Literature Review and Relevant Theories

Chapter 2

Literature Review and Relevant Theories

2.1. Literature Review

There has been abundant literature reporting the use of Electro-Osmosis (EO)
treatment for dewatering soils and sludge. This method has even been extended to
use on biochips. Many researchers had reported on laboratory studies on the basic
operation mechanism of EO treatment.

A few literatures also detailed the

application of EO treatment in improving the soil properties in the field, including

earth dam stabilisation (Fetzer, 1967), railway embankments (Chappel and Burton,
1975) and pile foundations (Soderman and Milligan, 1961; Bjerrum et al., 1967).
Local field application of EO for consolidation of soft clay was carried out by Chew et
al. (2002).

Dredged materials usually contain contaminants, such as metal deposits and oil
spills. The cost of excavating and disposing of these dredged materials is higher
than normal due to the special handling involved. Dewatering of these dredged
materials and remediation of contaminated soil through the removal or separation of
contaminants (Acar et al., 1994) allow for the safe reutilisation of the dredged
materials.

Literature Review and Relevant Theories

2.1.1. Historical Studies

EO treatment was successfully employed in the excavation in Oslo, 1960 (Eide and
Eggestad, 1963). Special treatments had to be implemented for the excavation due
to the absence of sufficient safety factor against bottom heave.

Underwater

excavation and ground freezing were deemed infeasible largely due to the high
costs that would be incurred and the potential problems that would arise for the
nearby buildings. Thus EO treatment stood out among the other soil improvement
methods as the most suitable method to be implemented.

As a result of EO

treatment, the shear strength of the soil increased thus providing the necessary
safety factor against bottom heave, which is needed for the completion of the
excavation. Fig. 2.1. shows the increase in the shear strength of the soil due to EO
treatment.

There was another application of EO treatment at s, which is in the vicinity of Oslo

(Bjerrum et al., 1967).

The 4.5 m depth excavation was planned but the soil

conditions at the site only allowed for an excavation depth of 2.3 m with an accepted
factor of safety against upheaval. Soil improvement by EO treatment effectively
reduced the water content and increased the shear strength of the soil from an
average of 9 to 20 kPa, and induced a settlement of 500 mm. Thus the excavation
to 4.5 m depth could be materialized.

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

Lo et al. (1991c) reported a field test carried out at Gloucester Test Fill site with the
use of specially designed copper electrodes. Similarly EO treatment caused the
increase of the shear strength of the soil and reduced its water content, as shown in
the comparison between pre-treatment and post-treatment samples, along with a
surface settlement of 50 mm. Figs. 2.2. to 2.5. show some of the geotechnical
properties of the soil before and after EO treatment.

The next historical case was the successful stabilization of an excavation in

Trondheim harbour (Acar and Senneset, 1995).

The sheet piling failed at an

excavation depth of 7.5 m even with the implementation of possible conventional

counter measures. EO treatment was designed to arrest the soft soil problems. An
average total energy consumption of only 0.5 kWh/m3 was recorded for the duration
of treatment, and this was sufficient for the excavation of uniform silty deposit to
proceed smoothly to the full depth. Fig. 2.6. shows the cross section of the slope of
excavation being treated and Fig. 2.7. illustrates the insertion of the electrodes used.

Chen et al. (1999) reported a field trial of a unique configuration of horizontal sheetlike electrodes on a site in Ohio, U.S.A. The site was underlain by silty glacial drift
and the research studied the effects of EO treatment on the soil properties, such as
electrical conductivity and pH. The lower electrode was created, at a depth of 2.2 m,
by filling a flat-lying hydraulic fracture opening with granular graphite. The upper
electrode was a metallic mesh placed at a depth of 0.4 m and covered with sand.
The electrical gradient applied was 20-31 V/m with a current of 42-57 A. Despite the

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

total flow rate being strongly influenced by the fluctuations of the ground-water table,
EO flow rates of 0.6-0.8 l/h were observed during the tests which lasted several
weeks. The ratio of applied current to voltage decreased from 0.9 to 0.6 A/V due to
a decrease in the electrical conductivity of the soil.

Low pH region started

developing at the anode and slowly moved towards the cathode.

The results

confirmed the feasibility of using horizontal electrodes at shallow depths.

The above case studies showed positively that EO treatment produces satisfactory
results in field applications in terms of improvement of certain geotechnical
properties, such as the shear strength and reduction in moisture content. This has
prompted other researchers to investigate the effect of EO on other soil properties.
The following sections illustrate examples of research work carried out on other soil
properties that are of relevance to this project, after discussing the experimental setups.

2.1.2. Experimental Set-up of Previous Research

The numerous research and field tests using EO treatment had led to the
development of several designs of EO cells used in laboratory experiments. Lo et
al. (1991b) used a confining cell to simulate one-dimensional consolidation (Fig.
2.8.). This design allowed for the measurement of negative pore water pressure,
induced settlement, voltage and current readings. The cell was also designed to
prevent the accumulation of gases thus allowing for better electrode-soil contact to

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

improve the treatment efficiency. However, Shang et al. (1998) proved that shortly
after the application of a DC voltage gradient, the generation of negative pore
pressure induced suction and shrinkage of the soil, forming gaps between the soil
and cell walls.

Furthermore, the insertion of pore pressure probes caused

disturbance to the soil specimen and is especially significant when vertical

deformations are large during consolidation.

A modified triaxial cell design was suggested by Shang et al. (1996) (Fig. 2.9.),
which improved on the cell designed by Lo et al. (1991b) by providing a gas vent at
the drainage line to dissipate the gases generated during EO treatment. This design
made use of measured settlement and volumetric change to measure the
consolidation of the soil specimen. However, this design lacked the capability to
measure the pore pressure and voltage within the soil specimen, and the
measurements of pore pressure and voltage readings at the electrodes were not
accurate due to the evolution of gases.

Hamir et al. (2001) used a cell similar to the design adopted by Lo et al. (1991b) with
the added feature that the pore pressure probes doubled up to measure voltages
and currents.

The electrodes were designed to allow for drainage and gas

dissipation during EO treatment.

The above mentioned designs adopted the 1-D vertical flow approach which did not
truly mirror the two-dimensional scenario in the field. Electrodes were generally

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

inserted vertically in the field as shown by Casagrande (1952), Lo et al. (1991c),
Hamir et al. (1997) and Chew et al. (2002). In the 1-D vertical flow approach, the
water flows with the movement of the soil, but in the field, upon the application of an
electric field, the water flows horizontally towards the cathode and soil consolidates
vertically. Figs. 2.10. 2.13. show some other laboratory studies carried out by
Abiera et al. (1999), Bergado et al. (2000), Lo et al. (2000), Lim (2001) and Burnotte
et al. (2002), which made use of vertical electrodes and horizontal drainage paths.

2.1.3. Preconsolidation Pressure

The increase in preconsolidation pressure due to field treatment was demonstrated

by Lo et al. (1991a) and Lo et al. (1991b) through laboratory studies on soil samples
from the Gloucester Test fill site.

The generation of negative pore pressure

attributed to the increase in preconsolidation pressure, which is similar to

consolidation of soil under internal effective stress. Lo et al. (1999) went on to report
the increase in the preconsolidation pressure near the electrodes due to
electrokinetic treatment.

Furthermore, the ratio of

Cu
also increased due to
P
c

electrokinetic treatment.

In addition to the increase in preconsolidation pressure, Bo et al. (2001) observed a

larger increase in the region of soil nearer to the anode as compared to the regions
further away.

Fig. 2.14. shows the e-log p curves after EO treatment which is

evidently much flatter and the kink in the curves became less distinct (Toh, 2000).
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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

Burnotte et al. (2002) reported an improvement in preconsolidation pressure but the
Cu
ratio before and after EO treatment was almost identical and unchanged. This
P
c

indicates that any soil improvements were solely due to the reduction in water
content via EO treatment instead of any secondary effects like chemical inductions.

2.1.4. Settlement

The similarities in the shape of EO induced settlement curve and that of a typical
conventional consolidation curve under mechanical loading was reported by Lo et al.
(1991b), as shown in Fig. 2.15. A faster rate of settlement was reported by Abiera et
al. (1999), when the comparison was made between the soil improvement method
that made use of Electrically conductive Vertical Drains (EVDs) and the method that
made use of Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs), both subjected to identical initial
conditions (i.e. overburden pressure, water content, void ratio, etc, as shown in Fig.
2.16).

Bergado et al. (2000) reported that the settlement induced by EO

consolidation was 6-40% greater than consolidation induced by non-EO means.

Hence it supported the faster rate of consolidation reported by Abiera et al. (1999).

2.1.5. Desiccation

Esrig et al. (1967) suggested that the development of negative pore pressures led to
the cracking of the soil samples during the EO treatment. Shang et al. (1996 and
1998) also observed similar desiccation of the soil with the formation of a layer of
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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

very stiff crust at the interface between the soil and the electrodes. Desiccation of
the soil were also reported by Abiera et al. (1999) and Bergado et al. (2000). It was
explained that these desiccations were due to the generation of heat from the
application of current and both heating and electrochemical effects resulted in the
hardening of the soil. The continuity of the current flow in the soil sample was
hindered by these fissures, which reduced the electrical conductivity of the soil, in
turn also causing disruptions in the full development of the increase in the strength
of the soil. Drying and corrosion on the electrode was reported by Shang et al.
(1996) from the greenish colouration formed on the copper anode.

2.1.6. Voltage Gradients

Casagrande (1949) suggested that the applied voltage gradient should not be
greater than 0.5 V/cm so as to avoid energy loss through the heating of the soil.
Shang et al. (1996) reported that the physical and electrochemical effects due to an
excessively high voltage gradient were not beneficial to EO consolidation. Hence,
unnecessary power consumptions and excessive high voltage gradients should be
avoided. The decrease in current to voltage ratio and EO permeability with the
application of high voltage gradients suggested that there was a reduction in the
efficiency of EO treatment.

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

2.1.7. Driving Force in EO Process

Lo et al. (1991b) and Shang et al. (1996) explained that the current density and not
the voltage gradient was responsible for the current flow in EO consolidation.
Hence, no matter how high the voltage gradient is, EO will not commence if the
current in the circuit was too low. As the driving force in EO is the current density,
increasing the current density can result in an improvement in the effectiveness of
EO treatment even though the voltage gradient is kept at a constant. Lo et al.
(1991b) also observed that the current in the clay initially decreases rapidly followed
by a gradual drop to a steady flow for the rest of the EO treatment (Fig. 2.17.).

2.1.8. EO Treatment of Contaminated Soils

Oil possesses high electrical resistivity hence as a result soil contaminated with oil
may also have high electrical resistivity (Fukue et al., 2000). The measure of the soil
resistivity makes it possible to detect the presence of oil in the soil. Two types of
devices were developed for laboratory use and in-situ measurements.

In the

laboratory model, a circuit current was applied to the soil and the potential difference
was measured. In the field, cones with electrodes were penetrated into the soil to
measure the resistivity profile of the soil during penetration.

Laboratory results

suggest that the resistivity of sandy soils changed with the oil content (Fig. 2.18.).

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

Eykholt et al. (1994) designed an extended capillary analytical model to study the
non-uniform contributions to EO and non-linear development of pore water
pressures due to presence of contaminants. The model was also compared with
experimental results and examples of some key findings were that due to the
presence of contaminants, acid addition at cathode may result in reversal of EO flow
and citrates may react with copper electrodes thus reducing the efficiency of the
treatment. Fig. 2.19. shows the experimental set-up of the capillary model study for
the experiments conducted on contaminated kaolinite specimens.

Acar et al. (1996) noted that the reduction in EO flow may not affect the migration
rate of contaminated ions across the electrodes. The mechanism driving EO flow is
the migration of the double layer ions hence the migration rate of other ions by EO
will always be secondary to EO flow. Furthermore, if the contaminant is present in
precipitate form, time is needed for the contaminant to dissolve or ionize before
migration of the ions is allowed. Remediation of various contaminated soils, such as
kaolinite and illitic specimens, revealed the possibility of ions, which theoretically
would be deposited on the cathode, being transported to the anode with high
transport and removal rates measured for most tests.

Electrokinetic remediation of soils contaminated with high concentrations of metal

deposits is strongly affected by the soil type and chemical species of contaminants
(Reddy et al., 2001). The paper investigated the speciation and extent of migration
of heavy metals during electrokinetic remediation of kaolin and glacial till, such as

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

chromium (III and IV), nickel and cadmium.

After the treatment of kaolin, the

concentrations of soluble Cr3+, Ni2+ and Cd2+ was observed to have decreased near
the anode and increased near the cathode. However, the concentration of soluble
Cr4+ decreased near the anode and increased near the cathode. For the case of the
glacial till, only Cr4+ showed any significant changes in concentration, increased near
the anode and decreased to non-detectable levels at the cathode. The presence of
contaminants in the form of immobile complexes and precipitates resulted in low
migration rates and overall contamination removal efficiency of less than 20% for
both soil samples.

2.1.9. Use of Modern Geosynthetics for EO Treatment

Conventional metallic electrodes made of copper, steel, aluminium and platinum

were previously used in EO treatment. Furthermore, the use of copper electrodes
was suggested by Lo et al. (1991b). Copper prevents the evolution of oxygen with
the formation of copper oxide which is also a good electrical conductor.

Geosynthetics have recently been applied to integrate the incorporation of EO

phenomena with existing functions of geosynthetic materials thus leading to the
creation of a new range of electrically conductive geosynthetic materials, such as the
EVDs and electrically conductive fabric.

The EVDs are not solely restricted to

conventional functions of filtration, drainage, separation and reinforcement but can

also be used as soil improvements in reinforced soil technology and accelerated soil

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

consolidation by making use of the principal of EO. The EVDs are light, easy to
install, less susceptible to electrochemical corrosion and with the use of filters are
able to prevent any clogging during the EO treatment.

Abiera et al. (1999) compared different types of electro-conductive PVDs and non
electro-conductive PVDs. The results of the study showed a greater increase in
strength, more than what was expected from dewatering of the EO treated clay,
along with accelerated settlement. The greater increase in undrained shear strength
of the treated clay meant that less surcharge was required thus reducing material
cost.

Chew et al. (2002) reported a local application of EVDs in a field trial

conducted in 2001 (Fig. 2.20). Besides the greater increase in shear strength when
compared to conventional PVD treatment, the field trial also observed that the rate of
increase in shear strength was ten times faster than that of normal PVDs, as shown
in Fig. 2.21.

Hamir et al. (2001) carried out laboratory studies on different types of electrically
conductive geosynthetics (EKG) materials, which were suitable to conduct EO
consolidation on kaolin. The results of the laboratory studies suggested that using
EKG materials as electrodes can be just as efficient as copper electrodes resulting
in an increase in undrained shear strength of cohesive fill (Fig. 2.22.). The filtration
and drainage characteristics of the EKG electrodes also did not show any signs of
deterioration during EO treatment.

This material had an additional edge over

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

conventional electrodes as it can be formed into strips, sheets, blankets or threedimensional structures.

Comparison studies between EVD and metallic electrodes have also been carried
out in previous studies. Results showed that both types of electrodes exhibited
similar trends in current variation, shear strength improvement, water content
reduction and decreasing effective voltage gradient with time and that the
performance of the copper electrode was considerably better.

2.1.10. EO Treatment Coupled with Pressure

Shang (1998) developed an analytical model for the design of combined surcharge
preloading and EO consolidation of clay soils.

The excess pore pressure and

average degree of consolidation were computed from numerical solutions, which

were derived from the diffusion governing equation for two-dimensional conditions.
The model was analysed using MATLAB to examine the various parameters such as
surcharge loads, electric field intensity, treatment time, spatial configuration of
electrodes, drainage path and soil parameters.

Iwata et al. (1991) reported a comparison between theoretical and experimental

results for the treatment of Bentonite suspensions using a combination of positive
pressure and electric field. These results were also compared with the cases when
the suspensions were treated by electric field alone and positive pressure alone.

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Measurements made in terms of dewatering rate and final dewatered volume of
Bentonite suspension suggested that the best treatment was the method that
combined EO and positive pressure (Fig. 2.23).

2.1.11. Rotating Electrodes

Ho et al. (2001) conducted a comparison study between the application of EO

dewatering using a rotating anode and a stationary anode. The rotating speed of the
anode was also varied to obtain a configuration for the optimal EO treatment of
bentonite slurry. The solid content of the bentonite slurry that was achieved with the
use of the rotating anode was more than 70% higher than when treated with
stationary anode (Fig. 2.24).

2.1.12. Concluding Remarks

A summary of the earlier review of several papers had shown that EO treatment with
the use of EVDs or electrically conductive fabrics were more effective than using
conventional PVDs with preloading surcharge, along with numerous advantages
over metallic electrodes.

EO consolidation and complex physical-chemical

interactions, such as ion exchange, both contribute to the strengthening of the soil
and accelerating of consolidation. EO treatment of contaminated dredged materials
may warrant a more vigorous treatment method due to the presence of the
contaminants, such as oils and metallic deposits. Modern geosynthetics may prove

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

to be a reliable alternative to the conventional metallic electrodes and may become
even more suitable for this research, as the geosynthetics would not corrode and
add on to the contamination of the dredged materials. The methods of using rotating
electrodes and EO coupled with positive pressure can be investigated to compare
the efficiency of dewatering the contaminated dredged materials as compared to EO
treatment alone. Thus, this thesis will focus on the application of coupled treatment
for the contaminated soils.

2.2. Relevant Theories

2.2.1. Introduction

The 2 types of flow that are vital in EO are water flow and electrons flow. Water flow
is especially important in seepage, consolidation and stability problems and EO can
help to significantly improve the soil properties with the induction of water flow within
the soil mass. Electrons flow occurs with the application of a voltage gradient and
the passing of current in the circuit and this causes the flow of water, the deposition
of ions at the respective electrodes and other electro-chemical reactions.

The

theories and principles behind EO soil improvement technique will be covered in this
chapter, followed by the discussion of factors that influence the efficiency of EO and
the state of soil after EO treatment. Theories relating to analytical models relevant
to this research will also be covered briefly in the following sections.

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2.2.2. Electrokinetic Phenomena

Electrokinetics involves the mobilization of different species of charged ions through

the soil matrix via four major mechanisms, namely electrolysis, electro-migration,
electrophoresis and EO.

Each mechanism involves the relative movement of

electric charges, charged particles or ions and liquid phases with respect to the
charge of the electrodes.

2.2.3. Electro-Osmosis

EO occurs when a DC voltage gradient is applied across 2 electrodes, namely the

cathode and anode, resulting in the movement of ionized water molecules. Soft
soils that contain large proportions of clay particles are naturally found with high
moisture contents. In the presence of water, the negatively charged clay particles
attract large concentrations of cations from the electrolyte to the particle surface of
the clay resulting in the formation of a double layer with electrostatic surface
property. Under the influence of an applied potential difference, the cations are
attracted to the cathode and the anions to the anode. The ionized water molecules,
which clump around the ions in the pore space, follow the movement of these ions.
However, as there is a larger concentration of cations than anodes, the net
movement of water would be towards the cathode (Mitchell, 1991). The process of
EO is to create an imbalance of charge bonds in the clay resulting in the net water
flow. The net water flow is greatly dependent on ke, the coefficient of EO hydraulic

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conductivity of the soil and the voltage gradient applied across the soil matrix (see
Fig. 2.25.).

EO is an established technique with a history of more than 100 years and it has its
practical value for inducing water flow in fine-grained soils. EO treatment is one of
the many widely studied phenomena in ground improvement for geotechnical
engineering and some examples of the application of EO include dewatering and
consolidation of soft grounds.

2.2.4. Effects of Flows on State and Properties of Soil

The state and properties of the soil will undergo notable changes when under the
influence of prolonged applications of an electric potential field hence the water flow
within and through the soil matrix will be altered.

These changes may have

beneficial or detrimental effects to the treatment of the soil and the following is a list
of some effects that will be observed during EO treatment.
a. Accelerated consolidation in the presence of an electric potential field
and shorter drainage distances, the water is drained at a faster rate and
this in turn accelerates the consolidation of the soil
b. Electro-chemical reactions which may include the evolution of gases at
the electrodes, corrosion of electrodes, deposition of solids at electrodes,
decomposition of ionic compounds and ion exchange
c.

Drying of the soil by heating

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d. Soil swell or shrinkage arising from changes in pore fluid composition

The factors that determine the magnitude of these effects are namely:
i.

The type of soil, which largely affects the particle size, as well as the
types and concentrations of pore fluid present in the soil sample

ii.

The magnitude and duration of the voltage gradient applied across the
soil matrix

iii. The initial condition of the soil sample, namely the moisture content,
permeability and presence of contaminants
iv. The types and conductivity of the electrodes

2.2.5. Theories for Electro-Osmosis

Throughout the many years of history for the research on EO, there had been many
theories proposed to account for the EO phenomenon in an attempt to predict the
rate and quantity of water flow due to EO. According to Casagrande (1983), the
most widely applied theory is the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski Theory.

The model

adopted by the theory is a capillary (Fig. 2.26.) which is filled with fluid. The capillary
is similar to an electrical condenser with the negative charges ionised on or near the
wall surface while the positive charges develop in the layer of the fluid that is near
the wall. The charges in the fluid create a mobile shell that is assumed to create the
water flow along the capillary, while maintaining a high voltage gradient between the

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two plates of this condenser. The EO flow, qe, produced by the application of an
electric field on this model is quantified by:
qe = keieA

(2.1)

where A is the cross-sectional area of the capillary, ie the voltage gradient and ke the
EO conductivity of the material in the capillary, which in turn is given by:
D
n
k e =

(2.2)

where is the zeta potential in volts, D the relative permittivity or dielectric constant
of pore fluid, the viscosity (centipose) and n the porosity.

The derivation of

equation 2.2 was obtained through the equilibrium condition of surface drag force
and electrical force associated with flow.

Mitchell (1991) suggested that ke typically ranges from 10-9 to 10-10 m2/s/V and this
parameter is usually of the same order of magnitude for most soil types. Equation
2.1 is similar to Darcys law of fluid flow. But equation 2.2 suggests that the EO
conductivity, ke, is independent of pore size unlike the hydraulic conductivity, kh, of
the material. Since ke is not dependent on the pore size, the equation then goes on
to suggest that EO will be most effective for the induction of water flow in finegrained soils. The rate of flow achieved during EO application is comparable to the
flow rates under a hydraulic gradient. Assuming the condition of equal flow rates,
khih = keie leads to
ih =

ke
i
kh e

(2.3)

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For the case of fine sand, kh is much higher than ke thus only a very small hydraulic
gradient is required to move water. However, kh is lower than ke for clay thereby a
very large hydraulic gradient is required for the water to flow using hydraulic means.
As effective water flow can be induced with a small electric potential gradient, EO
application will be more effective on fine-grained soils but the efficiency of EO
treatment might be affected by factors such as corrosion of electrodes, desiccation
of soil, voltage drop due to the resistance of the soil and electro-chemical reactions.
Power consumptions and energy loss should also be accounted for during EO
treatment.

2.2.6. Consolidation by Electro-Osmosis

Esrig (1968) reported that with the application of a uniform voltage gradient, pore
water pressures is dependent on the boundary conditions of the soil. Under the
anode closed and cathode opened condition, whereby water is not allowed to flow
into the anode and the cathode has free access to water, the volume of water being
drained from the cathode equates to the consolidation of the soil. Consolidation of
the soil occurs near the anode and since the total stresses remain the same, an
increase in the effective stresses in the soil near the anode indicates a decrease in
pore water pressure. However, as there will be negligible consolidation of the soil
near the anode, no changes will be expected in terms of the total, effective and pore
water pressures in the soil. This results in the formation of a hydraulic gradient thus
causing a water flow from the anode to the cathode during EO application.

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Consolidation of the soil only ceases when equilibrium is reached between the
stresses at the soil near the two electrodes. Esrig (1968) further suggested that
under single drainage, the variation of pore water pressure at any point in the
sample is given by

u=

ke
wV
kh

(2.4)

where the values of u and V are dependent on the point of interest.

It can be observed from equation 2.4 that EO consolidation, which depends directly
on pore water pressure dissipation, is dependent on the ratio of

ke
and the voltage
kh

at that point. EO consolidation of the soil will continue up till the development of
negative excess pore pressure, which is measured with respect to the initial pore
water pressure. This in turn leads to an equal increase in effective stresses as the
soil is under uniform total stresses hence consolidation of the soil occurs.

The magnitude of decrease in pore water pressure and corresponding increase in

effective stress depends on the ratio of

ke
under the application of a known voltage.
kh

As the parameter, ke, of a material does not vary too much, the ratio then largely
depends on the variation of kh. As EO treatment is most effective in fine-grained
soils, the efficiency of treatment increases with a decrease in soil particle size. The
optimal situation will be when kh is large enough to allow for the consolidation of soil

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in a reasonably short period of time and yet the ratio of

ke
is sufficiently large for
kh

the generation of pore water pressures that allow for electrodes spacing of 2 3 m
and maximum applied voltages of 50 150 DCV. Mitchell (1991) suggested that
silts, clayey silts and silty clays are the soil types that best satisfy the conditions laid
out by Esrig (1968).

However, the electrical conductivity of the soil is also an

important parameter.

For example, in the case of high salinity pore water, the

electrical conductivity of the pore water is so high that it may not be economically
viable to apply EO.

The assumptions used for the analyses on the consolidation by EO are summarized
as follows:
1. The soil is fully saturated and homogenous
2. The physical and physiochemical soil properties are uniform and remain
constant throughout EO treatment
3. Electrophoresis does not result in any movement of any soil particles
4. The velocity of the water flow induced by EO is directly proportional to the
voltage gradient applied across the electrodes
5. The application of all voltage gradients are able to move water effectively
6. The electrical charge flow is constant with time
7. There are no electrochemical reactions that take place

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2.2.7. Current Density in Electro-Osmosis (Adopted from Lo et al., 1991b)

Equation 2.4 indicates that the applied voltage gradient is the main driving force of
the water flow induced by EO, which is numerically obtained from the pore pressure
variation, u. This equation can be modified to take into account the current density
and resistivity of the soil as follows:
E ( x ) = JP( x )

(2.5)

V ( x ) = E ( x ) dx

(2.6)

where at a point of interest, x, E(x) is the electric field given in Volts per m, J the
current density in Amperes per m2 and P(x) the resistivity of soil in m at position x.
By combining equations 2.5 and 2.6,
P ( x) =

1 dV ( x )
J dx

(2.7)

Subsequently, substituting equation 2.7 into equation 2.4 yields

x
ke
u ( x, ) =
J P ( x ) dx
kh w 0

(2.8)

The distance x is measured from the cathode to anode while the electrical current
flow flows from the positively charged electrode (anode) to the negatively charged
electrode (cathode) hence the reference direction for the measurement of x is
opposite of that for J. A negative sign is included in the integration equation in order
to express the negative pore pressure generated during EO. Equation 2.8 suggests
that at equilibrium, the induced negative pore water pressure is dependent on the

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current density, J, and resistivity of the soil, P(x). This equation suggests that the
current density is the governing factor in EO.

2.2.8. Electrochemical Effects

The reason for the large gain in shear strength of the treated soil cannot be solely
attributed to the reduction in moisture content and changes to the Atterberg Limits of
the treated soil must be a result of changes in the mineralogy, soil structure and pore
solution characteristics rather than induced by consolidation. Besides the movement
of water, other physiochemical reactions may take place during treatment, such as
ion diffusion, ion exchange, development of pH gradients, desiccation, precipitation
of salts and charged particles or other secondary minerals, electrolysis, hydrolysis,
redox, physical and chemical adsorption and fabric changes. The combination of
the above mentioned effects may result in the continuous alteration of soil properties
that are not readily accountable for nor predicted accurately. Some effects, such as
electrochemical hardening of the soil resulting in permanent changes in plasticity of
the soil are beneficial, while others may be detrimental, such as the corrosion of the
electrodes used and generation of gases.

Some key processes occurring during EO are outlined in the following simplified
mechanism.

Oxygen gas is evolved at the anode during hydrolysis.

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

2H 2O 4H + + O2 +4e

(2.9)

The ionization of the H+ ions results in a reduction of pH and the formation of acids
upon reaction with anions. Some of the cations that are originally found in the clays
are displaced by the H+ ions resulting in the formation of unstable hydrogen clays.
In the high acidity and oxidation environment, the rate of deterioration of the anode
increases rapidly and the anode participates in the chemical reactions during EO,
generally follow the equation 2.10.
M M n + + ne

(2.10)

where M is the material of the anode.

In addition, cracking occurs due to the evolution of gases that creates multiple
cavities, along with desiccation of the soil due to heating of soil. The formation of
cracks with the soil mass inevitably increases the soil resistance and this retards the
generation of negative excess pore pressure hence leading to a reduction in
efficiency of EO treatment.

On the other hand, hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode.

4H 2O + 4e 2H 2 +4OH

(2.11)

At the cathode, cations react with the OH- ions to form hydroxides and the pH
increases reaching values as high as pH of 12. Such high pH environment may also
lead to the dissolving of alumina and silica, which are present in the soil, into

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solutions. With the creation of a low pH environment near the anode and a high pH
environment near the cathode, a pH gradient develops between the electrodes.

Chen et al. (1999) reported the development of a low pH front at the anode, which
migrated towards the cathode, for a field trial site in Ohio. The velocity of the pH
front was measured at 0.014 cm/day/V/m.

2.2.9. Two-Dimensional Consolidation Theory of Electro-Osmosis

Under the assumption that fluid flows induced by electric field and hydraulic gradient
may be superimposed to estimate the total water flow, Esrig (1968) proposed a onedimensional consolidation theory for EO. Subsequently, Wan et al. (1976) included
the combined effects of EO and direct loading on soil consolidation in addition to the
effectiveness of the polarity reversal method during EO treatment.

A numerical

analysis was performed by Lewis et al. (1973) to investigate the effect of the
variation of electric field on the effectiveness of EO treatment. As the effect of EO is
non-uniform, the one-dimensional consolidation theory is inadequate to account for
soil improvement results via EO.

Su et al. (2003) proposed a solution for two-

dimensional consolidation theory based on the following three boundary conditions:

1) anode closed and cathode open; 2) anode open and cathode closed; and 3)
anode and cathode open. Figs. 2.27. to 2.29. shows the isoclines of ultimate excess
pore water pressure, which are the graphical representations of the solution for the
two-dimensional theory.

The solution for the two-dimensional theory can be

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

simplified to the one-dimensional theory proposed by Esrig (1968) by setting the
vertical component, y, as zero.

The whole ground can be partitioned into many smaller parts with the average area
of each portion roughly represented in Fig. 2.30. The orthogonal coordinate system
adopted for the site is shown in Fig. 2.31., where P is the distance between
electrodes of similar polarity and L is the distance between oppositely charged
electrodes.

Lewis et al. (1973) proposed the following equations for the two-

dimensional consolidation:
u

k hy u
k hx u
= mv
+

+ k ey
+ k ex
t
x
x w x
x y w x

(2.12)

ey
= Cp
ex
+
x
x y
y
t

(2.13)

The following relationships can be obtained from the assumption of soil uniformity
and orthographic isotropy:

k hx = k hy = k h , k ex = k ey = k e , ex = ey = e

Substituting the above relationships, equations 2.12 and 2.13 can be simplified as
follows:
2 2
k h 2u 2 u
u
2 + 2 + k e 2 + 2 = mv
t
w x
y
y
x
2

2 = Cp
t
y

(2.14)

(2.15)

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

A variable , which has the following relationship is introduced (Esrig, 1968; Mitchell
1976; Banerjee et al., 1980; Banerjee et al., 1984):

=u+

ke w

kh

(2.16)

Substituting equation 2.16 into equation 2.14,

2 2

= a 2 2 + 2 + f (x, y , t )
t
y
x

where a 2 = Ch =

(2.17)

k
kh
, f (x, y , t ) = e w
mv w
k h t

Equations 2.15 and 2.17 are the governing equations of two-dimensional

consolidation theory of EO.

The boundary conditions are given for when the

electrodes, namely the cathode and anode, are open or closed as well as the initial
condition set for the initial excess pore water pressure in the soil.

An analytical model was proposed by Shang (1998) based on the following

governing diffusion governing equation for two-dimensional conditions, which is
similar to equation 2.17:
2
2

= ch 2 + cv 2
y
x
t

(2.18)

where ch and cv are the coefficients of consolidation for horizontal and vertical
drainage respectively (in m2/s).

The dummy variable introduced by Esrig (1968) was expressed as

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

( x, y, t ) = u (x, y, t ) + f eo x
where f eo =

(2.19)

ke
E w and E is the absolute value of the field intensity vector E (x)
kh

Equation 2.19 is similar to equation 2.16 except that was replaced with Ex , where
f eo is the coefficient of EO pressure (in kPa/m), representing the slope of EO

consolidation pressure induced by constant electric field.

The four boundary

conditions that were introduced into the governing equation 2.19 were as follows: 1)
free drainage at cathode, which is similar to cathode open condition; 2) free drainage
at the top of soil layer; 3) impervious at anode, which is similar to anode closed
condition; and 4) impervious boundary conditions at the depth of electrode insertion.

The initial condition used by the above model is as follows:

0 = ( x, y,0 ) = q + f eo x

(2.20)

where q is the surcharge pressure.

The analytical solution of equation 2.18, which is obtained through the method of
variable separation and Laplace transform is:
2
2
(2m + 1)x

(
(
(
2m + 1) 2
2n + 1)y
2n + 1) 2
( x, y, t ) = Emn sin
exp Tx
exp Ty
sin

2L
4
2H
4

m =0 n =0

(2.21)

where Tx and Ty are the time factor in the x and y direction respectively and are
represented as follows:

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Literature Review and Relevant Theories

Tx =

cht
,
L2

Ty =

cv t
H2

and Emn determined from Laplace transform is of the form:

Emn =

16q

1
1
32 f eo L
1
1
( 1)m
+
2
3

2m + 1 2n + 1
(2m + 1) 2n + 1

(2.22)

The excess pore water pressure u(x, y, t) for any time and location can be computed
with the solving of the dummy variable .

u ( x, y, t ) = ( x, y, t ) f eo x

(2.23)

Examples of solution obtained from this theory are illustrated in Figs. 2.32 to 2.34.

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