This full text paper was peer-reviewed at the direction of IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Society prior to the
acceptance and publication.
Smart Meter for the IoT
F. Abate, M. Carratù, C. Liguori, M. Ferro
Department of Industrial Engineering (DIIn)
University of Salerno
Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 - Fisciano (SA)
ITALY
{fabate, mcarratu, tliguori, mferro}@unisa.it
Abstract — In recent years, smart devices are increasingly. These
devices allow making cities smart, enabling communication not
only among people but also among things, creating a new system
nowadays known by the term IoT (Internet of Things). A smart
city is based on a smart grid that allows to intelligently manage the
power grid. In order to do this, the network must have intelligent
meters that can communicate bidirectionally with the network.
This market has led to a proliferation of smart meters that give the
opportunity to measure the consumption of each single device in
homes. The most part of smart meters are based on a chip that
calculates the parameters needed to estimate energy consumption.
In this paper, the authors consider a smart meter based on a
common chip that calculate the power consumption and the meter
characterization is reported.
Keywords: Smart City, Smart Grid, Smart Meter, AMI, Demand
Side Management, Open metering, IoT.
I. INTRODUCTION
The smart city [1] in urban planning and architecture is a set
of urban planning strategies (see Fig. 1) aimed at optimizing and
innovating public services so as to link the material
infrastructures of cities "with capital human, intellectual and
social lives of those who live in them" thanks to the widespread
use of new technologies for communication, mobility, the
environment and energy efficiency, in order to improve the
quality of life and meet the needs of citizens, businesses and
institutions [2].
Urban performance depends not only on the provision of
material infrastructures in the city (physical capital), but also,
and increasingly, from the availability and quality of
communication, knowledge and social infrastructure
(intellectual capital and social capital). This latter form of capital
is particularly important for urban competitiveness.
Figure 1. The concept of Smart City.
978-1-5386-2222-3/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
V. Paciello
Department of Electrical Engineering and Information
University of Cassino and Southern Lazio
Via G. Di Biasio, 43 - Cassino (FR)
ITALY
v.paciello@unicas.it
The intelligent city concept has been introduced in this
context as a strategic device to contain modern urban production
factors in a common framework and to emphasize the growing
importance of information and communication technologies
(ICT), social and environmental capital in defining the
competitiveness profile of cities, moving towards sustainability
and ecological measures both in control and energy saving,
optimizing mobility and security solutions The significance of
the two sets of social and environmental capital points to the
need for a long way to go to distinguish intelligent or smart cities
from those with a greater technological burden, drawing a clear
line between them, what goes below the name of smart cities and
digital cities respectively. The first thing to take into account, in
order to have a smart city is to consider the smart grid
opportunity. It is clear that the grid of the 21st century will be a
"Smart Grid".
Due of the global demand for worldwide electricity, and to
the ground gained by renewable energy and distributed
generation, most electric grids, designed and built decades ago,
are now struggling to meet these new challenges. In this context,
the study of smart grids is introduced, which provides the
network of intelligent and optimized elements and
configurations that can facilitate management operations. First
of all, it should be specified that the experimentation pursues two
different strands, namely network intelligence at national level
and the creation of as independent networks as possible, the size
of which varies according to initial production and consumption
hypotheses. In the second line there are the most futuristic
solutions, but already in the first there are important novelties
that will revolutionize the way to consume energy of individual;
one of the key assumptions in fact is in both cases centrality of
the consumer, as the active protagonist of energy management
and no longer as the end user of the production chain.
In the middle of these two streets, the idea of smart cities is
taken up, strongly encouraged by the more accurately and far-
sighted local governments, which consists in applying the
concept of an autonomous network to the management area of a
single city, and then providing the same links intelligent with
other cities and the national network. The Smart Grid will be
characterized by bidirectional data communication among all
relevant users of the energy conversion chain [3], [4]. The result
is a participatory network (as depicted in Fig. 2) in which
consumers, utilities, and service providers share responsibilities
and benefits [5].
In this scenario Smart Meters, capable of bidirectional data
communication in the connection of consumers to the Smart
Grid, are among the fundamental building blocks of Smart Grid
deployments. At first, outage detection and power restoration
and verification will be improved by smart metering. Mainly
smart metering solutions will help empower consumers with
information to monitor, manage, and control energy usage and
optimize performance and reduce energy losses.
With smart-grid-enabled net metering benefits can be
mutual: utilities could be able to manage peak demand, whilst
consumers can monitor and optimize their energy consumption
based upon the real-time price of energy and individual needs
and offset rising power bills [6],[7]. The implementation of a
Smart Metering solution means that utilities will be able to offer
better targeted tariffs and introduce new business models based
on real-time pricing or active load control, which can be used to
reduce high-cost consumption [8].
In order to unfold its full potential, Smart Metering requires
an Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) for full-scale bi-
directional data communication to be in place. Data collected
through an AMI can be captured, stored, and forwarded to a
central computer. Moreover, AMI aims at an open system with
a connection to the Home Area Network (HAN). Particularly
relevant in this field is the OPEN Meter project, which aims to
specify a comprehensive set of open and public standards for
AMI.
More in details the research activities will be focused on the
measurement devices, communication technologies
(transmission medium and interfaces), protocols and data
structures suitable for data exchange between the systems and
devices, which constitute the network. In the market the number
of smart meters are increasing, and the cost are decreasing, but
the question to answer is: are the smart meters good for estimate
the Energy consumption? What is the accuracy?
In concordance with this trend and starting from previous
experience in the field of remote metering and wireless sensor
networks [8]-[10], the authors propose to evaluate the
performance of a smart meter based on a common chip to
measure the energy consumption. In the paper, after a brief
review of grid architectures, the chosen smart meter will be
discussed in detail and its characterization will be reported.
II. THE SMART GRID ARCHITECTURE
A. Overview
The development of new energy sources must go hand in
hand with that of the infrastructures that manage and use them
[11]. The Smart Grids will be one of the areas that will be more
fashionable in research applied to networks and more. However,
what it is, because it is spoken and how it is part of the current
search for the sustainability of the energy, production and social
sectors.
B. The Grid
First of all, although it may seem desirable, it should be
remembered that energy, after being produced and before being
consumed, must be managed, transported and distributed, which
means talking about distribution networks. Considerations on
electrical networks can be repeated almost unchanged for
networks of any nature, suggesting that the topic goes to the
"essential" features related to the network concept.
So a network carries a good from one point of supply to one
of the consumption, considering that the two things do not
happen at the same time, and therefore considering the
Figure 2. The smart Grid.
possibility of storing or temporarily accumulating for more or
less predictable times.
Three phases are identified: supply, storage/management,
distribution, which almost never follow linearly over time, and
are largely dependent on each other. The first two phases are
strategic for a community/country, and are at the origin of its
political and economic movements. Think of the supply of
natural gas, oil, electricity from other nations or economic
realities, the opportunity to have "home" energy sources or to
optimize the power output of engines, power generation plants
and transformation processes. Likewise, it may be very
important in terms of dependence on imports or markets to have
the ability to store energy, or to have reserves that allow greater
negotiation margins with "suppliers"; the problem of the storage
capacity of the goods is one of the greatest that humanity has
always faced, and has always been the subject of important
architectural and urban forms, from Roman tanks to skylines of
industrial peripheries of the last two centuries.
C. The Stakeholders of the Grid
There is, first and foremost, a public subject [12], whether it
is a national network, capable of forecasting consumption and
meeting the needs in time. It also needs to optimize resources
and coordinate inputs and consumption. In Italy, for the power
grid this role is covered by the Energy Services Manager (ESM),
while TERNA manages the main transmission infrastructures.
Production and Consumption then fall into a series of
subjects that interact with the single operator and among them.
Obviously, there are large, "home" energy producers, large and
small consumers and intermediaries, and there are also
institutional architects and guarantors, such as the Single Buyer
and the Electricity and Gas Authority. Everyone is involved in
the operation of the Energy Market in different forms and at
different levels and can freely decide to agree or to refer to the
market, directly or through institutional guarantors, regardless of
size (hence, for example, the numerous forms of contract of the
Energy Account) [13].
D. The Grid Management
With regard to power input in the network, the operator has
several options:
1) buying electricity from national or non national
producers, acting on the energy markets or through bilateral
agreements;
 2) produce electricity in processing plants, from other = ∫ = ∫ = (3)
sources, typically hydrocarbons;
The formula for the calculation of apparent power still holds
3) use stored energy under various forms (from gas true:
deposits to hydroelectric basins);
4) manage loads through resource optimization, or trying = = ( + ) = + (4)
to waste nothing. So, the non-active power term can be obtained: it contains at
One of the biggest problems in power grid management is in the same time the reactive power terms and the contributions
fact the peak of consumption, so suddenly there must be plenty deriving from the waveform distortions:
of energy available, while the supplies do not have a variable =√ − (5)
shape, they are constant, and no one makes back what is not
coming consumed. In practice, the energy manager has to In order to obtain also the information about the sign of the
prepare for now the amount of energy provided by the statistics, non-active power, the system prototype applies the Goertzel
trying to minimize the surplus energy margins (Terna daily algorithm. By means of this algorithm, it is possible to compute
publishes forecasts and supply charts on its site). a single DFT component without computing the whole signal
spectrum; this algorithm has a computational complexity equal
E. Development Points to N, the number of point on which is applied, instead of the
As far as intelligent networks are concerned at national FFT algorithm that has a complexity equal to Nlog2N. Firstly,
level, here are some points developed by research and each time window of 200 samples, Goertzel algorithm is
experimentation on the territory (for a decade now). applied for a set of seven different frequencies (35, 40, 45, 50,
- Consumer feedback through smart counters and the ability 55, 60 and 65 Hz), on which, after using a Hanning window, an
to consult and manage domestic consumption trends. Inside the Interpolated Fast Fourier Transform algorithm is applied, in
facilities and homes, irreplaceable help comes from domotics. order to find the actual frequency on the power grid. Thus, as
- Consuming large consumers through Energy defined, only the current and voltage waveform at the computed
Management, i.e. allocating internal or external staff to frequency are considered to determine the signs of the power
businesses that can manage and optimize energy consumption terms, obtaining the phase angle between voltage and current
at all levels of administration. and the frequency.
- Implement as far as possible local governments, large It is reported in the Figure 3 the C-language code segment
manufacturing or small consumers, and consumption modes for the Goertzel algorithm.
compatible with the availability of electricity grids; such as #define pi 3.14159265
low-light lighting, machinery that do not involve cranks or #define NumPoints 200
aggravate punctuality, and which, on the contrary, harmonize a=0;
discontinuities (inverter motors, gradual startup, local b=0;
par=0;
accumulation, etc…). reW_f = 2.0*cos(2.0*pi/20);
imW_f = 1.0*sin(2.0*pi/20);
III. THE SMART METER for(i=0;i<NumPoints;i++)
{
A. Power measurement metrics par = V(i) + reW_f*a – b;
b = a;
Widespread dissemination of active and nonlinear loads on a = par;
the power grid results in the noise introduction on the network: }
phenomena such as harmonic distortion, dips and swells, Re_re = 0.5*rew_f*a - b;
Re_im = imW_f*a;
changes significantly the expected sinusoidal signal. Therefore,
Figure 3. C-like code for sign calculation
instead of the classic power analysis in sinusoidal condition, it is
necessary to measure active and reactive power with non-
sinusoidal signals. Several different interpretations about the The Goertzel algorithm transposes into the frequency
significance of such terms can be found in literature ([14]-[17]): domain voltage and current: these signals can be written as:
distortion of the network signal required a different analysis, and
several of this metric requires the frequency domain analysis. = [ ]+ [ ]= (6)
The Fryze’s approach has been chosen: this theory is based = [ ]+ [ ]= (7)
on considering two types of power terms, active and non-active = [cos( )+ ( )] (8)
[14],[17], dividing the load current in two terms, an active one = [cos( )− ( )] (9)
and a reactive one:
= + (1) So it follows:
where [ ] [ ]+ [ ] [ ]= cos( − )=
∫
( ) = ( ) = ( ) (2) = cos ( ) (10)
∫
[ ] [ ]− [ ] [ ]= sin( − )=
The active current [19] term ( ) is accountable for the
active power. Therefore: = sin ( ) (11)
 So, the system prototype must have the capability to
determine active and non-active power signs, allowing
bidirectional measurements, following frequency changes on the
power grid. The energy calculation strictly depends on the
network frequency, indeed, in order to avoid error in the
estimation of the consumed energy using a fixed sampling
frequency, an entire number of samples in the time interval
analysis must be considered or whereas a number of entire
samples is not available (caused by a not synchronized
sampling), an interpolation algorithm could be used. To achieve
this goal, an adaptive algorithm able to change the number of
samples in the time interval analysis could be implemented, so
if the network frequency changes, the metric for the energy
evaluation have to take into account this changes [19].
Nowadays, modern meter already implements basic
frequency measurement functions, almost all based on zero-
crossing algorithm, such as the TIDM-Metrology from Texas
Instruments, or the STPM series from ST Microcontroller. Zero-
crossing algorithm is a direct and simple calculation
method [20]: it computes the time between two consecutive
crossing (positive or negative) counting the sample points that
fall into these events. In addition, in order to execute a correct
calculation also in cases of asynchronous sampling, it is
necessary to extract the time difference between the first counted
sample and the previous crossing time instant, Tδ1, and the
difference between the last counted sample and the following
crossing time instant, Tδ2 (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Time difference between the acquired sample and the
crossing time instant
These two time interval could be computed by means of the
following formulas:
| +1 |
= (12)
| +1 |+| |
| 1|
= (13)
| |+| +1 |
Tδ1 computed at the crossing, for the following period, Tδ2
computed at the crossing for the previous period.
The algorithm computes the period adding to the counted
samples these two time interval: the input signal frequency can
be obtained as:
= + δ1 + δ2 (14)
= (15)
where n is the number of counted samples between the
crossing, f is the input signal frequency and fs is the sampling
frequency.
A typical approach is to find the zero-crossing time from the
input signal filtered with a low pass filter, while the period is
generally calculated averaging a specified number of measured
periods.
B. Simulations
These approaches are tested on simulated signal,
implementing them in Matlab® R2017b. The input signal is a
sinusoidal waveform without offset, and these tests are executed
varying the input frequency in a range from 45 Hz to 55 Hz. For
this input signal 200 samples are generated, with a rate of 1 kHz,
varying randomly the phase in a range equal to the sampling
interval, results for zero-crossing are averaged on the ten
computed period measured. In Figure 5 results of simulations
are shown, the percentage relative error computed in the
frequency computation by the two algorithms are reported as a
function of the input signal frequency. The input frequency
obtained with the Goertzel approach has a smaller error for
almost all the analyzed frequencies than the one obtained with
the zero-crossing. Both the techniques have a small error: the
zero-crossing has an percentage error smaller than 0.002%,
whereas the Goertzel approach has an error smaller than
0.001%.
Figure 5. Percentage relative error with Goertzel and zero-
crossing techniques
IV. THE PROTOTYPE
A. Realized prototype
In this paper, an evaluation of the performances of a smart
meter based on a common chip to measure the energy
consumption is proposed. The prototype of smart meter is
realized following the OIML “Active Electrical Energy Meters”
[21], and ensuring bidirectional communication channels for an
AMI scenario.
The prototype of the smart meter integrates a voltage and
current measurement unit, and different communication
protocols. In Figure 6, a picture of the measurement unit is
shown: it is based on the ADE7913 chip, and it communicates
with a microcontroller through SPI interface. It has a DC/DC
isolated and integrated power converter, and three second-order
Σ-Δ analog to digital converter, with sampling rate set to
1.024 MHz (an anti-aliasing analog low-pass filter is inserted on
each ADC input, with cut frequency of 5 kHz). This high
sampling rate is necessary due to oversampling the input signal,
with the effect of spreading the quantization noise over a wider
bandwidth; moreover, with the Σ-Δ modulator, there is a noise
shaping effect, due to the integrator (high-pass type response for
the quantization noise). The output is a 24-bit data-word,
proportional to the input signal level, with an output frequency
of 1 kHz, obtained as an output of a digital low pass filter: the
bandwidth of interest obtained is 40 Hz to 3.3 kHz. It is relevant
to underline that this approach is very affordable compared to
other solutions which requires voltage and current transductors:
with this chip, a shunt resistor, and few passive components it is
possible to achieve an isolated digital output with acquired
samples, for few euros.
The measurement module has the task to receive and
elaborate these samples: it elaborates data, computing power,
network frequency and energy [22]. Moreover, it is equipped
with two communication interfaces, a wireless one, with
wM- Bus [10],[23] at 169 MHz, and a wired one, with CAN bus:
so it is able to communicates results through these interface in
an AMI scenario [24],[25].
Figure 6. The realized prototype
B. Data acquisition and processing
The prototype of smart energy meter is based on a unique
STM32F205RBT6, connected to the measurement unit by an
SPI interface. More in details, the firmware receives every
millisecond data from the SPI module previously described.
The data received is composed by two samples: one related to
the voltage and one to the current measured. The main loop of
the firmware analyzes the quantities of interest each observation
window of 200 ms (200 samples acquired at 1kHz). The
microcontroller computes:
1) voltage and current rms values:
= ∑ ( ) ; = ∑ ( );
1 sinusoidal, DIP, Interharmonic, Flicker, Quadriform and
2) the active power: = ∑ ( ) ∙ ( );
3) the apparent power: S = ∙ ;
4) the power factor: PF = ;
5) the fundamental frequency by means of Goertzel:
the Goertzel algorithm is applied to 7 frequencies near 50 Hz, as
mentioned before, for the voltage. The spectrum modules M(k0)
at these frequencies are calculated, then the maximum of the
fundamental lobe is searched and an interpolation algorithm is
applied in order to calculate the fundamental frequency f:
= ∆ ∙ ( + ∙ );
where k0 is the index of the maximum, and δ0 is:
= ;
( )
= ; (22)
( )
1 ( + 1) ≥ ( − 1)
and = ; (23)
−1 ( − 1) > ( + 1)
6) the non-active power, as reported in (5), and its sign;
7) the energy: = + ∙∆ (24)
counted on a variable number of point, related to the
fundamental frequency which is updated every time interval
analysis as reported previously.
C. Communication in the automated metering infrastructure
As reported before, the modules prototype is equipped with
the wM-Bus at 169 MHz. This approach can take advantage of
the infrastructure already required by the authority for gas
meters: this automated metering infrastructure for
communication would reasonably be available in the urban areas
of interest also for a smart energy meter. The system architecture
established by the authority includes mainly three devices: the
measurement devices, which acquire, manage and communicate
data, the data concentrator units (DCU), which are local
gateway, and the central acquisition systems (SAC);
furthermore, it specifies the allowed communication among
different devices. In the prototype system, the wM-Bus interface
ensures the communication with the DCU, thus allowing a
continuous monitoring of the network. Data are sent and stored
by the DCU to the SAC, allowing continuous monitoring of
energy consumption computed by the measurement devices.
The number of smart meters in cities are increasing and they are
added to the IoT network.
V. THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
First experimental results have been obtained using a
measurement set-up composed by (see Figure 7):
 The Fluke 6105A
 Smart Meter prototype, based on chip ADE7913
The Fluke 6105A is an accurate instrument for calibrating
energy meters and could be used as an energy reference
standard: it meets all accuracy requirements of power quality
testing to different energy standards.
The first test has been carried out following the OIML R-46
on Active Electrical Energy Meters [21]. Referring to the
(16) recommended measurements in distorted conditions, the
(17) Peaked waveforms have been generated via the Fluke 6105A
(18) Power Quality Calibrator. For these signals, the signal
frequency was measured with the meter using the two
(19) implemented algorithms. Then the values measured with the
meter prototype have been compared to the parameters
configured on the Fluke 6105A. Table I shows the results of this
comparison, in particular reporting the percentage errors for the
mentioned waveforms, the results are the mean on 30 repeated
measurements, each of which was done on time interval of
200 ms (200 S at 1 kHz). The Goertzel algorithm shows a
smaller error than the zero-crossing, bigger than two order of
magnitude for almost all the analyzed input waveforms.
(20)
The second test was performed using an input sinusoidal
signal of 230 V rms and 1 A, sweeping its frequency from 49 Hz
(21) to 51 Hz, with a step of 0.1 Hz. For each step, 30 repeated
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