)
This is
Thi
i the
th dispersion
di
i relation
l ti for
f the
th ordinary
di
mode.
d The
Th ordinary
di
mode is a pure electromagnetic mode, which propagates in a direction
perpendicular to B0 e z , with the electric field parallel to B0 e z . The
dispersion relation (241) has the same form as that of electromagnetic
waves in an unmagnetized plasma [see (143)]
ex
because the electron motion is along B0 e z and
k
B0
ez
hence is unaffected by the external magnetic
E
1
ey
field.
68

2
General properties of modes in Dxx D yy D xy 0:
Dxx Dxy E1kx

Rewrite the field equations:
E 0
D
D
xy
yy
1ky
2
and the dispersion relation:
Dxx D yy D xy
0
(238)
(242)
(238) gives the following information about the modes in (242):

(1) E1 [=E1kx e x +E1kyy e y ] of these modes lies on the x-y plane.
Dxy
(2) Under (242), either equation in (238) gives E1kx D E1ky

xx
ex
From (239), we see that Dxx is real and
k
Dxy is imaginary
imaginary. Thus
Thus, E1kx and E1ky differ
by a factor "i", implying E1x and E1 y
phase while havingg
are 900 out of p
unequal amplitudes ( E1x E1 y ),
i.e. E1 is elliptically polarized.
E1
B0
ez
e y An ellipse on the x-y plane

traced by the E1 vector
69
(3) As shown in the figure, we have

ex
e
+
E
e
E1 =E1kx
k x 1ky
k y
k
k
k
e
x
B0
Thus, in general, these modes are
E1
ez
neither
i h electrostatic
l
i (k E1 0)) nor
e y An ellipse on the x-y plane
electromagnetic (k E1 0), except
traced by the E1 vector
at p
particular frequencies
q
(such
(
as
) or wave numbers (such as k ). Consider, for example,
the relative amplitude of E1kx and E1ky in the relation:
Dxy
E1kx D
xx
E1ky
If, for some or k , we have Dxx 0. Then, E1 E1kx e x and

the mode becomes electrostatic.
electrostatic If,
If Dxy 0 at some or k , then
E1 E1ky e y and the mode becomes electromagnetic. In either case,
E1 also becomes linearly polarized.
70
Extraordinary mode: (see Nicholson, Sec. 7.9 for a fluid treatment)

Att high
g frequencies,
eque c es, we may
ay neglect
eg ect tthee ion
o co
contribution.
t but o . Then,
e ,
2pee
2pe
1 2 2
i
e
( 2 e2 )
0, (243)
(239) can be written
2pee
2pe
k2c2
-i
1 2 2 2
( 2 e2 )
e
eB
where, as before, e m c0 . (243) gives
e
2 2
2pe
4pee2
2pe
(1 2 2 )( 1 k c2 2
)
(244)
0
2
2 ( 2 e2 )
e
e
After some alg
gebra, ((244)) can be written
( 2 2pe )2 2e2 ( 2 2pe )2 2e2 identical to
k2 c 2
=
,
2
(245)
2 2pe e2
2 UH
(7.178)
2
where UH , called the upper hybrid frequency,
frequency is defined as
2
UH
2pe e2
(246)
71
( 2 2pe )2 2e2
Rewrite
k c
(245)
2
2 UH
This is the dispersion relation for the extraordinary mode. It has
two branches with the following limiting frequencies:
2 2
e e B0 /( me c)

2
k 0 1 2pe e e ; k
4
2
2
UH
k c
Thus, as shown in the figure,

the frequency of the lower branch
ordinary mode
2
UH
goes from 1 to UH and the
g
pe
frequency of the upper branch goes 1
extraordinary mode
from 2 to infinity. Note that at
k
UH , we have Dxx 0.
0 Hence,
Hence E1 E1x e x [see (238)] and the
wave is electrostatic (called upper hybrid resonance). As ,
we have Dxy 0 E1 E1 y e y and the wave is electromagnetic.
72
Magnetosonic Wave: (see Nicholson, Sec. 7.12 for a fluid treatment)

2p
2p
1 2 2
i
2
2
Dxx Dxy

( )
Rewrite
0 (239)
D yyx D yy
2p
2p
k2c2
i
1 2 2 2
2
2
( )

At very low frequencies ( 2 i2 ), ions play a major role and we

mustt retain
t i the
th ion
i terms
t
in
i (239).
(239) Under
U d the
th condition:
diti
2 i2
2p
2p
2pe 2pi
1
1
2
2
2
e2 i2

2
2p
2p
k2c2
k2c2
k2c2 pi
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2

2
2
2p
2p
i [ pe pii ] 0
D yx i
i
=
2
2
e i
( )

Dxx 1
D yy
Dxy
= 2pi / i
73
Thus, (239) gives Dxx D yy 0. Because Dxx 0, we have

D yy
2
k2c2 pi
1 2 2 0
i
(247)
(247) has a form identical to (219) if k z in (219) is replaced with k .

Thus, the solution is simply (221) with k z changed to k :
k2VA2
1 VA2 / c 2
where the Alfven speed VA is defined in (220) as
B0
VA
[ i ni 0 mi ]
4i
(248) gives the dispersion relation for the
g
wave. Because D yy 0,, it has an
magnetosonic
electric field E1 E1e y . Hence, k E1 0 and
the wave is electromagnetic with B1 B1e z .
(248)
(220)
ex
k
ey
E1
B0
ez
B1
74
A physical picture: Like the low-frequency Alfven wave, particle

dynamics can be described by 2 types of drift motion. The E1e y B0e z
drifts move the plasma in the x-direction. Since E1 ( eik x ) also
varies with x, the drift motion will compress/decompress the plasma,
resulting in a density variation along x. On the other hand
hand, the wave
magnetic field B1e z , when superposed with B0e z will cause a similar
density variation of the magnetic field lines (see figure). The field
lines are again frozen to the plasma, similar to the Alfven wave.
However, the restoring force (thus the oscillation mechanism) is now
provided by the magnetic pressure force density: B 2 / 8 [(222)].
ex
As in the Alfven wave
wave, there is
also a polarization drift current in the
k
B1
y -direction due to the time variation
of E1e y . This current generates the
ez
B0
E
wave magnetic field B1e z , hence
1
B1
the magnetic pressure.
ey
75
Alternative derivation of the magnetosonic wave dispersion relation:

Th polarization
The
l i ti drift
d ift currentt is
i given
i
by
b
c2 E1 imc2
J p m2
E1k eit ik x
2
t
B0
B0
or
J pk
imc2
E1k ,
B02
(249)
imc2
E1k , E1k E1ky e y , and k ke x into
B02
2
the field equation: k (k E1k ) c2 E1k 4c2i J1k
(125)
Sub J1k J pk
Sub.
we obtain
or
4m 2
) E1ky e y 0
B02
2 2
2 k2 c 2 c2 0,
VA
( k2 2
c
2
which gives the same dispersion relation as (248):

76
Asymptotic behavior of the magnetosonic wave dispersion relation:

The dispersion relation for the magnetosonic wave:
2 k2VA2 /(1 VA2 / c 2 )
(245)
is valid under the condition 2 i2 . It breaks down as k . To
find the behavior at k , we assume 2 i2 and 2 e2 .
2p
2pe 2pi
and from
2
2
e2 2

2p
2p
1
i
Dxx Dxy
2 2
( 2 2 )
0
2p
D yx D yy
2p
k2c2
i
1 2 2 2
2
2
( )

we find that, as k but remains finite, we must have
2p
2pe 2pi
Dxx 1 2 2 1 2 2 0,
e

Then, Dxx 1
(239)
(247)
which implies E1 E1x e x [see (238)]. Hence, the wave is electrostatic.77
Rewrite
(247) gives
2pe
e2
2pi
0
2
(247)
if 2pe e2
2pie2 2pie2
2
2 2 2 e i LH
, [for k ]
e pe
pe
(248)
LH e i
((249))
where
is called the lower hybrid frequency.
extraordinary mode
This justifies the assumption:
2 i2 and 2 e2
we made in obtaining (248).
y all the pperpendicular
p
Finally,
modes (k B0 ) discussed so
far are summarized in the figure.
ordinary
y mode
UH
pe
1
LH magnetosonic wave
78
Discussion :
((i)) We have covered a number of the most familiar modes in a
uniform plasma in the framework of the kinetic theory. These modes
are treated in Ch. 7 of Nicholson by the fluid theory. However, some
other familiar uniform
uniform-plasma
plasma modes have been left out,
out for example,
example
the Bernstein modes (Krall & Trivelpiece, Sec. 8.12.3).
(ii) We have only considered waves either along or perpendicular
to B0e z . In practice
practice, waves can exist at any angle to B0e z (Nicholson,
(Nicholson
p. 165), with complicated expressions and mixed properties. The
general dispersion relation (149) can be the basis for a detailed study
of such uncovered uniform
uniform-plasma
plasma modes
modes.
(iii) There are also modes which are not contained in (149). For
example, an inhomogeneous (equilibrium) distribution in density or
t
temperature
t
introduces
i t d
new modes,
d suchh as drift
d ift waves (Nicholson,
(Ni h l
Sec. 7.14; Krall & Trivelpiece, Secs. 8-15 and 8.16). Plasmas in
79
some devices (e.g. tokamaks) are futher complicated by a complex

magnetic field configuration.
configuration Such plasmas are usually the subjects
of research papers.
(iv) Modes considered in Sec. 6.12 are for a cold plasma. Basic
properties
ti andd the
th underlying
d l i physics
h i are more clearly
l l exhibited
hibit d in
i
this limit. However, cold modes are stable because there is no free
energy to drive an instability. In the next topic, we will demonstrate
show
h how
h a mode
d can become
b
unstable
bl in
i an anisotropic
i
i plasma.
l
(v) The relativistic Valsov equation can be derived by the same
steps as in the derivation of the Vlasov equation in Sec. 6.1. For the
case we considered (E0 0, B 0 B0e z ), the relativistic factor is
a constant of the motion in zero-order orbit equations. Hence, the
derivation of the relativistic dispersion
dispersion relation takes exactly the same
steps which lead to (171)-(182). In Special Topis I, we will derive
the relativistic Vlasov equation and consider a relativistic instability. 80
A Slow -Wave Instability on the Electron Cyclotron Wave :

The dispersion relation for "right
right circularly polarized waves"
waves is
f 0
kzvz ) kzvz f 0
(
1
vz2 3
2
v
2 k z2 c 2 2 2p
v dv dvz 0 (203)
kzvz
At high frequencies, we may neglect the ions. Then, for a cold

2pe
e B0
plasma, (203) reduces to 2 k z2 c 2
0,
[
] (214)
e
m
e
ec
which gives the 2 "right circularly polarized" branches in the figure.
Below, we will show that the
"electron cyclotron wave" portion
2
of the lower branch can be
e
destabilized by an anisotropy in
1
velocity distribution, resulting
i
in a velocity-space instability.
k z 81
For an anisotropic plasma, we cannot use (214), but must go back

to (203)
(203). Again
Again, assume high frequency and neglect the ions.
ions (203)
f e 0 (1 kzvz ) kzvz f e 0
vz2 3
v2
gives 2 k z2 c 2 2 2pe
v dv dvz 0 (250)
kzvz e
I
The integral I can be written
f e0
kz f e0
(1 kzvz )
vz
I 12
v2 dv dvz 12
v3 dv dv
kzvz e
kzvz e z
integration by parts
kz2
zvz )
f e0 (1 k
f
e0
v dv dv 1
v3 dv dv
kz vz e z 2 ( kz vz e )2 z
Now, assume f e0 1 (v v0 ) (vz ), [see (104)]
(251)
2 v
which represents a uniform distribution of electrons in random-phase
gyrational motion, with v v0 and vz 0 for all electrons.
82
Then,
kz2v20
]
I 1 [ 1 1
e 2 (
2
e )2
(252)
Sub. (252) into (250), we obtain the dispersion relation:

2 2
1 kz v0 ] 0,,
2 k z2 c 2 2pe [
(253)
( )
e 2 (
e )2
which reduces to (214) as v0 0.
frequency
The two right circularly polarized branches
are plotted for pe 10e and v0 0.2c. The
top figure plots r (wave frequency) vs k z .
The upp
pper branch is a fast wave (r / k z c),
)
while the lower branch is a slow wave (r / k z
growth rate
c). The bottom figure plots i (growth rate)
vs k z . We see that the slow wave is destabilized
by the gyrational particles, which feed energy
to the wave through cyclotron resonances.
83

Vlasov Equation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vlasov Equation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 6: Vlasov Equation

6.1 Introduction (continued)

The Vlasov Equation : As shown in Sec. 2.9, a collision can

divergence operator and (x , v ) [ ( x , y , z, vx , v y , vz )] can be regarded

6.1 Introduction (continued)

To show that t f (x,v,t ) x, v [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )] 0 [(1)] implies

conservation of particles, we integrate it over

f (x, v, t )d 3 xd 3v V x, v [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )]d 3 xd 3v 0

(by 6-dimensional divergence theorem)

6.1 Introduction (continued)

f (x,v,t ) [ f (x,v,t )(x , v )] 0

v E 0 [E does not depend on v]

and (1) becomes

which is the Vlasov equation.

6.1 Introduction (continued)

Physical Interpretation of the Vlasov Equation :

where dt is the total time derivative of f . The total time derivative

6.1 Introduction (continued)

This interpretation is consistent with the fact that the sum of

6.1 Introduction (continued)

6.1 Introduction (continued)

Complete Set of Equations : We now have the following set

Each particle species, denoted by the subscript " ", is governed

6.2 Equilibrium Solutions

d follows the orbit of a particle whose position and velocity

6.2 Equilibrium Solutions (continued)

Examples of Constants of the Motion :

6.2 Equilibrium Solutions (continued)

Examples of Equilibrium Solutions:

f e 0 1 n0 (vx ) (v y )[ (vz v0 ) (vz v0 )]

6.2 Equilibrium Solutions (continued)

Given sufficient time, collisions will first randomize electron

where vT kT / m is the thermal speed, T is the same for both

6.2 Equilibrium Solutions (continued)

Discussion: In constructing the equilibrium solution f 0 , we must

6.3 Electrostatic Waves

Below we present a kinetic treatment

6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)

At high frequencies (e.g. ~ pe ), the ions cannot respond fast

provided f 0 ( v ), which represents a uniform distribution in real space,

6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)

First-Order Solution (Linear Theory) of Electrostatic Waves

For clarity, we denote all

Sub. (20) into the Vlasov equation:

Sub. E1 1 and 1 e f1d 3v into the first-order field

6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)

(22)-(25) give k z21k

6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)

R it (26) : k z21k 2pe n10 k z1k

The v x and v y integrations in (27) may be immediately carried out

(29) has a singularity at v z / k z , which will be addressed later.

6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)

Since g0 ( v z ) 0, integrating (29) by parts gives

Note: The z -direction here is the x -direction in Nicholson. g0 , k z ,

kzvz , we obtain 1 2pe g ( v )[1 2 kzvz 3( kz vz )2 ]dv 0 (6.26)

then, using the formula in (18):

6.3 Electrostatic Waves (continued)

1 exp( vz2 ) [(30)] and the formulae:

6.4 Landau Contour

indicates a p-space quantity.

6.4 Landau Contour (continued)

Analytic Function : (M&W, Appendix A)

A function f ( z ) in the complex z -plane (z x iy rei ) is said

is independent of the path by which h approaches 0.