SEMICONDUCTOR

DEVICE
FUNDAMENTALS
Robert F. Pierret
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Purdue University

Addison
Wesley
Longman
Reading, Massachusetts Menlo Park, California New York
Don Mills, Ontario Wokingham, England Amsterdam Bonn
Sydney Singapore Tokyo Madrid San Juan Milan Paris

CONTENTS

General Introduction

Part I Semiconductor Fundamentals

Chapter 1 Semiconductors: A General Introduction
1.1 General Material Properties
1.1.1 Composition
1.1.2 Purity
1.1.3 Structure
1.2 Crystal Structure
1.2.1 The Unit Cell Concept
1.2.2 Simple 3-D Unit Cells
1.2.3 Semiconductor Lattices
1.2.4 Miller Indices
1.3 Crystal Growth
1.3.1 Obtaining Ultrapure Si
1.3.2 Single-Crystal Formation

xxi

1
3
3
3
5
6
6
7
8
9
12
16
16
17

1.4 Summary

19

Problems

19

Chapter 2 Carrier Modeling

23

2.1 The Quantization Concept

Y

2.2 Semiconductor Models

2.2.1 Bonding Model
2.2.2 Energy Band Model
2.2.3 Carriers
'
2.2.4 Band Gap and Material Classification

Xj 2.3 Carrier Properties

2.3.1 Charge
.
2.3.2 Effective Mass
2.3.3 Carrier Numbers in Intrinsic Material

23
25
26
26
29 ~
31
32
32
32
34
ix

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE FUNDAMENTALS

2.3 A Manipulation of Carrier NumbersDoping

2.3.5 Carrier-Related Terminology
2.4 State and Carrier Distributions
2.4.1 Density of States
2.4.2 The Fermi Function
2.4.3 Equilibrium Distribution of Carriers

H 2.5 Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.5.5
2.5.6
2.5.7

+
Chapter 3

40
41
42
46
49
49
52
53
57
59
61
65

2.6 Summary and Concluding Comments

67

Problems

69

Carrier Action

75

V" 3.1 Drift

A
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5

y-

Formulas for n and p

Alternative Expressions for n and p
n( and the np Product
Charge Neutrality Relationship
Carrier Concentration Calculations
Determination of EF
Carrier Concentration Temperature Dependence

35
40

Definition-Visualization
Drift Current
Mobility
Resistivity
Band Bending

3.2 Diffusion
3.2.1 Definition-Visualization
3.2.2 Hot-Point Probe Measurement
3.2.3 Diffusion and Total Currents
Diffusion Currents
Total Currents
3.2.4 Relating Diffusion Coefficients/Mobilities
Constancy of the Fermi Level
Current Flow Under Equilibrium Conditions
Einstein Relationship
3.3 ^Recombination-Generation
3.3.1 Definition-Visualization
Band-to-Band Recombination

75
75
76
79
85
89
94
94
97
98
98
99
99
.. 99
101
101
105
105
105

CONTENTS

R-G Center Recombination

Auger Recombination
Generation Processes
3.3.2 Momentum Considerations
3.3.3 R-G Statistics
Photogeneration
Indirect Thermal Recombination-Generation
3.3.4 Minority Carrier Lifetimes
General Information
A Lifetime Measurement
3.4 Equations of State
3.4.1 Continuity Equations
3.4.2 Minority Carrier Diffusion Equations
3.4.3 Simplifications and Solutions
3.4.4 Problem Solving
Sample Problem No. 1
Sample Problem No. 2

120
121
122
124
124
124
128

3.5 Supplemental Concepts

3.5.1 Diffusion Lengths

131
131

3.5.2 Quasi-Fermi Levels

.'

132

3.6 Summary and Concluding Comments

136

Problems

138

Chapter 4 Basics of Device Fabrication

/ /

105
107
107
107
110
110
112
116
116
116

149

4.1 Fabrication Processes

4.1.1 Oxidation
4.1.2 Diffusion
4.1.3 Ion Implantation
4.1.4 Lithography
4.1.5 Thin-Film Deposition
Evaporation
Sputtering
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
. 4.1.6 Epitaxy

149
149
152
155
159
162
162
162
164
164

4.2 Device Fabrication Examples

4.2.1 pn Junction Diode Fabrication
4.2.2 Computer CPU Process Flow

165
166
166

4.3 Summary

174

Xi

Xii

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE FUNDAMENTALS

Rl Part I Supplement and Review

175

Alternative/Supplemental Reading List

175

Figure Sources/Cited References

177

Review List of Terms

178

Part IReview Problem Sets and Answers

179

Part MA pn J u n c t i o n Diodes

193

Chapter 5 pn Junction Electrostatics

195

5.1 Preliminaries

195

5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5

Junction Terminology/Idealized Profiles

Poisson's Equation
Qualitative Solution
The Built-in Potential (Vbi)
The Depletion Approximation

195
197
198
203
206

5.2 Quantitative Electrostatic Relationships

5.2.1 Assumptions/Definitions
5.2.2 Step Junction with VA = 0
Solution for p
Solution for %
Solution for V
Solution for xn and xp
5.2.3 Step Junction with VA * 0
5.2.4 Examination/Extrapolation of Results
5.2.5 Linearly Graded Junctions

209
209
210
210
210
212
213
215
219
223

5.3 Summary

226

Problems

227

Chapter 6 pn Junction Diode: I-V Characteristics

6.1 The Ideal Diode Equation
6.1.1 Qualitative Derivation
6.1.2 Quantitative Solution Strategy
General Considerations
Quasineutral Region Considerations
Depletion Region Considerations
Boundary Conditions

235
235
235
"241
241
242
243
244

CONTENTS

"Game Plan" Summary

6.1.3 Derivation Proper
6.1.4 Examination of Results
Ideal I-V
The Saturation Current
Carrier Currents
Carrier Concentrations

246
247
249
249
250
254
255

6.2 Deviations from the Ideal

6.2.1 Ideal Theory Versus Experiment
6.2.2 Reverse-Bias Breakdown
Avalanching
Zener Process
6.2.3 The R-G Current
6.2.4 VA - Vbi High-Current Phenomena
Series Resistance
High-Level Injection

260
260
263
264
268
270
277
278
279

6.3 Special Considerations

6.3.1 Charge Control Approach
6.3.2 Narrow-Base Diode
Current Derivation
Limiting Cases/Punch-Through

281
282
284
284
286

6.4 Summary and Concluding Comments

288

Problems

289

Chapter 7 pn Junction Diode: Small-Signal Admittance

301

7.1 Introduction

301

7.2 Reverse-Bias Junction Capacitance

7.2.1 General Information
7.2.2 C-V Relationships
7.2.3 Parameter Extraction/Profiling
7.2.4 Reverse-Bias Conductance

301
301
305
309
313

7.3 Forward-Bias Diffusion Admittance

7.3.1 General Information
7.3.2 Admittance Relationships

315
315
318

7.4 Summary

323

-"Problems

324

Xiii

XiV

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 8 pn Junction Diode: Transient Response

8.1 Turn-Off Transient
8.1.1 Introduction
8.1.2 Qualitative Analysis
8.1.3 The Storage Delay Time
Quantitative Analysis
Measurement
8.1.4 General Information

327
327
329
333
333
334
338

8.2 Turn-On Transient

338

8.3 Summary

343

Problems

344

Chapter 9 Optoelectronic Diodes

347

9.1 Introduction

347

9.2 Photodiodes
9.2.1 pn Junction Photodiodes
9.2.2 p-i-n and Avalanche Photodiodes
p-i-n Photodiodes
Avalanche Photodiodes

349
349
352
352
355

9.3 Solar Cells

356

9.3.1 Solar Cell Basics

9.3.2 Efficiency Considerations
9.3.3 Solar Cell Technology
9.4 LEDs
9.4.1 General Overview
9.4.2 Commercial LEDs
9.4.3 LED Packaging and Photon Extraction

Part IIB BJTs a n d Other J u n c t i o n Devices

Chapter 10 BJT Fundamentals

s'

327

356
357
360
361
361
362
366

369
371

10.1 Terminology

171

10.2 Fabrication

374

--10.3 Electrostatics

378

10.4 Introductory Operational Considerations

380

10.5 Performance Parameters

Emitter Efficiency

382
382

CONTENTS

Base Transport Factor

Common Base d.c. Current Gain
Common Emitter d.c. Current Gain

383
383
384

10.6 Summary

385

Problems

385

Chapter 11 BJT Static Characteristics

389

11.1 Ideal Transistor Analysis

11.1.1 Solution Strategy
Basic Assumptions
Notation
Diffusion Equations/Boundary Conditions
Computational Relationships
11.1.2 General Solution (W Arbitrary)
Emitter/Collector Region Solutions
Base Region Solution
Performance Parameters/Terminal Currents
11.1.3 Simplified Relationships (W < LB)
A/? B (x)intheBase
Performance Parameters
11.1.4 Ebers-Moll Equations and Model

389^
389
389
390
390
392
393
393
394
395
397
398
398
403

11.2 Deviations from the Ideal

407

11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3
11.2.4

Ideal Theory/Experiment Comparison

Base Width Modulation
Punch-Through
Avalanche Multiplication and Breakdown
Common Base
Common Emitter
Geometrical Effects
Emitter Area ^ Collector Area
Series Resistances
Current Crowding
Recombination-Generation Current
Graded Base
Figures of Merit

407
410
412
414
414
414
420
420
421
421
422
423
424

11.3 Modern BJT Structures

11.3.1 Poly silicon Emitter BJT
11.3.2 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor (HBT)

426
426
429

11.2.5

11.2.6
-^11.2.7
11.2.8

XV

XVi

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE FUNDAMENTALS

11.4 Summary

432

Problems

433

Chapter 12 BJT Dynamic Response Modeling

443

12.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

12.1.1 Generalized Two-Port Model
12.1.2 Hybrid-Pi Models

443
443
446

12.2 Transient (Switching) Response

12.2.1 Qualitative Observations
12.2.2 Charge Control Relationships
12.2.3 Quantitative Analysis
Turn-on Transient
Turn-off Transient
12.2.4 Practical Considerations

449
449
452
454
454
456
457

12.3 Summary

458

Problems

459

Chapter 13 PNPN Devices

463

13.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

463

13.2 SCR Operational Theory

465

13.3 Practical Turn-on/Turn-off Considerations

13.3.1 Circuit Operation
13.3.2 Additional Triggering Mechanisms
13.3.3 Shorted-Cathode Configuration
13.3.4 di/dt and dv/dt Effects
13.3.5 Triggering Time
13.3.6 Switching Advantages/Disadvantages

470
470
471
471
472
473
473

13.4 Other PNPN Devices

474

Chapter 14 MS Contacts and Schottky Diodes

477

"fv. 14.1 Ideal MS Contacts

-j 14.2 Schottky Diode
14.2.1 Electrostatics
_^
Built-in Voltage
p, %, V
Depletion Width
14.2.2 I-V Characteristics
14.2.3 a.c. Response

477
483
483
483
485
486
487
493

CONTENTS

14.2.4 Transient Response

496

14.3 Practical Contact Considerations

14.3.1 Rectifying Contacts

497
497

14.3.2 Ohmic Contacts

498

14.4 Summary

500

Problems

501

R2 Part II Supplement and Review

505

Alternative/Supplemental Reading List

505

Figure Sources/Cited References

506

Review List of Terms

507

Part IIReview Problem Sets and Answers

508

Part III Field Effect Devices

Chapter 15 Field Effect IntroductionThe J-FET and MESFET

523
525

15.1 General Introduction

525

15.2 J-FET
15.2.1
15.2.2
15.2.3
15.2.4

530
530
531
536
547

Introduction
Qualitative Theory of Operation
Quantitative IDVD Relationships
a.c. Response

15.3 MESFET
15.3.1 General Information
15.3.2 Short-Channel Considerations
Variable Mobility Model
Saturated Velocity Model
Two-Region Model

550
550
552
553
554
555

15.4 Summary

557

Problems

557

Chapter 16 MOS Fundamentals

563

X 16.1 Ideal Structure Definition

563

565
565
565
566

16.2 ElectrostaticsMostly Qualitative

16.2.1 Visualization Aids
Energy Band Diagram
Block Charge Diagrams

XVii

XVIII

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE FUNDAMENTALS

16.2.2 Effect of an Applied Bias

General Observations
Specific Biasing Regions
\^
/

16.3 ElectrostaticsQuantitative Formulation

16.3.1 Semiconductor Electrostatics
Preparatory Considerations
Delta-Depletion Solution
16.3.2 Gate Voltage Relationship

\i

16.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics

16.4.1 Theory and Analysis
Qualitative Theory
Delta-Depletion Analysis
16.4.2 Computations and Observations
Exact Computations
Practical Observations

v-

571
571
571
576
580
584
584
584
590
591
591
595

16.5 Summary and Concluding Comments

599

Problems

600

Chapter 17 MOSFETsThe Essentials

7S

567
567
568

611

17.1 Qualitative Theory of Operation

611

17.2 Quantitative / D -V D Relationships

17.2.1 Preliminary Considerations
Threshold Voltage
Effective Mobility
17.2.2 Square-Law Theory
17.2.3 Bulk-Charge Theory
17.2.4 Charge-Sheet and Exact-Charge Theories

617

r7r3a:c. Response
17.3.1 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits
17.3.2 Cutoff Frequency
17.3.3 Small-Signal Characteristics

630
630
633
634

17.4 Summary
Problems

Chapter 18 Nonideal MOS

18.1 Metal-Semiconductor Workfunction Difference

617
617
618
620
625
628

-637
638
645
645

CONTENTS

18.2 Oxide Charges

18.2.1
18.2.2
18.2.3
18.2.4
18.2.5

General Information
Mobile Ions
The Fixed Charge
Interfacial Traps
Induced Charges
Radiation Effects
Negative-Bias Instability
18.2.6 A Vc Summary

18.3 MOSFET Threshold Considerations

18.3.1
18.3.2
18.3.3
18.3.4
18.3.5

VT Relationships
Threshold, Terminology, and Technology
Threshold Adjustment
Back Biasing
Threshold Summary

Problems

Chapter 19 Modern FET Structures

\
\
\
\

650
650
653
658
662
668
668
669
670
674
675
676
678
680
681
684
691

19.1 Small Dimension Effects

19.1.1 Introduction
19.1.2 Threshold Voltage Modification
Short Channel
Narrow Width
19.1.3 Parasitic BJT Action
19.1.4 Hot-Carrier Effects
Oxide Charging
Velocity Saturation
Velocity Overshoot/Ballistic Transport

691

19.2 Select Structure Survey

702
702
702
703
704
704
705
707

19.2.1 MOSFET Structures

LDD Transistors
DMOS
Buried-Channel MOSFET
SiGe Devices
SOI Structures
19.2.2 MODFET(HEMT)
Problems

691
694
694
697
698
700
700
700
701

710

xix

XX

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE FUNDAMENTALS

R3 Part III Supplement and Review

713

Alternative/Supplemental Reading List

713

Figure Sources/Cited References

714

Review List of Terms

717

Part IIIReview Problem Sets and Answers

718

Appendices

733

Appendix A Elements of Quantum Mechanics

733

A. 1 The Quantization Concept

A. 1.1 Blackbody Radiation
A. 1.2 The Bohr Atom
A. 1.3 Wave-Particle Duality

733
733
735
737

A.2 Basic Formalism

739

A. 3 Electronic States in Atoms

A.3.1 The Hydrogen Atom
A.3.2 Multi-Electron Atoms

741
741
744

Appendix B MOS Semiconductor ElectrostaticsExact Solution

749

Definition of Parameters

749

Exact Solution

750

Appendix C MOS C-V Supplement

753

Appendix D MOS I-V Supplement

755

Appendix E List of Symbols

757

Appendix M

771

MATLAB

Program Script

Exercise 10.2 (BJT_Eband)

Exercise 11.7 (BJT) and Exercise 11.10 (BJTplus)
Exercise 16.5 (MOS^CV)

771
774
778

Index

781