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ASHRAE District Cooling Best Guide PDF
ASHRAE District Cooling Best Guide PDF
COOLING
BEST
PRACTICE
GUIDE
FIRST EDITION
Published to inform, connect
and advance the global
district cooling industry
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICT ENERGY
ASSOCIATION
Proprietary Notice
Disclaimer of Liability
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICT ENERGY
ASSOCIATION
24 Lyman Street, Suite 230
Westborough, MA 01581 USA
508-366-9339 phone
508-366-0019 fax
www.districtenergy.org
ISBN 978-0-615-25071-7
library of Congress Control Number: 2008937624
ISBN 978-0-615-25071-7
Preface
When the National District Heating Association (NDHA)
and manufacturers.
iii
Acknow~edgements
lt may not be possible to properly acknowledge ali of
far his
guide and
deserves special
recognition
support of IDEA.
Robert P. Thornton
September 2008
Contents
l.
1
Preface
Acknowledgements
iii
1. lntroduction
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Overview and Structure of the Guide
1
1
2
iv
2
2
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3
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5
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7
7
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9
9
3. Business Development
3.1 District Cooling as a Utility Business
3.1.1 Engineering design
3.1.2 Organizational design
3.2 Marketing and Communications
3.2.1 Positioning
3.2.2 Customer value proposition
Value proposition summary
Building chiller system efficiency
9
9
9
VI
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
Construction risks
Underground congestion
Community relations
Consumption rates
Connection charges
Regional rate examples
3.4.2 Rate structure recommendations
Capacity rates
Connection charges
lnitial contract demand
Rate design to encourage optimal building design and operation
3.5 Performance Metrics
12
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vii
1
1
Dynamic meters
Static flow meters
5.7.3 Designing for meter installation and maintenance
5.7.4 Standards
5.7.5 Other equipment
5.7.6 Submetering
Meter reading
Conclusions about submetering
Design considerations
When to use variable primary flow
6.2 .2 Primary-secondary pumping
viii
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50
Cost considerations
6.4.3 Branch connections/service line takeoffs
6.4.4 lnsulation
Evaluating insulation requirements
Pre-insulated piping insulation considerations
6.4.5 Leak-detection systems
Sensor-wire leak detection
Acoustic leak detection
Software-based leak detection
51
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7. Chilled-Water Plants
7.1 Chilled-Water Production Technologies
7.1.1 Compression chillers
Reciprocating
Rotary
Centrifuga!
Centrifugal-chiller capacity control
lnlet guide vanes
Variable-speed drive (VSD)
Hot-gas bypass
Meeting low loads
7 .1.2 Natural gas chillers
7 .1.3 Absorption chillers
Pros and cons
Efficiency
Capacity derate
Capital costs
Equipment manufacturers
Operating costs
7 .1.4 Engine-driven chillers
66
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IX
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xi
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xii
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o
o
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10. Commissioning
140
Appendix
A - Abbreviations and Definitions
B - Conversion Factors
C -Are Flash
A-1
B-1
C-1
Tables
Table 2-1
Table 2-2
Table 3-1
Table 5-1,
Table 5-2
Table 5-3
Table 5-4
Table 5-5
Table 6-1
Table 6-2
Table 7-1
Table 7-2
Table 7-3
Table 7-4
Table 7-5
Table 7-6
Table 7-7
Table 7-8
Table 7-9
Table 7-1 o
Table 7-11
Table 7-12
Table 8-1
Table 8-2
Table 8-3
Table 8-4
Table 8-5
Table 8-6
Table 8-7
Table 8-8
Table 9-1
Figures
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-5
xiii
'
Example of time-of-day power rates compared with power demand, per New England Hourly
Electricity Price lndex
Figure 2-7 Annual electric energy consumption savings with district cooling
Figure 3-1 Examples of Middle East district cooling rates
Figure 4-1 Design dry-bulb and mean-coinciden! wet-bulb temperatures far selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE
0.4% design point)
Figure 4-2 Design wet-bulb and mean-coincident dry-bulb temperatures far selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE
0.4% design point)
Figure 4-3 Example peak-day load profiles far various building types
Figure 4-4 lllustrative peak-day load profile far district cooling serving mixed building types
Figure 4-5 lllustrative district cooling annual load-duration curve
Figure 4-6 Effect of increased delta T on LMTD of cooling coils
Figure 4-7 Paths far potential utility integration
Figure 5-1 Expected coil performance over the design flow range far typical coil
Figure 5-2 Decoupled direct ETS connection
Figure 5-3 Simplified direct ETS connection
Figure 5-4 lndirect ETS connection (with combined HEX control valves)
Figure 5-5 lndirect ETS configuration (with dedicated HEX control valves)
Figure 5-6 Plate-and-frame heat exchanger installation
Figure 5-7 Plate-and-frame heat exchanger (courtesy Alfa Laval)
Figure 5-8 HEX surface area vs. "approach"
Figure 5-9 lmportance of critica! customer design
Figure 5-1 O Pressure-dependent "globe" valve
Figure 5-11 Common control-valve characteristics
Figure 5-12 Pressure-independent control valve (courtesy Flow Control Industries)
Figure 5-13 Submetering system via fixed wireless
Figure 5-14 Submetering system with an RF handheld terminal
Figure 6-1 lmpact of delta T on hydraulic profile
Figure 6-2 Variable primary flow
Figure 6-3 Traditional primary-secondary system
Figure 6-4 All variable primary-secondary system
Figure 6-5 Distributed primary-secondary system
Figure 6-6 Thermal storage tank used far maintaining static pressure in system
Figure 6-7 Weld-end ball valve
Figure 6-8 Weld-end butterfly valve
Figure 6-9 Direct-buried valve with mechanical actuation
Figure 6-1 O Direct-buried valve with hydraulic actuator
Figure 6-11 Sluice plate hot tap
Figure 6-12 Example of estimated average ground temperatures at various depths
Figure 6-13 Distribution system supply-water temperature rise far example system at part load
Figure 7-1 Single-effect absorption cycle (courtesy York/Johnson Controls)
Figure 7-2 Engine-based CHP with electric and absorption chillers (courtesy York/Johnson Controls)
Figure 7-3 Turbine-based CHP with electric and steam-turbine-drive chillers
Figure 7-4 Load-leveling potential with thermal energy storage
Figure 7-5 Lift in single and series-counterflow chillers
Figure 7-6 Enclosure premiums above open drip-proof
Figure 7-7 lnverter-duty motor cost premium
Figure 7-8 Motor efficiency
Figure 7-9 Refrigerant environmental impact comparison
Figure 7-10 Counterflow cooling tower
Figure 7-11 Crossflow cooling tower
Figure 7-12 Chiller and tower kW/ton vs. ECWT
Figure 7-13 Rate of power change far chillers and cooling towers
Figure 2-6
xiv
1'
Figure 7-14
Figure 7-15
Figure 8-1
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4
Figure 8-5
Figure 8-6
Figure 8-7
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-9
Figure 8-1 O
Figure 8-11
Figure 8-12
XV
DISTRICT
COOLING
BEST
PRACTICE
GUIDE
FIRST EDITION
Published to inform, connect
and advance the global
district cooling industry
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICT ENERGY
ASSOCIATION
Proprietary Notice
Disclaimer of Liability
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICT ENERGY
ASSOCIATION
24 Lyman Street, Suite 230
Westborough, MA O1581 USA
508-366-9339 phone
508-366-0019 fax
www.districtenergy.org
ISBN 978-0-615-25071-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008937624
ISBN 978-0-615-25071-7
1" lntroduction
1.1. Purpose
The purpose of the lnternational District Energy
Association's District Cooling Best Practice Guide is to
facilitate the design of district cooling businesses and
systems that are reliable, efficient and profitable. The
guide is focused on a key district cooling growth
market - the Middle East - that has sorne specific
challenges due to climate, the nature of the loads and
the pace of development.
The guide is nota set of standards, nor is it an encyclopedia
covering every detail of district cooling systems or a
detailed design and specification guide. Rather, it is
inte9ded to share insights into key design issues and
"lessons learned" from the recent development and
operation of district cooling systems, particularly in the
Middle East.
1
resources; and
several reasons. First, satisfaction of comfort requirements is the ultimate business and technical purpose
of district cooling systems, so success is not possible
without good design on this end. Second, the
~i
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2.1.3 Flexibility
The pattern and timing of cooling requirements in a
building vary depending on building use and weather.
With building chiller systems, meeting air-conditioning
requirements at night or on weekends can be difficult
and costly, particularly when the load is smalL With district
cooling, these needs can be met easily and cost-effectively whenever they occur. Each building can use as
much or as little cooling as needed, whenever needed,
without worrying about chiller size or capacity.
a growing trend toward "outsourcing" certain operations to specialist companies that can provide
these services more efficiently;
2.1.4 Reliability
The building manager has a critica! interest in reliability
because he or she wants to keep the occupants happy
and to avoid dealing with problems relating to maintaining comfort. District cooling is more reliable than
the conventional approach to cooling because district
cooling systems use highly reliable industrial equipment
and can cost-effectively provide equipment redundancy.
Staffed with professional operators around-the-clock,
district cooling companies are specialists with expert
1.tltll!1iti~llilflfi
2.1.1 Comfort
2.1.5 Cost-effectiveness
Fundamental cost advantages
Load diversity
Not ali buildings have their peak demand at the same
time. This "load diversity" means that when cooling
loads are combined in the district cooling system, more
buildings can be reliably served at lower cost
2.1.2 Convenience
District c9oling is a far more convenient way to cool a
Optimized aperations
With district cooling, equipment can be operated at the
most efficient levels, whereas with building cooling
equipment, the units operate for most hours each year
at less-than-optimal levels.
building than the conventional approach to air conditioning because cooling is always available in the
pipeline, thus avoiding the need to start and stop building
cooling units. From the building manager's standpoint,
Advanced techno/ogies
such as
thermal energy storage (TES), which can further
reduce peak power demand, save energy, enhance
reliability and reduce capital expenses for both the
utility and its customers;
natural gas-driven chillers;
Annua/ costs
District cooling service allows the building manager to
eliminate the annual costs of operating and maintaining
a building chiller system, including
electricity,
rw
unscheduled repairs,
o refrigerant management,
e spare parts,
labor and
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Cost comparison
The costs of the conventional approach to cooling
involve far more than the cost of electricity, as described
below.
Capital costs
By choosing district cooling service, a building avoids a
large capital investment for the total installed capital
costs of a building chiller system, including
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7050 Btu/kWh
Generation efficiency
Transmission/distribution losses
48.4%
Net efficiency
Variable O&M
45.0%
2.13 US$/MWh
Fixed O&M
12.93 US$/kW
Capacity factor
0.60
4.59 US$/MWh
7.0%
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print, world oil prices have pulled back from the highs set
in July 2008. However, in the mid-term (2010-2015), the
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radiation which can cause human health and environrnental darnage, including increased incidence of skin
3. Business DeveDopment
3.1.2 Organizational design
lli. .
meter technicians, etc. Ongoing training is recommended to ensure that ali staff view themselves as being
in the customer satisfaction business - and that they
send the message to the customer that they are eager to
understand and salve customer problems. Strong leadership, expert assistance and staff development can be key
elements in strengthening the corporate culture.
. . .... . ..
11&.:4!&fi
3.2.1 Positioning
comfort
t:: even temperature
better humidity control
communications - verbal, marketing materials, advertising, presentations, etc. - the emphasis should be on
value and periormance befare price.
This is not to say that price is unimportant. A critica!
element in marketing and selling district cooling is
presentation of the total value of district cooling and
comparison with the costs of other options. This
comparison should not be framed as a question of
"Which option costs less?" lnstead, the question
should be, "Which option delivers the greatest total
value most cost-effectively?"
~No
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1
Sophisticated controls
Professional operators round-the-clock
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<o Better
staff economies
e Diversity of equipment can minimize price risk
annual maintenance
Periodic majar maintenance
Unscheduled repairs
Spare parts
Equipment replacement
~Labor
o Electricity
f'..'I
oti
10
to communicate using real estate terms, including expression of costs in terms of cost per square meter or square
faot of building space.
- Fundamentals.
3.3.2 Capital-intensiveness
over time.
development and district cooling typically require presubscription to support financing and benefit from
long-term customer contracts. The district cooling service
contrae! is like a real estate lease - demand charges are
like base rent and energy charges are like operating
costs. Both are capital-intensive, with capital costs
front-loaded. Targeted returns are achieved when the
building (or district cooling system) is fully subscribed.
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11
mitigate surprises.
Community relations
Construction of the district cooling distribution system
often results in disruptions that can pose public relations
risks. The inconvenience of restricted traffic and real ar
imagined harm to downtown businesses can lead to
negative feelings among the public, downtown
businesses and the city government. Going the extra mile
to proactively address potential concerns will pay many
dividends. Best practices include these proactive steps:
oCommunicate early and often with the potentially
affected parties (building and business managers,
city government and the general public).
lnclude affected parties in planning to the
extent possible.
o Be accessible, responsible and accountable.
Temporary chillers
Ali too frequently, sorne customers require cooling service
befare a permanent district cooling plant can be built.
Temporary chillers are expensive to operate, particularly
Construction risks
Underground congestion
12
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customer's equipment.
Consumption rates
Metering
Appropriate billing of district cooling customers requires
Connection charges
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d. . e. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
t.,.....
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capacity rates
Connection charges
A capacity and consumption rate structure is recom-
inadequate revenues if annual cooling energy requirements are lower than projected dueto projection error or
cooler-than-normal temperatures. This is especially critical
in serving real estate developments with many absentee
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System
[] Connection charge OCommodity charge
l!I Capacity charge
14
Customer service
onumber of customer outage hours
number of customer complaint calls
System operations
total variable operating cost (US$/ton-hr)
peak electrical demand (kW/ton)
o average electric energy efficiency (kWh/delivered
ton-hr)
o water consumption (l/ton-hr ar gal/ton-hr)
system delta T performance at peak (temperature
difference between supply and return)
Financia! performance
ocapital cost to engineer, procure and construct
(US$/ton)
interna! rate of return on total invested capital
(%)
oreturn on equity (%)
Environment
oestimated emissions impact (C0 2 emission
reduction/ton-hr)
estimated demand reduction on the electrical grid
(kW/ton)
:ti~~i~li);!f~~i-~,~~ll1li~lf
15
11
11
:::::::::::::::::::'.::::::::::::::i::::::::
llJ
~weather
16
...............
Figure 4-2 summarizes the 0.4% wet-bulb and meancoincident dry-bulb temperatures. Design wet-bulb
temperatures range from 21 C to 31 C (70 F to 87 F),
with mean-coinciden\ dry-bulb temperatures ranging
from 28 C to 40 C (83 F to 104 F).
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2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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revenue projections.
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100%
/
90%
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EFLH =
-----"--'~---'----
"
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.Q
100%
90%
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o
80%
o.
l'v 1'
o 70%
70%
~
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60%
40%
\._ LI
60%
50%
\.
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'-.
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.........
!'-.
50%
30%
0%
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1ime of day
Peak-day
- - load profile
~r-..
20%
10%
40%
--... ,__
"' ,#l,.fl 1
-D>*
Average
daily load
Figure 4-5. lllustrative district cooling annua1 load-duration curve.
cooling requirements.
18
Chiller efficiency
return temperature.
must overcome.
The first is dependen\ on the system cooling load
requirements, which are a given. The second is determined by the difference between the condensing and
evaporating temperatures or what is referred to as the
"lift." Entenng condenser water temperature is limited
by the ambient wet-bulb temperature as well as the
number and capacity of cooling towers in operation.
Leaving chilled water can be increased or decreased,
also changing the lift. The lower the supply chilledwater temperature, the higher the lift, and hence the
more power the compressor has to overcome to help
19
.....
.~fr'
__...1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111_ _ _ __ _
Evaporator freezeup
The other limitation to how low the chilled-water temperature can go is its freezing point. lf chilled water is
going to freeze, it will start to do so at its lowest
tubes. The effects are catastrophic, damaging the evaporator. Evaporator tubes may corrode and thin, adding
to the problem.
Far safety reasons, the minimum design chilled-water
temperature is usually determined to be around 3 C
(5 F to 6 F) above its freezing point. Minimum velocities
are set to preven\ a sudden drop in heat transfer
because of laminar flow. Enhanced chiller tubes ar
turbulators may be selected to help strip away laminar
boundary layer flow. Where even lower chilled-water
temperatures are desired, an anti-freeze agent may be
added to the chilled-water meda to prevent freezing.
A supply-to-return-water bypass may be added to
BO'F
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20
connections.
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I'
!
11
I'
1'
'
"'''""~"
..............
"'
iiiitlil,11~1!~~1~'.;~~1~.
t~:~:'.
22
Heat rejection
District cooling plants typically use cooling towers to
cool the chillers' condensers. Towers require "makeup"
drift or "blowdown" (in which sorne water is periodically removed to maintain water quality in the towers).
Makeup water does not have to be drinking-water
quality. In fact, seawater can be used in cooling towers.
but this requires much more expensive equipment and
higher maintenance costs. Other low-quality waters can
be used, including TSE, brackish ground water and
partially desalinated water. As the quality of the
makeup water decreases, the capital and maintenance
Common ~:
Seawater '.
lntake
Potable water.
Heat
..::::::::;.::;::::
23
Desalination
Desalination is energy-intensive. Multi-stage flash (MSF)
plants are the most commonly used, accounting far the
majority of global capacity. The use of reverse osmosis
(RO) plants is growing due to technological advances
and energy cost increases. MSF requires heat and sorne
electricity, while RO generally requires only electricity
(although sorne heat can optimize the process).
Power and desalination plants are often combined in a
cogeneration process (combined heat and power) in
which the waste heat from power generation is used
far MSF desalination. Cogeneration can also be
employed in RO plants by using exhaust steam to
pre-heat feedwater orto run a steam turbine to power
the pressure pumps required in the RO process.
Natural gas
Natural gas is frequently the ultimate energy source far
district cooling. Most often it fuels power plants that
provide the electricity to drive district cooling plants.
Sometimes it is used directly in district cooling plants
to fuel gas engines that generate electricity far electr"1c
chillers, as Tabreed has been doing in sorne of its plants
far more than five years. Natural gas can also be used
to produce the shaft power to drive chillers directly.
Natural gas transmission and distribution networks are
growing in the Middle East. As this occurs, the gas
distribution networks can be planned with the potential
far district cooling in mind. District cooling plants that
Seawater
35,000-45,000
2,000-8,000
Brackish ground water
2,500
Treated sewage effluent (TSE)
25-50
Product water from MSF desalination
24
I_..~.;;~:
:.-::-:.;.:-:;-~-:::
.......,..,.o..,
other customers, there should be economic consequences for the building owner.
26
100%
90%
80%
.5
50%
70%
60%
40%
"
30%
oo
D~~~~AT
/
~~~gll:~
0%
,,
, ' 100%
nesl'"'" AT
.IT~,,,
_,//
,,
,,
...,
y,/
_/..', ...
, ... -,
/..-','
,,:;.,
20%
10%
,/'~r
./'
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
60%
60% 100%
% Deslg n Flow
27
28
1..~:
:::: :: :::::::: ;::::::::: :: :-: ::'.:: :: .::: ::.:::: ::::::::::::'.:: :'.:: :'.:::: :: :::::::: :::: :: -: ...
'.,-.;...
ctc.
..
,.,
..r.).tc.
....
:)}})):{:)}))))~:}~_:'.'. r
..,-...
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::}::::::-:
distribution line.
Direct connections may be appropriate in these instances:
1. The utility and customer may be the same owner or
30
customers and/or
{}
.
31
~""--~~~~~~~-,--{~..___-+~~~~~
L;.J
1nstn11ei:tonlyHDlllldlng
is hytlmul<cally remct11
t
Figure 5-3. Simplified direct ETS connection.
For the customer building, this is the simples! interconnection but must be applied with careto avoid hydraulic
issues and low delta T. lt saves valuable real estate space
and eliminates ali the additional equipment required in a
typical indirect ar decoupled direct connection, including
piping, pumps, controls, heat exchangers, chemical
treatment and expansion tanks. This approach can also
be modified al hydraulically remate locations with a series
(booster) chilled-water pump that is installed with a
parallel bypass and check valve so that the pump is only
run when required.
32
140%
'J.
J','"
!
e 120%
''
~~
h
i~1~
Bu~dmg
I,; fi
1
100%
~
X
80%
Oistrict CHWR
'ilirr
e
s
CHWR
Building CHWS
DistrictCHWS
- --
60%
40%
'
"
20%
...
~ ....
0%
0.5
1.5
1.0
2.0
SUPPORT
COLUMN
SUPPORT
FOOT
SS.CLAODEO
CARRYING BAR
PLATEPACl'
1
:
.
Cooling Load
lnlet Temperature C (F)
Outlet Temperature C (F)
Flow Rate lps (gpm)
Pressure Drop kPa (psi)
Footprint sq ft (sq m)
Relative Cost lndex
FRAMEPLATE
Alfa Laval).
Heat exchanger selection should be broadly integrated
with the total district cooling system design. The choices
made in the system can have a very significan! impact on
the capital, energy and operating costs far a district
cooling utility and its customers.
:-::
..
..z..
HEX 1
HEX2
1000 tons
4.4 (40)
2.2 (36)
3.3 (56)
3.3 (56)
94.0 (1489.6) 75.1 (1190.7)
60.1 (8.71)
40.9 (5.93)
2.62 (28.2)
2.16 (23.3)
1.00
.690
33
r. :. ...
....
~;,,;,;;..
critica\
-'<"
............
..'"l"'.m"
..
..
.C,'
............. .
customer connectlons
34
Tonnage
Tonnage per heat exchanger
Demand 2-manifolded 3-manifalded 4-manifalded
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
600
1200
400
800
,1800
2400
3000
-
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
300
600
900
1200
T=ZOC (68F)
T=SOC (176F)
pH leve! AISI 304 AISI 316 AISI 304 AISI 316
20
4
30
5
400
7
9
1500
1800
2100
120
500
1150
10000
32
140
120
600
i,llftlll&-111
HEX monitoring - With most heat exchanger connections it is very important to collect temperatures and pressure drops far both inlets and outlets as well as the water
flow rate.
.. ''>.. . .
.....,.
~ : : ~'.
:.~
::::~::.:. : ,.,.,...
:::::::::::::::::::'.::::::::::::;:::::::
35
Pressure-dependent control
Control Point(s)
36
; 50% 1-----,-----,f-,
::
\~%~::::::::..~--,50%:;-~~~--,,400%
Valva opening
F[gure 5-11. Common control-valve characteristics.
Pressure-independent control
CONTROL SHAFT
SPRINGS
PISTON
FLOW
_____..,..
37
38
......'.... ...'...'."......"......:.'<'.':'.'>.'.'.
39
5.7.1 lntroduction 1
The energy meter registers the quantity of energy transferred from the user's building system to the district
cooling system. Cooling energy is the product of mass
flow, temperature difference, the specific heat of the
water and time. lt is difficult to measure mass flow in
an enclosed pipe system, so volume flow is measured.
The result is corrected far the density and specific heat
capacity of the water, which depends on its temperature.
The effect of pressure is so small that it can be ignored.
An energy meter consists of a flow meter, a pair of
temperature sensors and an energy calculator that
integrates the flow, temperature data and correction
factors. lt is desirable that the energy meter be supplied
as a complete unit and factory calibrated with stated
conditions.
Dynamic meters
There are two types of dynamic meters used in district
cooling: impeller and turbine meters.
lmpeller meters measure flow with the aid of straightbladed impellers. There are two types of impeller meters:
multi-jet and single-jet.
Multi-jet impeller meters are very sensitive to impurities
such as sand and sharp metal particles, but are not
sensitive to flow disturbances. This type of meter is best
suited to medium-sized buildings, but not far small
buildings because it does not function well at small loads.
ness across operational units. Proper "seasonal" shutIn a turbine meter, the fluid in the pipe flows through
40
and ultrasonic.
specific instructions.
41
::
recommended minimums.
demand charge.
Primary energy metering will normally be performed
according to local regulations or international standards,
however submetering far allocate purposes are not
included and does normally not have to fallow any reg-
ulations.
Submetering can be employed in fallowing ways:
1. Measure the thermal energy used far each
customer.
2. Measure the total thermal energy used far the
subsystem and consumed water volume far each
5.7 .4 Standards
CSA C900 is a Canadian standard far thermal energy
meters. but it is not commonly used throughout North
America. There are international standards in place like
the OIML-R75 and the European Standard EN 1434 that
may be used as references. CSA C900 is adopted from
EN 1434 with Canadian deviations.
customer.
3. Measure of room temperature in each apartment.
Measurement of room temperature is the least expensive,
but also the most inaccurate. This method will not show
wastefulness.
5.7.6 Submetering
relatively small.
metric.
Meter reading
42
consider intrusive.
2. Remate reading va fixed ar drive-bywireless netwJrk.
Under this option, data would be transmitted via a
radio signa! from an output device included in the
-~
options:
1. Allocating costs based on floor areas or other
parameters is simple and cheap to implement; however, it does not provide an incentive for a resident to
MULll-L"VE.
R:OSIDEN TIAL
TOWNliOMES
43
44
6.
ChiHed~Water
Distribution Systems
throughout the system, it is possible to dramatically
reduce both first costs and operating costs while
providing a better and more economically advantageous service to customers.
(--.
i~ii~~:t~!!~fi!i(~g:i~,1~fl!i~~1
In the Middle East, particular attention must be paid to
corrosion protection of buried piping and insulation
design to minimize heat gain. Buried chilled-water
piping in the Middle East is often installed at or below
lhe water table, and ground water can be highly saline,
so it is critical that protection of metallic piping and
components from corrosion be carefully considered.
Without proper insulation, the chilled-water supply
temperature to customers could become unacceptably
high due to heat gain from the ground and ground
water, especially during off-peak times. Proper piping
insulation helps minimize the installed capacity of the
plant and distribution system while reducing the added
operating expense of heat gain in buried pipes.
lt's equally importan\ to develop a delta T strategy to optimize performance in operation. Low delta T continues to
be a chronic problem that adversely affects energy, capacity, comfort and economics in the district cooling industry worldwide; however, sound design can eliminate
these issues without compromising performance.
45
70
1--~====~p~l~~t~su~p~pl~yl~os~s~~~===-~sg.s~C~d~t~a~T__j
60
6.7CdeltaT
1_,_:::::::::::;;:.:;'"~P~~~yp:ip:in:g:l:'''___-:.:-~-~s~.3~C~d~elra~T__j
t~~l\Wf~~i~l~ii~l111ta,~1~;
.. .. .. . ...:-:-.::.(;,::;:~:-:
.......:-:.:--:--:.-:-:-:-:-;~.::'.:'.~-:>:
6.1.5 Delta T
The hydraulic profile in a system that achieves high delta
T is dramatically difieren! from a model for a system that
doesn't, as illustrated in Figure 6-1.
Cooling coils within customer HVAC systems and control
valves within customer HVAC systems and utility ETS
46
Delta T
6.7
7.8
12
14
Approx. Capacity
(tons)
14,200
16,600
8.9
16
19,000
10.0
18
21,400
11.1
20
23,800
12.2
22
24
26,200
13.3
28,500
Delta T
Approx. Capacity
(to ns)
6.7
12
22,400
7.8
14
26, 100
8.9
16
29,900
10.0
11.1
18
33,600
12.2
13.3
20
37,400
22
24
41,100
44,800
io
47
mlnlmum
evaporalDr
byp11$S
~
V/Spumps
The parametric study in a research project titled "Variable Primary Flow Chilled Water Systems: Potential Benefits and Application lssues" conducted and released
by the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology
lnstitute (ARTI) states this in its executive summary:
system alternatives:
chllers sooner.
"!l
.1
l
1
'
48
Design considerations
11J11
.:::-:-:-:-:::;:[::::::::::::-.
. '."":-:-:<':.:-::::;~:;::::::' :::::-:::.:::::::;::;::{~'./:\
49
1. Chillers are compatible with variable flow Different types of chillers have different capabilities
and limits. Absorption chillers are generally less
toleran! of variable flow. The rate and magnitude
of flow-rate changes must be compatible with
chiller operation.
50
remains constant but there is more opportunity to overflow the chillers as necessary.
lf delta T is low, it permits variable-speed drives to control
primary pumps so that there is always more flow
circulating in the primary loop than in the secondary
loop. This 1prevents the secondary pumps from drawing
return chilled water into the supply and degrading the
temperature provided to connected customers. lt also
can be controlled to allow extra flow through the chiller
so it can generate more than its design capacity when
1~1
!>:
,.,,,,....:.,ce ::.;'.;:.::/;;:'.;:::;:;:::;:;
::-:-:-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-:-:<-::;:-'.;:-;'.:::;:;
'.;'.<::::.'.;.::.~:>:
V/Spumps
51
"'
pump(s)
CHWS
CHWR
~~=:1
VIS
pump(')
CHWR
~~=:rT
1-....~"--~-'-~~.._~-"-loew'
space requirements, among plant operations and maintenance personnel, selection of inline vertical pumps is
generally discouraged, with sorne of the cited reasons
as follows:
Bearings are unevenly loaded.
Greasing is critica!, but difficult do with vertical pumps.
Removing the casing is diffcult and can be unsafe.
~
r.i
52
the use of variable-frequency drives (VFDs) far variablevolume operation is highest far the first pump brought
online and successively lower far each additional pump
brought online. Depending on the quantity of pumps in
the pump bank, the energy savings from variable-speed
operation of the last pump engaged can be very small.
However. far banks of distribution pumps with
low-voltage motors, installing VFDs on ali the pumps is
best practice in most cases nowadays due to fact that
low-voltage VFDs and soft starters have similar costs.
lnstalling )/FDs far ali pumps in a bank of pumps also
allows run hours to be balanced equally among all the
pumps, and can simplify controls and operation.
an unsafe condition.
53
illfl~li!liiit~i-tr~ls~l1i
....::-:-:-:::::.:.:;:::::::..
pressure requirements.
lf an open thermal storage tank cannot be used far
pressure control, then the best arrangement is usually
54
that field joint kits be of the type that allows far an air
test of the joint jacket integrity befare filling with
insulation, which provides assurance that ali joints in the
distribution are watertight. However, joint kits of the type
that do not have an air test, but have a double heat-shrink
sleeve are also suitable, under the foliowing conditions:
conditions.
pre,ssr,s temeratures,.f1owv~lo~tt;;wrg~;$oit
~()rtosMyandr~lh1~Uify.r~~ir~rtie~~
. ''.:'."'.~....'.".'. "'/.':;:
11111~~~1~~~~~~i~1~~~1
Welded-steel pipe
,11
linked PE (PEX).
Sensor wire leak-detection system is installed and
<
put in to operation.
Piping is not instalied below the water table.
55
HOPE pipe
Primary coating options are fusion-bonded epoxy, fiberglass and polyurethane. Steel pipes can also be
manufactured with an outer polyethylene jacket. lt is
highly recommended that, in addition to externa!
56
Ductile-iron pipe
Ouctile-iron pipe and fittings are generally more
expensive than steel piping, but the overall installation
cost is often less than welded steel due to ease and
speed of installation. The interior of ductile-iron piping
is typically mortar-lined, which provides a smooth,
Oue to the fact that HOPE material can undergo deformation slowly over a considerable period of time,
flanged HOPE connections may require tightening during
the initial months following installation to preven\ leakage.
For this reason, whenever practica!, flanged HOPE joints
should be installed so they are accessible by maintenance
personnel. lf flanged HOPE joints cannot be made
accessible, then it is recommended that flanges with a
higher pressure class than the pipe be installed.
57
'~'
..... ---_.,.,_.,-..--
--~
,. .. ,
~t.ll~liillf11~11fi~~1;~~~~~
,-,
;111ri4~1Bll1~11'i1:r:1w~:1
\<::<->>"-'.' ......... - .. -:-:.:-.:-:-:-:;:-:'.;::::;:::-:;:::::-:-. ...........-.... . 1:-:-...
pressure rating.
Steet pipe
In sorne markets, such as the U.5. market, there are
e insulation is required,
clean water can be maintained in the chilledwater distribution system and
the ability to operate at high velocities is desired.
Consider different material if
speed of installation is a high priority,
GRP pipe
,r;i
HOPE pipe
May be good choice of material if
~
water service.
58
====-=------=------=--------=-~--
----
---- ----- - -
- -
Ductile-iron pipe
May be good choice of material if
.g, soil conditions are not corrosive to ductile iron,
~ insulation is not required and
o minimizing first cost is a top priority.
GRPpipe
May be good choice of material if
Valve chambers
59
~lll$1i~t~~~t~,.~1,~! ~~-~~~!~~~~
1..::.
. . . . . . . . . . ............. . .
........:-::-:-:-::-:-:-'.-:<-:--:-~-:-;-:.;.;.:-.:::>
f.:
60
.... ~...:"'*~.:.'"
!lg~~#il~~~1~_f_;~_~_.--~-::_i_r_1_~--_-~_rl{tll~l~;.;,
, ..;.:.;->.
. ........,.,...c.-,...
Cost considerations
In the European market installation of direct-buried,
pre-insulated, weld-end isolation valves is generally
more cost effective than installation of valve chambers.
In markets where manual labor costs are cheaper, such
as the Middle East, valve chambers with flanged
butterfly valves can be the least-cost option, depending
on pipeline size and bury depth.
valves where mechanical actuation is slow or cumbersome. This system could be installed with a permanent
hydraulic pump at the site to drive the hydraulic actuators on the valves, but more commonly and cost-effectively, the system is installed without a permanent
hydraulic pump, and utility personnel use a portable
hydraulic pump to actuate the valves instead.
:_J.lflli_.
_,.__,11
f_._._
'..-..:.:..-~'./,,:::
61
:::::~.:;;;:<::.;:;:;:;:;:;"
~-
!-"::::::::::::::::::::)~:::;:::
secured.
Hot tapping is cost-effective enough in small sizes [up
to 100 mm (4") ar so] that it can preclude the need to
Far a pre-insulated steel distribution piping system, whenever it is feasible to do so, the welded type of hot tap is
recommended to maintain the integrity of an
all-welded piping system. Welding anta an active chilledwater line far a hot tap can be performed as long as care
is taken. ASME piping code requires preheat to 1OC (50 F)
to ensure the weld's integrity. This preheat can be achieved
using thermal blankets, ar other means of heating the pipe,
while operating the pipe section with as low a chilled-water
flow as possible. Most pre-insulated piping manufacturers
6.4.4 lnsulation
Evaluating insulation requirements
The following general steps should be taken when
62
..:.
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008 lntemabOna! DS!tkt Eneigy A.5sodab'on. Al/ cyhis reSINVed.
111-.1.i.1.~.'.:.t.~.:.J.I
, .....,,
''.-.":'.~""
.,.'.,:..;....::::::<
ments,
customer comfort and
impact of increased supply temperature to utility
ton-hour sales.
temperatures.
36
r.
34
'
y
,,,~
32
e
~
o.
30
l.
28
26
E
~ 24
Pre-insulated piping
insulation considerations
w.,
38
''-
//'
--.-... ,___
:
~
-'\
.~
'
,..
//
''
.......
, ....
\
\.\
\ \
:"'!. ,/,.,,/
L'y '
..---
'~
7/
"' "'
\
"
...,_
<.,""""
22
20
"'-
)\
..1
'\
/'
18
"
16
"'
C:
.:
..,
"
OI
Month ofYear
-* Surface
--1;:--1,5 mBurv Deplh
63
1.30
1.20
f--
; 1.10
f--
1.00
f--
e 0.90 -
,e 0.80
' 0.70
~ 0.60
!!:l..
o.g.
.,
No insulation
lnsulation on ali
pipes
'
* less
lnsulalion on pipes
than 450mm
/
/
/
/
/
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
_____..
0.10
..
//"'
11
0.00
'
350
500
550
1200
1350
2100
injected, as it has more uniform faam density and mechanical properties and there
is much less likelihood of
voids in the insulation. Generally, these issues are less importan! far chilled-water
piping than they are far hot
water piping, but should still
be taken into consideration.
Also, far higher-quality faam
applied at field joints, it is optima! to use a mobile foaming
machine instead of hand-mixing and pouring techniques.
65
refrigerants
heat rejection
Range
(tons)
Reciprocating
Screw
Small centrifuga!
Large single-compressor centrifuga!
Large dual-compressor centrifuga!
50 - 230
70 - 400
200 - 1500
1500 - 3000
2000 - 6000
Rotary
Although rotary compressors can use scrolls or rotating
vanes: the more common type far packaged water
chillers is the helical screw-type.
Centrifuga!
Large commercially available compression chiller systems
are based on centrifuga! compressors. Usually the
66
recommended.
quantity of VFDs that are appropriate for a given application, especially for medium- or high-voltage chiller
applications. For the more cost-effective low-voltage
chillers, there may be an economic payback to putting
VSDs on most of the chillers in a district cooling plant,
and it could even make sense to put VSDs on ali chillers
to be able to balance run times. For medium- and highvoltage chillers, however, it may only make economic
sense to put VSDs on one or two chillers; additional
VSDs must be carefully evaluated.
Hot-gas bypass
As the name implies, the hot gas from the compressor
discharge is bypassed to the suction. This control
method can be used to unload amachine to zero; however,
this is usually not required for district cooling plants in
the Middle East. As hot gas is bypassed, the kilowatt
67
So1ution
Heat
Exchange~'l~~~~~~=~p
68
Since absorption units are not well-suited far low supplytemperature production and undergo a substantial
derate to do so, it may make sense to develop a plant
configuration where absorption chillers are installed in
series with centrifuga! chillers, which are better suited
far producing low supply temperatures. In this configuration, chilled-water return water would be partially
cooled by absorption units first and then cooled down
to design supply temperature by centrifuga! chillers.
Sorne of the benefits of absorption machines over
vapor-compression chillers:
olower electrical requirements far chiller operation
As noted above, absorption chillers require more condenser heat rejection than electric centrifuga! chillers,
which means that either additional power will be required far cooling tower fans and pumps - -110%
more far single-effect and -60% more far double-effect - or cooling towers and condenser-water piping
must be larger.
Capacity derate
Capital costs
Equipment manufacturers
Direct-fired absorption chillers are available in sizes
ranging from about 100 tons through 1000 tons from
69
.,
Dl51RICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
c20081n1emauD1laJ DiWid Eneiyy Assodabon. Al/ n'ght:s re$f!IWd.
Operating costs
emissions if required.
Key technical considerations far an engine-driven chiller:
enclosures.
70
ToElectri~
Chlller
Figure 7-2. Engine-based CHP with electric and absorption chillers (courtesy York/Johnson Controls).
AmbientAir
Do/
ToElectrlc~
Steam-Turbine
Orive Chlller
Chiller
Steam
90/o
'C
o BOo/o
-'
~
70/o
50%
o.
'O 60/o
40%--l~~-l---l~~-l---l'--_J__-J-~f--+----'
B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
lime of Day (hr}
71
Peak-load management
Where space is cost-effectively available far chilledwater storage, the economies of scale far this technology
storage.
Energy efficiency
climate, can rely upan cooler condenser-water temperatures to reduce chiller lift and minimize the kW/ton of
chilled-water production.
Capital avoidance
TES should be considered early in the design process to
72
Oprational flexibility
Another significant TES benefit is increased operational
flexibility., Thermal energy starage helps facilitate chiller
maintenance, even during high-load conditions.
Starage plus emergency pump power enables service
even after an electrical power outage. A TES tank could
also be used to provide fire protection water and
emergency condenser water ar chilled-water makeup.
Energy
Capacity,
ton-hr
Capacity
vs. Design
to ns
(6 hours)
deg e deg F
5.6
6.7
7.8
8.9
10.0
11.1
12.2
13.3
Load
Capacity,
10
12
14
18,750
22,500
26,250
3, 125
3,750
4,375
63%
75%
88%
16
30,000
5,000
100%
18
20
22
24
33,750
37,500
41,250
45,000
5,625
6,250
6,875
7,500
113%
125%
138%
150%
73
Timing
To capture the greatest benefit from an investment in
TES, it is imperative to assess the benefits and costs
early in the design effort. Low-temperature supply
water ora hydraulically strategic TES tank location can
reduce distribution pipe size requirements. However,
once the chilled-water piping is procured or the
footprint is allotted far the plant, it may be too late to
take advantage of ali of the significan! capital and/or
operating cost savings that are possible with TES. Also,
whenever possible, the cost-benefit of TES should be
evaluated befare customer contracts are signed and
new customer buildings are designed to take full
advantage of the benefits of low-temperature supply
water to customer buildings.
Condensar
~
~-'--
Compressor
llft
Evaporator
Single Chiller
Condenser
~--+-L~ift~Reduction
Compressor
Lift
-!----~
~
LlftReductlon
--+---~-
Evaporator
Compressor
Lift
__,__
74
Parallel Chillers
Series-Counterflow Chillers
Enclosure types
Open drip-proof (ODP) enclosures are the
standard motor enclosure suitable for most
industrial applications. Cooling air enters
through louvered openings, passes over the
rotor and stator, and exits through the openings in the sides of the frame. This open
enclosune design should not be selected for
outdoor installations, or wash-down a reas.
These motors will typically meet an 85 DBA
sound-level requinement. Ali heat from the
Savings (cost)
15-yr present value at 10.5%
at US$.03/kWh at US$.04/kWh at US$.05/kWh
kWh/yr
Chiller
1,267,058
$281,052
$374,736
$468,420
Weather-protected type 11
(WP-11) is an open enclosure
designed for use in adverse
outdoor conditions. The air
intake is in the top hall of the
chiller power.
not operating -
!\
120% , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
j
!
100% t------~~----1
80%
j---;~
60%+----l
.B-
20%
40%
ii
0%
2000hp
700hp
450 hp
150 hp
WPll
ODP
TEAAC
TEWAC
&!l2000 hp
~700
hp 0450 hp 0150 hp
Motor efficiency
Motor efficiencies typically run from 95.5 % to 96% for
the larger motors to 94.5% to 95% for smaller motor.;.
Efficiency tends to remain fairly flat to 50% load.
Figure 7-8 graphs motor efficiency versus load for the
four sample motor sizes.
9B
97
ges
;- 95
e
-fi
~y
91
'
/Y
Oo/o
E:::
25%
50%
'
.............-j
92
75%
l
1
i
i
100%
Percent load
2000hp--700 hp -450 hp --150 hpl
. !tiiheMtdcl~Ea~i~lsM~~i~lfY:lle~to\lS~.t@Jw.
erit1osd~t~r'fo't<fedCi'.E\i\fAO~i!osilfes
~, o!'i"n'dii~e c:hlter$ mi$)>
. ........ . .. .
........ .....-..
...
i=-h:--
w 93
.:
94
'
lnverter-duty premium
Motors rated for inverter duty should always be used
with variable-frequency drives (VFDs). The premium for
inverter-duty motors (compared to standard motors) is
relatively independent of the enclosure type, as shown
in Figure 7-7 (note again that 150 hp motors were not
available in TEWAC and TEAAC). Since enclosures with
heat exchangers cost more, the percentage increase is
a bit lower. On a percentage basis, the inverter-duty
76
corrosion-resistant enough
to be suitable far reliable,
-Enclosure
long-term service as a chiller
2000 hp
700hp
450 hp
150 hp
Type
condenser-tube
material
62"x30"x29" 34"x30"x29"
44"x21 "x22"
39"x21 "x22"
ODP
when using seawater. Copper-nickel 70/30 offers sea64"x30"x54"
56"x30"x54"
48"x42"x48"
42"x32"x36"
WPll
water corrosion resistance
64"x30"x54"
56"x30"x54"
48"x42"x48"
TEWAC
N/A
that is far superior to 90/1064"x30"x54"
56"x30"x54"
48"x42"x48"
TEAAC
N/A
copper-nickel and may be a
106"x42"x85" 62"x36"x32"
56"x30"x34"
44"x21 "x22"
TEFC
suitable chiller tube material,
but
it is critica! to have a corMotor weights in pounds
rosion specialist conduct a
9600
3700
2350
1350
ODP
corrosion analysis using seawater samples from the inWPll
10,600
4500
3200
1900
take area. For sorne areas,
11,400
4500
3200
TEWAC
N/A
such as polluted harbors with
TEAAC
11,400
4500
3200
N/A
especially aggressive seawater, copper-nickel 70/30 may
TEFC ,
15,000
10,200
4600
2400
not be an acceptable selecTable 7-5. Example dimensions and weights of motor types.
tion. Titanium is the best
tube material for seawater
advantages of high-voltage motors are that
applications and is virtually immune to corrosion, but it
is the also the most expensive alternative. Majar chiller
osoft starters may not be required,
ostep-down transfarmers may not be required,
manufacturers are still evaluating the super-ferritic
ospace far electrical equipment is reduced,
stainless steel alloys that are being proposed by tube
~ transformation losses are reduced and
manufacturers to assess their impact on chiller efficiency. These super-ferritic tube materials have a lower
plant efficiency is increased.
first cost than titanium, but also have a bigger impairIn circumstances where the electric utility only provides
ment to chiller efficiency than titanium as well.
medium-voltage power, it is important to verify restrictions
on ampere draw and to assess the need for soft starters.
Table 7-6 shows the level of seawater corrosion resistance
and the approximate performance degradation far various tube material alternatives (and indicates if efficiency
7.4.2 Heat exchanger materials and design
reduction figures are far internally enhanced or interToday's centrifuga! chillers almos! always come with
enhanced copper tubes far the evaporators and
nally smooth-bore tubes). The costs far these alternative
condensers. However, depending on the water quality,
tube materials have been highly volatile over the past
it may be necessary to consider alternate materials and
severa! years based on supply and demand, and have
seen enormous increases since the year 2000. Between
smooth-bore tubes. This is true far condensers and
especially true when the coolant is seawater from direct
2005 and 2008 quotes far chillers outfitted with titacooling or seawater cooling towers. When seawater is
nium condenser tubes and tubesheets compared to
used for condenser cooling, copper tubes are not
appropriate and tube materials that better resist the
Seawater Approximate
corrosive nature of seawater must be selected. The
Condenser
Reduction
Corrosion
traditional alternatives are titanium or copper-nickel
Tube Material
in Chiller
Resistance
alloys, and recently special super-ferritic stainless steel
Efficiency
alloys are being proposed. Ali of these alternative tube
Copper (enhanced)
N/A
0/o
materials are not as efficient in transferring heat as
(Base)
standard copper tubes, which results in less efficient
CuNi 90/10 (enhanced)
Somewhat
chiller operation, to varying degrees.
-3o/o
Resistan\
Motor dimensions in feet (L x W x H)
Resistant
Resistan!
-8o/o
Super-ferritic SS (enhanced)
Highly
Resistan!
-10%
lmmune
-9%
Titanium (enhanced)
Copper-nickel 90/1 o has been used in the past far heat
exchange applications using seawater, but is not
77
Year
Restrictions
CFC-11
1996
Ban on production
CFC-12
1996
Ban on production
HCFC-22
2010
2020
Ban on production
2015
Produdion freeze
2020
2030
San on produdion
HCFC-123
HFC-134a
--
No restrictions
7.5 Refrigerants
Until recently, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were
the most common refrigerants in the world. However, these compounds
were discovered to cause
the
destruction
of
stratospheric ozone layer,
which is the protective
part of the Earth's atmosphere that filters out and
reduces the sun's harmful
ultraviolet radiation.
Refrigerant
. .
HFC-407c
...
HFC-134a
HCFC-123
HCFC-22
.. .
'
'
CFC-12
:-:-:-.
CFC-11
The world's developed
nations responded in
1987 with an internao
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
tional agreement, called
o Global Warrning Potential (GWP) / 10,000
the Montreal Protocol, es"'Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP)
1
tablishing CFC phaseout
requirements. These re- Figure 7-9. Refrigerant environmental impact comparison
1.2
78
----. - --
-- -
'
--
- - --
1-pass evaporator
13.3 C (56 F) entering
4.4 C (40 F) leaving
Flow: 379
Vs (6000 gpm)
1-pass condenser
1-pass condenser
Even though HCFCs are considerably
safer far the environment (at least 95 percent less damaging to the ozone layer
than CFCs), they still have an adverse ef-
HFCs (halofluorocarbons) currently have Table 7-8. lnputs to low condenser flow example.
figure 7-9 illustrates the comparative environmental impact of various old refrigerants (CFC-11 and CFC-12)
and the recen\ replacement refrigerants (HCFC-123 and
HFC-134a) that are now being used. The data indicates
that HFC-134a and HCFC-123 are more environmentally
friendly refrigerants than R-22.
79
'
C C
Molst. Warm
AirOut
rejection
--~---
Warm ~
Water In
.....
..... ....................
ltJ l l
1 ltJl
l 1 1 l 1 l~
Fill Area
..
Ory Aire::>
In
<:=i
Dry Air
In
Basin
'
Moist. Warm
AirOut
Warm Water In
condenser. Current trends are to use a larger condenser-water delta T. A larger condenser-water delta T
Warm Water In
c:=::.x:::=::>
Foo
'------'
:\
DryAir
lo
=
= ~~>if i"'"
~
=~
Fil!
CoolWater
Out
;
;
;
~-
<==i
-'==,>t--Dlstribution
FHI
Basin
Area
~j
<:::=
Ory Alr
In
Basin
with drier air entering the cooling tower and moister air
80
,,s
0.3
u
'E" 0.7
itE
0.6
0.5
tt!tdd::tt!l::U--
0.4 +-+-l-+--1--1--1--+-+--+--+-+-~
efficient operation.
n 0.1
+-+-l-+--1--1--1--+-+--+--+-+--1
0.2
+-+-+-1-+-+-l-+-+-+-t--,-+-
o.o ~.,_:-~~--:::,jl..::,4-=~'*''""=~=J.......,-4"",.j
23
- -Tower -ChllerB-CllillerA
~u
0.020
0.016
me
0.014
.
n
0.010
0.004
0.002
'
)''
... ...... 1-
'~
...
i- ...
bR&!un
- -- -
0.000
23
14
25
-~
'--"
0.006
0.012
m 0.008
-- -
0.018
26
27
"
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
- -
ToWer
Chller B -Clliller A
Figure 7-13. Rate of power change for chillers and cooling towers.
When determining an appropriate operating control scenario, there are tradeoffs to consider. Chillers are more ef-
81
"
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACT1CE GUIDE
ClOOB ln!emariomil DiSlfia fneiyy Assodarian. Al/ righ!s reserved.
Bal1ndng
"'""
Roof Mounted Coollng Towets
Pump
Han
Stlnclby
ChlHerHall
ChlllerHalt
82
Potable water
Potable water is cammonly used in non-arid areas and
is the preferred source far tower makeup. Standard
materials can be used: copper far chiller condenser
tubes and galvanized ar coated steel far cooling towers.
However, potable water is not readily available in the
Middle East and in sorne locales its use in cooling towers
is prohibited. This has driven district cooling companies
to search far alternate sources far caoling tower makeup.
83
of seawater.
ronmental
regulations for
temperature are
met.
84
desalination technologies
In the chilled-water portions of the plant and in the distribution network, the problems encountered include
o corrosion in the chiller tubes,
deposition in the chiller tubes,
microbiological activity and
Treatment approach
water.
To lift debris off the lower section of the pipes, the
water velocity should be a minimum of 1.5 mis (5 ftls)
during this process. lf necessary, the pipes should be
cleaned in sections to ensure that this velocity is maintained. In unusual situations it may be necessary to
mechanically clean pipe sections.
o Water should be recirculated far 24-48 hours while
the filters remove debris from the system. lt should
be noted that th is process can be made more effective by keeping dirt out the pipeline in the first place.
This means carefully handling and installing pipe
works during the construction stage.
Water should be treated with a nitrite or molybdate
product (ora combination of these) to finally passivate
the metal. There are reports of success with organic
corrosion inhibitors, but these are still regarded as less
effective approaches.
vapor compression
85
Treatment approach
chilled-water distribution piping is mostly large and primarily horizontal. This situation presents specific cleaning and disposal problems. Low-lying areas in the system
may harbor debris, and flow velocities may be difficult
to achieve. In this case flushing probably will not be effective and sorne other farm of mechanical cleaning
("pigging") will be necessary. Depending on the conditions and circumstances, a bare-type pig could be used
to remove construction debris and dirt or a wire brush
or scraper pig could be used if the pipe interna! surfaces
need to be cleaned.
Since energy efficiency is of vital importance to distnct cooling operators, emphasis should be given to every means
possible far keeping heat exchanger surface areas clean.
Pre-cleaning the condenser-water system is less arduous
than the chilled-water distribution system, but it is justas
importan!. A significan! factor in keeping the condenserwater system clean is the cooling tower basin design. The
basin should be configured with a weir design, whereby
debris in the system water is likely to settle in the basin
befare passing over the weir into the return to the
condenser pumps. There are a variety of options in these
designs and the cooling tower supplier can advise on this.
Here are the key elements to consider:
Befare starting the cleaning process, the cooling tower
basin should be cleaned manually to remove debris.
While doing this, care should be taken not to damage
any system coating.
On filling with water, the system should be cleaned
using a non-acid cleaning chemical ensuring that ali
parts of the system are cleaned. lt may be necessary
to carry out a two-stage cleaning process whereby
the condenser section of the chiller is cleaned after
the cooling tower section and pipes. This process
should be run far 24 to 48 hours prior to opening the
blowdown system to remove cleaning chemicals. lt
will be necessary to ensure that blowdown quality
complies with local disposal standards.
The system should then be treated with a scale/corrosion inhibitor as recommended by the water service
provider The product's use should meet disposal standards as set by the local authorities. lnitially, the product should be dosed at the passivation leve! as
recommended by the supplier, and then reduced to
the maintenance level.
o Microbiological control in the system should be
achieved using oxidizing biocides dosed preferably on
a continuous or semi-continuous basis using redox
control. A biodispersant also should be incorporated
into the program to aid the effectiveness of the biocide. A permitted non-oxidizing biocide should be
used on an occasional basis.
86
by redox control.
Suitably sized pumps should be used for scale/corrosion inhibitor, oxidizing biocide and biodispersant.
oSuitably sized chemical dosing tanks in opaque
polyethylene should be used. Tanks should be
calibrated externally to observe product leve!, and
the tanks should also be bunded (diked) to contain
any chemical leaks.
opH
lCOnductivity
Calcium/total hardness
chloride
M alkalinity
~iron
$
calcium balance
Chilled Water
->conductivity
87
88
Performance Characteristic
Particulate removal ability on sidestream
application
Cyclone Separator
Sand Filter
Centrifuga! forces
Full-flow application
Backwash cycle
Backwash frequency
Purge cycle
Required maintenance
89
connected to the district cooling distribution system, sidestream filters may be useful. Since the district cooling
company has little or no control over the customers'
piping, contamination from the customers' sides is a
concern and sidestream filters may be appropriate.
90
91
8.1 lntroduction
District cooling instrumentation and control systems
(DCICSs) can be complex and distributed in nature due
to the number of locations that must be controlled and
the necessity to interface equipment from various
vendors at each location. DCICSs vary greatly from one
provider to another. Even the equipment owned by a
single provider can vary greatly from site to site.
1/0
mADC
OIT
OLE
OPC
inpuVoutput
milliamps DC
manufacturers.
PC
PLC
Provider
RTIMS
SCADA
SOP
UPS
VDC
VFD
personal computer
programmable logic controller
district cooling provider
real-time thermal modeling and simulation
supervisory control and data acquisition
standard operating procedure
uninterruptible power supply
voltage DC
variable-frequency drive
8.3 Overview
8.2 Definitions
human-machine interface
instrumentation and controls
92
1.1.:.~;;t.f.i.~.r.l..;.'. I
the system.
\!:!
.......-.:......''.-::-:-:.;.;.;-:-:-::;;.;.;;......-..:.y.........-::..
,..........
...
IK
...-:-:::/;
......:.:-:,.:__:: :.<.:::.:.::.::::.::::.::::.....::..: ...
.t:.::.::.:: ........
...:::>:::-::-:::::::
8.4.1 Sites
A typical DCICS site may physically contain the following
types of installations:
oplant(s)
ocommand center(s)
8.4.2 Plants
tems in the most efficient and cost-effective manner to satisfy their customers' chilled-water
demand.
oStability of the system. The system should be available for provider use 24 hours a day, 365 days per
pumping stations.
93
1
1~..l.;l. )..!l~.;il..M.::. ~..11
' ...............................,_,:..
...
..... . .-.. .
. :-;
rl.
#ts re~-
.. ..... .:-.-:-:-:--:-:-;-:-;-:
..... , ... . ..;. . . ~-.'.'.~.:-.:
bllYU;
Dlsb1ct
Coollng
l&C
System
.
~
Ono
r;-
OneOrMany
Siies
One
NoneOrMany
NoneOrMany
ExilmS2l!i!!!i'
Chiller Plsnl,
Energy Transfer Statlon,
Pumplng statlon,
Thermal Energy Storage Plent.
Planto
Command
Cantera
Ono
Level4
'-- One
ExemQ)m
Local
Plant
l&C
Systom
Ono
Ono
AnyOrAll
Servers/
Worlostatlons
""""12
/
""
OneOrMany
NoneOrMany
Local
Local
Operator
Plant
Interface
Controllors
Tennlnal(s)
(OpUonal)
-==
Levels O.!\mi j
One
AnyOrAll
Hiaw.imd Q[ ~ehm!Dd:
Fleld
Davlces
lnstrumentatlon,
Controlled Devlces,
Remota fO Panela,
Onboard Chller Controls,
Energy Monltoring Equlpment,
Variable Frequency Orives.
94
NoneOrMany
Local
WorloStaUon(s)
(OpUonal)
'
Field devices
Local workstations
Historical server
95
Terminal server
Far district cooling providers who wish to give users in
their organization remate access to their DCICS from
computers that do NOT have any special software
installed on them, a terminal server may be required. A
terminal server is a machine that hosts applications and
serves them up to remate users without the need far
the remate users to have any special software installed.
The applications are installed and run on the terminal
8.5. 1 Level O
Level o equipment is installed in the field and directly
monitors or controls the production, storage, distribution
or transfer of the cooling energy and its media. Level O
devices do not utilize a network to connect to the
DCICS controller(s) directly; instead, they are connected
via hard-wiring through a Level 1 device.
96
'
1
..
..
.
Leve! 1
8.5.2 Leve! 1
Level 1 devices connect directly to their associated
controller via proprietary high-speed industrial networks
or directly to the controller's interna! communications bus,
not by hard-wiring, as is the case with Level Odevices.
Certain Level Odevices utilize communication protocols
that are superimposed on the hard-wired 1/0 signals
(i.e., HART protocol). These types of devices would still
be classified as Level O devices since the physical
connection to the DCICS controller(s) is via hard-wiring,
not a communication network.
97
Examples o! Level 1 equipment include "smart-network-ready" transmitters, local and remate 1/0 racks
and modules, sorne variable-frequency drives and most
energy meters.
effidency.
Sorne Level 1 devices, such as "smart-network-ready"
VFDs are typically connected to the DCICS via a highspeed industrial network due to the large number of
control and monitoring points that are available from
ficiencies.
Field instrumentation - Most manufacturers of field instrumentation (temperature, flow and pressure transmitters. etc.) provide communication options far their
equipment which allow them to communicate to their
associated controllers overa high-speed industrial network, as opposed to hard-wiring them. lf field instru-
The remate VO racks are, in turn, connected to the controller overa proprietary high-speed industrial network.
8.5.3 Leve! 2
Level 2 is reserved far the local plant controllers.
98
8.5.4 Leve! 3
Local operator interface terminals (OIT) reside at Leve!
3 in the logical model. These terminals are installed
locally at the provider's various plants, typically in
control panels mounted directly on the plant floor. The
main purpose of these OITs is to allow the provider's
personnel to control and monitor the equipment locally
at the plant.
the essence.
DCSs, on the other hand, were originally designed
to control processes. The majority of their inputs
4 equipment is severed.
8.5.5 Leve! 4
Leve! 4 in the logical model is the domain of the
human-machine interface (HMI) equipment. Equipment
at this leve! is unique in that sorne of it may reside in the
99
Controller
Type
Programmable loglc
Controller (PLC)
Distributed Control
System (DCS)
Pros
Cons
~ Because
11 The
8.5.6 Level 5
Level 5 systems are installed on the provider's corporate
net.work and interface with the DCICS. Examples include
links to remate DCICS users;
billing and accounting systems;
omaintenance systems;
,;,optimization systems, such as real-time modeling
operations workstations.
lt should be noted that if a DCS system is used at Level
2, then the distinction between Leve! 3 and Level 4
equipment is often non-existen\. A DCS generally
deploys only one t.ype of user interface and it is tightly
111
','.;.,-,,,,',,!,".'"';"':o:o'oO.:.:-""-'..',','
100
,',..',',' ;..;:;,,:
""""'"
, t<!rnic.ToCcr;<lraloNotwo;<,
ForCa'>'lt1'l'"'YTO;
'OCAi CQMIAAW)Cf'<JER
'"
Remoto<; .. <$.
B,ll<i;landA<=m!mgS,...<>'T:O
MmtorOB:.oS"""'
M.,C!<n>n,es1,..,..,,~
B>o>wOom Somot
Op-~..-'""""S"'IU"'"
""'-"'='S"""''
ll'IOOpet01'"5;Y:>1<""'''"'
'"
11
Bndg::i
RoutW
F......,,11
El1ilil::lll
ETS
Sta~on
Locol
C<>riuolO""'-<l
OT
laQlll.'(l
Modul.1'
" '.' . e
i;:..,,ar
EMri
"'"""O">t>J
E~ul~menl
Momtt:mp
E~c""'Mt
R'flOlll
Ool"W<I
l.'ORacu
A--.dMo<lol.,.
C/lllot
Conl""'"
~lnftblo
'""'"""'"Y
00>05
f'.l.Alil..:.l:
"""'-"
Tv>o. fiOO'lJVTrim>IO'SL>OOo
l)'ll<l: P"mp1n9StnMr
CHW
C0<1ttOf,,tAt<l
Co.">!lol!e<Ar>dloc;il
L"'31
OIT
..,~y
M""'""'~
Equ<:;mMI
Opo"'""""
"'""""'
Wo"'lal1on
"''"""'"""
Tran,.
1
''
1
Con1mn.,AM
l.UC3'l'0
LC:lll
Off
Mod1ln<
Conu-a
SmM
ROO'.l)\o
T'"'"m"'""'
Ar>:l-'<>J,;1""
llOR""'
ClMol"'
Clll<>
c. ... "<:lt.r>
""'"'""'
,,_
F<O<Mflel'
'
Figure 8-3. Sample DCICS system.
"'
E""'!J"/
~"'ill
... N-0 ..
M<>Mcrlf1o
i:wl;imonl
Mo.olto<in~
EQ'"''"''"'I
VI:""'
Frnqv<>ocy
011,.,.
"""'
"'"''<lfmfl
E<tJ'I'"''"'
101
Process
Sensor Types
Variable
Temperature
2. Resolution:
3. Process connections:
4. Sensor range:
5. Transmitter range:
6. Transmitter type:
7. Cost:
8. Stability:
9. Sensitivity:
1O. Linear:
11. Number of sensor wires:
12. Transmitter mounting:
Liquid Flow
-.i lnline
magnetic meter
(preferred)
@ Ultrasonic meter
lnsertion magnetic meter
'( Vortex meter
1. End-to-end accuracy:
Liquid:
Critica!:+/- 0.56 C (+/- 1 F)
Non-critica!:+/- 0.56 C (+!- 1 F)
Air (dry bulb): +/- 1.11 C (+/- 2 F)
+!- 0.56 C (+/- 1 F)
liquid: Use thermo wells that pene
trate the pipe they are installed in by
the lesser of half the pipe diameter or
six inches. Air: Provide protection
from direct sun light and the building's
exhaust when installed out doors far
more accurate readings.
RTD: -260 (-436 F) to 650 (1202 F)
Thermistor: -136 C (-212 F) to 150 C
(302 F)
Continued
102
Process
Variable
Liquid Flow
(continued)
Sensor Types
lil
lnsertion turbine
* lnsertion paddle
~Orfice
2. Resolution:
3. Process connections:
4. Turndown ratio:
5. First cost:
'
6. Ongoing maintenance
cost:
7. Transmitter range:
8. Transmitter type:
9. Transmitter mounting:
turbine:
Medium
lnsertion paddle, orfice:
Low
0.0631/s (1 gpm)
Adhere strictly to manufacturer's
requirements far straight runs of pipe
upstream and downstream of meter.
lnline magnetic meter: 1000:1 typical
Ultrasonic meter: 1000: 1 typical
lnsertion magnetic meter: 50: 1 typical
Vortex meter: 30: 1 typica!
lnsertion turbine: 30:1 typical
lnsertion paddle: 10:1 typical
Orifice: 5:1 typica!
fnline magnetic meter: High
Ultrasonic meter: High
lnsertion magnetic meter: Medium
Vortex meter: H"1gh
lnsertion turbine: Medium
lnsertion paddle: Low
Orifice: Medium
lnline magnetic meter: Lowest
Ultrasonic meter: Low
lnsertion magnetic meter: Low
Vortex meter: Medium
lnsertion turbine: High
!nsertion paddle: High
Orifice: Medium
4-20 mADC (preferred), 0-20 mADC,
0-SVDC, 1-SVDC,0-10VDC,2-10
VDC, ar -10-1 OVDC signa! proportional to specified range within the
overall sensor's range.
Integral to sensor or located remotely
on a pipe, instrument stand, wall or
panel are all acceptable. Should be
easy to access fer maintenance and
calibration purposes. lf there is a local
display, it should be at eye level and
easily read.
Integral to sensor or located remotely
on a pipe, instrument stand, wa!I or
panel are all acceptable. Should be
easy to access far maintenance and
calibration purposes. lf there is a local
display, it should be at eye level and
easily read.
Ultrasonic meters may provide false
readings if air or other partictes pass
through them.
Orfice meters require a pressure drop
to operate, which increases energy
consumption and are not recommended far use in a typical DCICS.
Paddle, turbine and vortex meters
typically require more maintenance
then magnetic and u!trasonic meters
and are also not recommended.
Continued
103
Process
Uquid Pressure
Sensor Types
Variable
Capacitance
Piezoresistive
(either type is acceptable for
most DCICS applications)
G1
&
1. End-to-end accuracy:
2. Resolution:
3. Maximum operating
pressure:
4. Normal operating
pressure:
5. Burst pressure
6. Process connections:
7. Transmitter range:
8. Transmitter type:
9. Transmitter mounting:
Outside-Air Humidity
1. End-to-end accuracy:
2. Resolution:
3. Measurement range:
4. Use:
5. Transmitter range:
Cantinued
104
Process
variable
Sensor Types
Outside-Air Humidity
(continued)
Water-Quality
Conditions
e Conductivity
., Resistivity
opH
1. End-to-end accuracy:
2. Resolution:
3. Maximum ranges:
4. Process connectians:
5. Transmitter range:
6. Transmitter type:
7. Transmitter mounting:
2-wire (preferred)
lnstall alang with an outside-air
dry-bulb temperature transmitter.
Mast manufacturers make a
cambinatian RH/dry-bulb temperature
instrumentjust far this purpose. Both
sensars should be protected from
direct sunlight and the building's
exhaust. Far large installations it is
often advantageous to instan multiple
sensorsftransmitters at strategic
locations around the installation and
the controller can determine which
one to use.
+!- 1o/o full-scale typical
Conductivity: 0.01 S/cm
Resistivity: 0.01 mega-ohms per
centimeter (Mn-cm)
pH: 0.01 pH
Conductivity: 0.00 to 100.00 S/cm
Resistivity: 0.00 to 100.00 Mn-cm
pH: 0.00 to 14.00 pH
These types of probes require
frequent maintenance and calibration.
As such, they shauld be installed in
the line they are manitoring by the
use of ball valve assemblies that allaw
the probes to be removed from the
pracess without shutting the process
down. In additian, most pH probes
have the requirement that they are
never al!owed to be "dry." Special
consideration must be paid to this
fact during detailed design.
4-20 mADC (preferred), 0-20 mADC,
0-5VDC, 1-5 VDC, 0-10 VDC, 2-10
VDC, or -10-1 OVDC signal proportional to a specified range within the
maximum range of the probe type
being used.
4-wire (24 VDC power preferred)
Typically, remotely from the pro be.
Pipe, instrument stand, wall and
panel are all acceptable means of
mounting the transmitter. Should be
easy to access far maintenance and
calibration purpases. lf a local display
is used, it should be at eye level and
easily read. The cabling from the
transmitter to the probe must be of
sufficient length and routed so that
the probe can be removed from the
process piping (via the ball valve
assembly mentioned above).
instrument.
105
~Air
compressor
1ltt4
1
obvious choice.
scheme.
instrument's purpose.
Test ponts should be specified al ali majar equipment
switch es.
106
Ata mnimum, the following points should be accessible from the onboard chiller controller(s) via hard-wiring
and/or over the network:
Chiller start/stop command
~chiller
running status
107
1iii
. . . . -:::-:-:-:-;-:-:,
.,.-..~-,.-, -;,:~-:-.;-:-::-.:,:-:
Process
Variable
Thermal Energy
Sensor Types
1. End-to-end accuracy:
2. Resolution:
Consumed/produced energy:
l ton-hour
lnstantaneous energy: 0.1 ton
Flow: 0.063 Vs (1 gpm)
Temperature: 0.056 C (0.1 F)
3. Process connections:
4. Transmitter connectivity
to DCICS:
Continued
108
Process
Variable
Sensor Types
5. Local displays:
Thermal Energy
(continued)
6. Transmitter mounting:
'
Electrical Energy
1. End-to-end accuracy:
2. Resolution:
3. Process connections:
4. Transmitter connectivity
to DCICS:
5. Local displays:
6. Transmitter mounting:
109
Process
Variable
Sensor Types
Electrical Energy
(continued)
7. Monitoring far billing
purposes:
access far maintenance and calibration purposes. The local display should
be at eye level and easily read.
lf an energy meter is being used far
billing purposes it should be capable
of calculating and storlng metering
data internally, independent of the
controller it is connected to, so that
if the link to the controller is lost far
any reason, the metering data will
not be lost.
Sorne providers may elect to utilize Level 5 real-time thermal modeling and simulation (RTTMS) systems that are
capable of performing "virtual metering" as a backup to
their normal mode of physical metering. These applications are beyond the scope of this chapter, but should be
considered during the design of any large-scale district
district cooling provider. A well-designed and implemented ETS will allow far submetering of individual
ease of maintenance and calibration because one instrument can be temporarily taken out of service while
Primary-secondary systems
Figure 8-4 illustrates the recommended instrumentation
far a primary-secondary system. Far clarity, the following
discussion refers to the lag names depicted in the figure.
At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place
to perform the following functions:
'Monitor the differential pressure across the customer
(x;;\)Dl
1
'
XXXX \ 01
1
1
'
~/02
(,;:~~)02
i
~.
( xxxx
101
~/02
!~,01
e==
,~'02
lnstrument that is lnstall In the fleld in a utility panel,and is accesslble from the front ofthe
panel.
lnstrument that is installed in the field in a control panel that Is accessible from the front ofthe
control panel.
lnstrument that is installed in the field in a control panel that is NOT accessible from the front of
the control panel.
~"
DCICS hardwired lnput,output,or funct!on that is accessible by the u servia the Leve! 2 and/or
,,,x;;cx\01
--
lnstrument that is installed in the fiefd in a utility panel,and is NOT accessible from the front of
the panel.
\!!!!.,/02
1
1
"
~"
"
;x;c;(X\
01
'YYl1. / 02
'
'
@"
"
Level 3 user Interfaces. When connected to a field device it lndicates that the field device Is a
level Odevice.
DCICS hardwired input, output, or function that Is NOT accesslble bythe user. When connected to
a field device it indlcates that the field devlce is a level Odevice.
DCICS input, output or function,acquired through a communication link. that is accessible by the
uservia the Level 2 and/or Level 3 user interfaces. When connected to a flefd device it
indicates that the field device is a level 1 device.
DCICS input,output orfunction, acquired by a communication link. that is NOT accessible by the
user. When connected to a field device lt fndicates that the field device is a leve! 1 device.
U = Equipment number
01 and 02 = Text fields used to further explain the purpose of the point.
SUCCEEDING-LETTER {3)
FlRSTLETTER (4)
MEASUREDOR
INmATING
VARIABLE
A
B
User'sCholce
Olfferentlal
Specific Grav!ty
FlowRate
Ratio (Fract!onl
User'sChoke
Hand
Control Statlon
Light
-..---
Pressure
lntegrate. Totalb:e
Radlatlon
Regulatlng
Po!nL!Testl
connectlon
Speed. frequency
u
V
Vibratlon. Vlscoslty
Welght. Force
X
y
Run.Energize
Actuate
Status.EvenLState
OfPresence
Pos!tlon.Dlmenslon
--"
Mldd!e.lntermedlate
! Open
Orlflce. Restrlction
Record
Safety
Switch
Temperature
multivariable
""'
-
'
- ~----------
Quantity
G~o
lndlcate
5
T
Closed
Forward
Molsture Or Humidlty
Control
Sao
Level
User'sChoke
Blue
Hlgh
User'sCho!ce
Button
Gauge-tocal
View!nr Devlce
Current (Electrical)
MODIFIER
OUTl'UTFUNCTION
Sel\$OT(Primaiy
Elementl
Power
Bumer.Combustion
De115lty (Mass) Or
Spedfic Gravitv
Vo!tage
J
K
Alarm
Conductivity
Analysis
e
E
REAOOUTOR
PASSIVE
FUNCTION
MODIFIER
Transmlt
-------1-----
Multlfunctlon
""''
---
--------------~--
Relay. Compute
Mu!tifunction
1
touver
Whl~
~"
Actuate
YA>ils
OfPresence
ZAlils
Multlfunctlon
Valve
Damper"
Red.Reverse.Remate
'
Yel!ow
Co~rt
Orlver.Actuator
Undassllied Fina!
control Element
----- --
tures and
adding up all of the individual chiller flows (FIT 1370,
see section 8.9.1/Chiller evaporators) and comparing
the result to the flow to be delivered to the
customers (FIT 1001 ).
112
i='=
iv.u101
CHILLER
BANK
.",
\ 5UPP1Ym.IP
"''
1(101
r;;r
~
Al
. r("')
RmlllN1P
CUSTOMERS
/'fii\ SUPPLYADW
\~Al
/~\ 9IERGY
\,1001
/Al
1~
TE
y'
'r
the individual chiller flows and the flow in the decoupling line.
In addition to eliminating the independent customersupply flow transmitter (FIT-1001 ), the independent
customer-supply energy meter (JIT-1001) can also be
eliminated. lf it is eliminated, then the individual chiller
energy meters (JIT 1370, see section 8.9.1/Chiller
evaporators) would be used to determine the total
chilled-water energy that the plant is delivering to its
customers. Also, any flow present in the decoupling
line would need to be accounted for and figured into
the overall plant efficiency calculations.
i
Variable primary systems
Figure 8-5 illustrates the recommended instrumentation for a variable-primary system. For clarity, the following discussion refers to the tag names depicted in
the figure.
113
l~:I
Figure 8-5. Variable primary system instrumentation.
114
Chiller evaporators
Figure 8-6 illustrates the recommended instrumentation far the supply and return piping to a single chiller
evaporator. Far clarity, the fallowing discussion refers to
the tag names depided in the figure.
At a mnimum, instrumentation should be in place to
perform the following functions:
oAutomatically isolate the evaporator's supply from
the chilled-water supply piping with a modulating
control valve (CV-1370).
oMonitor the actual position of the evaporator
supply isolation valve (ZT-1370).
oAllow operators to manually control the evaporator
supply isolation valve via a local-off-remate (LOR)
switched located locally at the valve, bypassing the
DCICS altogether (HS-1370).
oMonitor the remate status of the evaporator
supply isolation valve's LOR switch (HS-1370).
Manually isolate the evaporator's return from the
chilled-water return piping with a hand-operated
valve (V-1371 ). Note that sorne providers may elect
to automate this valve as well as the supply valve.
However, there would be no reason to make this a
modulating type of valve if it was automated. A
simple isolation valve would suffice.
oMonitor the flow (FIT-1370) and temperature
(TIT-1370) of chilled water leaving the evaporator,
the temperature (TIT-1371) of the chilled water entering the evaporator and the chilled-water
energy (JIT-1370) being produced by the evaporator.
Communicate with the chiller's on board controller to
,m-~
~
rr\
~
~
- - 1~;
~
""""""'
~
~
~
~.
-m.
""'/.J
\1l60
51 Guide va ne position
'lJUse the same communication link to remotely
starVstop the chiller (XS-1380) and to reset its supply-temperature setpoint (TC-1380).
olocally mon'1tor the chilled-water supply (Pl-1323)
and return (Pl-1320) pressures as clase to the evaporator as possible.
A modulating evaporator supply valve is nota requirement
since these valves are typically set to either full-closed
;;;-~
\rna. 'Al
m
""
- ~
-~
115
systems
information:
~
(
COOUNG
lOWER
BANK
.,.;
>::<
"
'\,81l20 )'
T"
,;\ ,_,,f
'~)!"'./
~rt=--
T--, . ~,,~
;-'------~
CHEMlCAL
CHEMICAL
TREAlMENT
SYfilM
~~
';;')~'
1
1
INJECTION
'
.f'
:_.--
1
='1
&)
.CWSHEADER
CHILLERBANK
(CONDENSERSJ
116
(U!
CONDENSER
WATERPUMPS
(CONSTANTSPEED)
temperature reset.
Sorne water authorities offer credit allowances to their
customers far water that is delivered to their customer's
plants but is not sewered. In the case of a chilled-water
production plant, this volume of water represents the
water that is evaporated from the cooling towers. To
qualify far the credit allowance sorne farm of water
usage documentation is usually required. A well-
orefrigerant migration
&Strainer cycle
plate-and-frame heat exchanger
Cooling towers
Figure 8-8 illustrates the recommended instrumentation
far a typical cooling tower. For clarity, the following
~~:
..,_.. 1
""12
,---L._
""
.--
o
1
117
""'
>
CONDENSSIWATER
<
""'""
CWR
-~-
(f1~_____,:t-. 1Gf
(::)
>-<
(l,,~.)
lv.i1:u 1 '.)
""'"cws
1
O iv.Jm
lvm
CONDEHSER WATER
~>-----if--------<--+'+-----~
O O
lv.1125
T
CONDENSER 3180
iA
118
running.
'iiMOnitor the condenser refrigerant temperature
(TIT-3180).
Monitor the flow (FIT-3140) and temperature
(TIT-3140) of condenser water leaving the condenser
and the temperature (TIT-3130) of the condenser
Constant-speed pumps
<:
DISCH
119
Variable-speed pumps
DISCONNECTSTAT.
VFD
DI
IDCAI. OISC.
VFD
"""
VOl!AGE
BYPASS/NORMAl.
AJ
3021>
l.OC.SPD.cn..
VfO
MJ
REMOTESTAT.
AJ
SPEEDIND.
LOCALJREMC1IE
01
AJ
VfO
REM.START/SlOP
LOC.START/STOP
VFD
AUIDSTAT.
HOA
DI
FAULTSTAT.
01
@RUNSTAT. 1
3020
01
REM.SPD.Crt.
AJ
POW8l
GDSEO
""
NORMALSTAT.
VFD
OJRRENr
zsc
HS
DI
P-302
1~-1$ ~ ~~=
3020
PDIT
3020
120
DIFF. PRES.
Al
00
1;1eat exchangers
lil
0Monitor the
temperature (TIT-4000).
Monitor the approach temperature of the heat
exchanger to trend heat exchanger performance.
Locally monitor the pressures at each of the heat
exchanger's ports (Pl-1000, PI 2000, Pl-3000 and
Pl-4000).
Monitor the differential pressure across the
provider's side of the heat exchanger (PDIT-1000).
Ensure that this signal is communicated back to the
controller in the plant(s) that supplies chilled water
to this heat exchanger. The speeds of the distribution pumps in the plants should be controlied to main-
'"'
T
i
1
HEAT
EXCHANGER
r::;J
'f
(.:
'"' '"'
Figure 8-12. Heat exchanger instrumentation.
121
USTOMER'S
INOMOUAL
USEPTS
LevelO
The field instrumentation count is small and the instruments are located in the same
vicinity as the controller to which they will be connected (such as in the case of an ETS).
The field instrumentation count is large or the instruments are distributed throughout
the p!ant far away from the controller to which they will be connected (such as in the
case of a large chilled-water production plant).
The fie\d instrumentation provides more then one or two variables that must be accessed
by the controller to which they will be connected, where hard-wiring all of these variables
would be cost-prohibitive (such as in the case of energy meters and VFDs).
Table 8-6. Level O vs. Level 1 field instrumentation - selection criteria.
122
"
Leve! 1
"
"
save controller programs using an engineering workstation is recommended. Once stored in a controller,
the programs and their associated data should be
protected by battery and/or EEPROM, which prevents
accidental loss in the event of a power failure.
The ability to make online changes to the controller's
logic while the plant continues to operate should be
required by ali DCICS controllers.
The programming environment used by the controllers
must suppart a broad range of debugging and
troubleshooting tools including cross-referencing,
advanced search-and-replace features, and data table
lookups. Online program monitaring and tracing that
graphically presents the different states and values of
the program's instructions and the data they are
operating on must be supported.
1:1vibration
shock
radiated RF immunity
123
l -.~!.f1.1l
::~:::/:::'.:>:::::;:::::::
Redundan! controllers will also typically require additional programming and a mechanism must be pul in
place at the Level 4 data servers in arder far them to
switch to the current master controller far their data.
::::::;:;:;::::::::,::/:'.
..
<,.,.:..Wo',""
provider's requirements.
The UPS should
obe industrial grade;
ohave power conditioning and liltering capabilities;
ohave the capability to shield control equipment
124
1_,_r_Ill.-:...
,,,,",',,,,,:,..:.
in Table 8-8.
Level 1 networks are used to interface Leve! 1 equipment to their associated Level 2 controller(s). These networks are usually self-contained within a single plan!,
are high-speed and are secure by nature. Section 8 8.8
provides sorne best practices to consider when designing and deploying Leve! 1 networks.
8.11.3 Environment
Local OITs are typically installed in harsh environments,
directly on the plant floors, near the equipment that
they control and monitor. The local OITs and the enclosures
in which they are mounted must be rated far these
types of environments. The use of standard office-
125
Level 4
Component
Topic
Data Server(s)
Hardware
Redundancy
Power
Software
Continued
126
Level4
Component
~historical
Data Server(s)
(continued)
Historical Server
To pie
Hardware
'
Redundancy
Power
Software
Continued
127
Level4
Component
Historica! Server
(continued)
Terminal Server
To pie
Hardware
Redundancy
Power
Software
128
ff-
the
lrS
infrastructure in place.
Internet
Monitoring and control through Internet connections
is also fairly common. Service through an Internet
provider's high-speed infrastructure should be much
quicker than through a leased line and would be the
better Internet choice. Regardless, the connectivity to
the satellite plants will depend on the quality of the
Internet connection. lf the Internet connection is weak,
these options should not be considered.
Hacking through the Internet is extremely convenient as
the intruder can do it any time from any place in the
world, making ita much less desirable option !han fiber
optics, but it is still acceptable provided the appropriate
.. ,
..-:::::::::::::-::::-:::\:;:::;;;:;:::;;:-::::
8.13.4 Sophistication
When controlling from remate locations, it is critica!
that process variables be available to the remole
operators on a timely basis. When the plan! is locally
manned, an operator may detecta problem developing
simply by the sound a machine is making, an unusual
odor or any symptom that can be physically sensed.
These human senses are impossible to replicate with
sensors and computers. Thus, any time a plant is
operated remotely, the provider is putting itself at a
potential risk.
The extent of the risk depends on the plant's complexity.
On the complex side, a diese! electric generation plant
with steam heat-recovery generators and absorption
chillers would be a difficult plan! to control safely from
a remole location. On the simple side, an electric
centrifuga! chiller plant could be safely controlled from
a remate location (this is often done). Since the most
complex procedure is starting up a system, if the startup
..........,..-......-....,- .
..
11\1illlill~l"l~ll~~~i\1~~~~
\::::".".~=::~.;:'.:
..........v..;.:-:'.'.-'.<>>'.>'.'.'.:
remate operator.
lt is also important to point out that local government
code and regulations may require staffed operation far
plants that use certain types of refrigerants.
8.13.5 Performance
infrastructure are
data throughput,
oreliability and
osecurity.
8.13.6 Security
Security on anytype of distributed system, like a large-scale
DCICS, needs to be implemented at the hardware and
130
port network monitoring via OPC (OLE far process control). Sorne of the data typically available includes
odevice status,
On the hardware side, secureflntelligent hubs, switches,
routers and firewalls that can be configured to limit
access to authorized people and/or computers should
be used extensively.
statistics.
An example of network bridging and controller passthrough will further clarify these points. Referring to
the sample DCICS presented in section 8.6, let's say
externa! sources.
131
"""
. __';_.
_ _ _l
...,_.,..
....-.;,,~-.-
,.,._,,,,-.,:.:,,_,~
132
taenergy monitoring
8.15 Human-Machine
Interface Functionality
oCommand centers
i!idata servers
l'll historical data servers
iillCOmmand center Leve! 4 workstations
.,schemes
interface screens.
primary-secondary systems
preferential loading systems
sisidestream systems
xi variable primary systems
Chiller-water plants
cooling tower staging
li!energy monitoring
8.16 Standardization
TES plants
ocooling tower staging
Standardization is essential to the successful implementation of any new DCICS. Time spent during the
early stages of the DCICS design developing standards
will result in a DCICS that is maintainable and serviceable for years to come.
aenergy monitoring
Pumping (lift) stations - located well downstream
of the chilled-water production plants.
pump control
nenergy monitoring
Energy transfer stations
heat exchanger staging
n heat exchanger customer-side temperature control
133
134
Hardware factory acceptance testing (HFAT) protocols. Tests that any hardware that is
pre-assembled by the contractor befare it is sent
to the provider's site has been built according to
specifications (i.e., panels).
Software factory acceptance testing (SFAT)
protocols. Tests that ali software has been
programmed according to specifications. Tests
are performed at the contractor's factory, prior to
installing the software at the provider's site.
oSite acceptance testing (SAT) protocols. The
procedures test that ali of the hardware and software
have been instalied properly at the provider's site and
that they function properly Successful completion of
these protocols are required befare turning the system
over to the provider.
oinstaliation details
135
tll. ....,,.-.,,,,..-
136
r, .- "'"<::': ".'7 "'"'''"'".-. .'. ." . '. ,_ . .'. '.'. '.'. '.'. .. .. '." . .. /. ' '. .':''!.'. .' .'.' : .'. '
construction.
separation of design and construction create
o The
1-.ma.t.r.!.t.1
>:;:::;::
procurement:
oA cursory or poorly developed ORO can result in a
fundamental tension between the owner's desire for
high reliability and low life-cycle costs and the EPC
and contractor.
QIDBB requires more staffing and coordination costs
between the owner's and the contractor's responsibilities and risks. A majar category of risks relate
to environmental issues and permits given by the
authorities. These issues are normally dealt with by
the owner and are impossible to transfer completely
to the contractor.
................... ~.
137
General
F/anges
Joints
Va/ves
/nsulation
Plant air compressor
Control Equipment Requirements
System Description
Plant Design Description
Definitions
Codes and Standards
lnstruments
Transmitters
Electrical Equipment Requirements
66 kV substation
11 kV and 3,300-volt switchgear
Dry-type transformers
Plan! power factor
Safety switches
Raceway system
Wire and cable - 600 volts and below
Medium-voltage cable
Mechanical
Chilled-water system
Condenser-water system
Water makeup and treatment systems
Safety systems
Refrigeration storage and handling
Ventilation
Monitoring
Over-pressure protect;on
Wiring devices
Control
System control descriptions
Architecture
lntegrator
Electrical
Utility power supply
Short-circuit protection systems
Voltage regulation systems
Grounding systems
Lighting and small power systems
Building Services
Acoustics, sound and vibration
HVAC
Lighting
Plumbing
Security
Condenser-water pumps
Water treatment
Chilled water
Condenser water
System Piping and Materials
Piping
Fitting and branch connections
Commissioning
Standards of Acceptance
Table 9~ 1. Example detailed outline of Owner's Requirements Documents (ORDs) far engineer/procure/construct (EPC)
procurement.
138
139
10. Commissioning
Numerous definitions and opinions of commissioning
exist, but ASHRAE's definition is especially noteworthy.
ASHRAE defines commissioning as "a systematic
process of ensuring that systems are designed, installed,
functionally tested and capable of being operated and
maintained to perform in conformity with design intent."
ASHRAE Guideline 0-2005 addresses the commission-
ing process for an entire project, from initial conception through operations. The process is organized as
follows:
Pre-design - Owner's Project Requirements (OPR)
are defined.
o Design - Based on the OPR, construction documents are prepared by the engineer.
0
140
requirements can be achieved. The commissioning authority updates the commissioning plan, prepares
checklists, witnesses tests and verifies that test reports
are documented.
lt is importan! to require the contractor to provide a
comprehensive equipment list, full as-built drawings
and useful O&M manuals for ali equipment and
systems. Far projects in the Middle East, oftentimes the
O&M manuals supplied by the contractor are simply a
collection of vendar literature and not proper O&M
manuals, which makes it difficult far district cooling
system operating personnel to operate the district
cooling system efficiently.
Most of the testing and performance verification will
be completed during the construction phase. However,
full commissioning is not always possible until there is
quate range of loads. Also, sometimes initial commissioning must take place using temporary generators
instead of grid power, resulting in incomplete commis-
documents, reviews essential portions of the specifications and drawings, defines training requirements and
prepares the scope and formal far the Systems Manual.
The Systems Manual is a comprehensive document that
is focused on systems operation and thus will be an importan! tool during training as well as ongoing operations
and maintenance. The Systems Manual goes beyond the
compilation of operation and maintenance manuals typically collected by the construction contractor.
141
Appendi:x A
AISI
American lron and Steel lnstitute
ARI
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration lnstitute
ARTI
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology lnstitute
ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
Air-i::onditioning Engineers
check valve
A valve that normally allows fluid to flow through it in
only one direction.
CHP
combined heat and power (sometimes called
"cogeneration")
A general term describing a number of energy technology configurations that produce both electricity and
thermal energy from one fuel source in an efficient
process; or a facility that recovers thermal energy far
productive use that is normally wasted in power-only
generating plants.
CHW
chilled water
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
CHWRT
chilled-water return temperature
standard atmosphere
A unit of pressure equal to 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi)
CHWST
chilled-water supply temperature
balancing valve
A valve used in a piping system far controlling fluid
flow; not usually used to shut off the flow.
COz
carbon dioxide
The most common greenhouse gas, emitted as a result
of combustion of fassil fuels.
bar
A unit of pressure equal to 100 kPa (14.50 psi).
combined cycle
A type of power plant that employs more than one
thermodynamic cycle, e.g., combined use of a combustion turbine driving a generator to produce electricity with a steam turbine generator driven with steam
produced to produce additional electricity with the hot
exhaust gases from the combustion turbine.
BAS
building automation system
BOE
barre! of oil equivalen!
A unit of energy based on the approximate energy
released by burning one barre! of crude oil, about
6.1 million KJ (5.8 million Btu).
COP
coefficient of performance
The ratio of useful energy output to energy input in an
energy conversion device.
Btu
British thermal unit
A unit of energy approximately equal to the heat
required to raise a pound of water 1 degree F.
butterfly valve
A type of valve typically used far isolation. The
"butterfly" is a metal disc mounted on a rod.
cw
condenser water
bypass valve
A valve that controls flow via a bypass pipe typically
between the supply and return of a chilled-water system.
DB
dry bulb
e
dBA
decibel
Unit measurement of sound pressure leve! using the
"A" weighting filler.
degree Celsius
CFC
chlorofluorocarbon
A class of refrigerants far which production has been
banned worldwide due to their destructive impact on
stratospheric ozone.
A-1
DBB
EFLH
design/bid/build
A project delivery process in which a consulting engineer prepares a detailed design including plans and
specifications that are put out to bid to qualified contractors.
DC
direct current
DCICS
district cooling instrumentation and controls system
EPC
engineer/procure/construct
A project delivery process in which the design and construction are contracted far with a single entity.
equalizer piping
Piping connecting basins of multiple cooling towers or
cells to maintain a common water leve!.
DDC
direct d!gital controller
DCS
ER
equity ratio
Ratio of equity to total capital.
ETS
debt ratio
Ratio of debt to total capital.
decoupled
Hydraulically independent.
expansion tank
delta P
The pressure difference between supply and return.
F
degree Fahrenheit
delta T
The temperature difference between supply and return.
FIV
field installation verification
DER
debt-to-equity ratio
FPT
functional performance testing
desalination
Any of several processes that remove excess salt and
other minerals from water.
FRP
fiberglass-reinfarced plastic
fps
feet per second
DIR
debt interest rate
gpm
gallons per minute
DR
dimension ratio
The ratio of HDPE pipe outside diameter to pipe
wall thickness.
GHG
greenhouse gas
Gases present in the earth's atmosphere that warm
near-surface global temperatures through the greenhouse effect.
ECWT
entering condenser-water temperature
EEMS
globevalve
A type of valve used far regulating flow in a pipeline
consisting of a movable disk-type element and a
stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.
EEPROM
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
A-2
GRP
glass-reinfarced plastic
GWP
global warming potential
A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse
gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. lt is
a relative scale that compares the gas in question to
that of the same mass of carbon dioxide (whose GWP
is by definition 1). A GWP is calculated overa specific
time interval. In this document the GWP figures reflect
the commonly used 100-year interval.
HV
high voltage
HVAC
heating, ventilation and air conditioning
impeller
The rotating element in centrifuga! pumps and
compressors that transfers energy from the motor to
the fluid to create pressure head.
1/0
input/output
HCFC
hydrochlorofluorocarbon
A commonly used class of refrigerants.
IEEE
lnstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
HDA
l&C
heat rate
A measure of how efficiently a power generator uses
fuel, expressed as the number of British thermal units
of fuel required to produce a kilowatt-hour of electricity.
IDEA
lnternational District Energy Association
ISO
hermetic drive
A chiller arrangement in which the motor is contained
within the same housing as the compressor and is in
direct contact with the refrigeran!.
isolation valves
Valves that allow a piece of equipment to be isolated
from the rest of the system to facilitate maintenance,
equipment removal and shutdown.
HOPE
high-density polyethylene
IT
infarmation technology
HEX
heat exchanger
A device far transferring thermal energy between two
hydraulically separated systems.
jacket water
Fluid circulated within a reciprocating engine far the
purpose of heat rejection.
HFC
kPa
kilopascal
hydrofluorocarbon
A commonly used class of refrigerants.
kVA
HMI
human-machine interface
kilovolt ampere
kW
hottapping
An operation in which a branch connection is made to
a pipe main while the pipe remains in service or "hot."
kilowatt
kWh
kilowatt-hour
hp
horsepower
LCWT
leaving condenser-water temperature
HRSG
heat-recovery steam generator
A boiler producing steam from recovered heat; often
used in a combined-cycle configuration to effectively
utilize thermal energy far power production ar additional heat uses.
LNG
liquefied natural gas
m
meter
A-3
mbar
millibar
OOP
ozone depletion potential
The relative amount of degradation to the ozone layer
a given chemical can cause, with trichlorofluoromethane (R-11) being fixed atan ODP of 1 .O.
MEO
OIP
multi-effect distillation
mAOC
milliamps DC
micro-tunneling
A trenchless construction
pipelines.
OLE
method far installing
MIO meter
An electronic flow meter that measures flow by induc-
turers.
open-drive motor
A motor arrangement in which the motor is outside the
compressor housing.
MMBtu/hr
million British thermal units per hour
MSF
multi-stage flash distillation
OPR
Owner's Project Requirements
OPT
operational performance testing
MW
megawatt
ORO
MWh
megawatt-hour
mps
OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
S/cm
ozone-depleting refrigerant
Refrigerants that contribute to depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer.
NEBB
part load
Operation of equipment at less than 100% load.
NFPA
National Fire Protection Agency
PC
personal computer
NPV
PE 80 or PE 100
O&M
A-4
PLC
programmable logic controller
SI
Standard lnternational
pneumatic control
Control devices that utilize compressed air signals to
control inputs and outputs.
solenoid
A type of actuator that operates in a two-position
(open/closed) mode.
PPE
SOP
ppm
parts per million
Denotes one part per 1,000,000 parts and a value of
standard atmosphere
A unit of pressure equal to 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi).
1 X 1Q-6.
T&D
TCP/IP
psi
pound per square inch
A unit of pressure equal to 68.95 millibar.
psig
pounds per square inch gauge
Pressure above standard atmospheric
measured in psi.
TAB
testing, adjusting and balancing
pressure,
PVC
polyvinyl chloride
RAM
random access memory
TEAAC
totally enclosed air-to-air-cooled
TEFC
totally enclosed fan-cooled
TES
thermal energy storage
RF
TEWAC
totally enclosed water-to-air-cooled
radio frequency
three-way valve
A valve having either a single inlet and two outlets or
two inlets and a single outlet.
RO
reverse osmosis
ROE
return on equity
ton
A measure of cooling capacity or demand equal to
removal of 12,000 British thermal units (Btu) per hour;
sometimes the abbreviation TR is used, far "tons
refrigeration."
ROi
return on investment
RTTMS
real-time thermal modeling and simulation
ton-hr
A measure of cooling energy consumption equal to one
ton over a one-hour period.
SCADA
supervisory control and data acquisition
TSE
treated sewage effluent
S/cm
Siemens per centimeter
A unit of specific conductivity.
turbine meter
A device that measures the rate of flow in a pipe via a
rotor that spins as the media passes.
shadow prices
An assumption of co 2 emissions cost far the purpose
of comparing options.
A-5
turndown
The ratio between maximum and minimum flow or
capacity for the controllable operating range of a piece
of equipment.
VDC
voltage DC
VGD
variable geometry diffusers
two-way valve
A valve having two ports that can be open or closed,
used for controlling flow to equipment.
ultrasonic meter
A device that measures flow by measuring the time
between the transmission and reception of ultrasonic
signals over an exactly known distance.
VSD
variable-speed drive
A system for controlling the rotational speed of
powered machinery (e.g., pump or fan) by controlling the
frequency of the electrical power supplied to the machinery; also known as variable-frequency drive (VFD).
WACC
l
1
i'
';}
UPS ~ystem
uninterruptible power supply system
A power supply system that includes a battery to maintain power in the event of a power outage.
'
US$ or USO
United States dallar
Y-strainer
Filtration device that retains solids when a liquid passes
through it.
valve authority
The ratio between pressure drop across the control
valve and the total pressure drop across the circuit.
ZLD
zero liquid discharge
VAV
variable air volume
?:
:
,\
1:
A-6
Multiply
by
toobtain
bar
barrel [petroleum]
barre! [petroleum]
Btu
Btu
Btu/hr
cubic feet (ft3; cu ft)
cubic feeVminute (dm)
feet (ft)
feet (ft)
100
159.0
42
1.055
0.0002931
0.2928
0.0283
0.4719
0.3048
304.8
0.09290
2.989
0.00508
0.3048
0.003785
3.785
0.06309
0.7457
25.4
1000
1.609
1.609
0.1
kilopascal (kPa)
liter (1)
lt2/ton
feet of water (ft) [head]
feeVminute (fpm)
feeVsecond (fps; fVs)
gallan (gal) [US]
gallan (gal) [US]
gallons/minute (gpm)
horsepower (hp)
inch (in)
inch (in)
mile (mi)
mile/hour (mph)
millibar (mB)
ounce (oz)
pound (lb) [mass]
lbfln2 (psi)
lbfln2 (psi)
lb/in2 (psi)
psi/100 ft
square feet (ft2; sq ft)
therm
ton [refrigeration]
ton [refrigeration]
ton-hr
ton-hr
yard (yd)
28.35
0.4536
0.06895
2.307
6.895
226.2
0.09290
105.5
3.516
12,000
3.516
12,000
0.9144
to obtain
by
gallan (g)
kilojoule (kJ)
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
watt (W)
cubic meter (m3; cu m)
liter/second (lps; lis)
meter (m)
millimeters (mm)
m2/ton
kilopascal (kPa)
meter/second (mis)
meter/second (mis)
cubic meter (m3; cu m)
liter (1)
liters/second (lis)
kilowatt (kW)
millimeter (mm)
mil
kilometer (km)
kilometer/hour (km/h)
kilopascal (kPa)
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
bar
feet of water (ft) [head]
kilopascal (kPa)
Pascal/meter (Pa/m)
square meter (m2)
megajoule (MJ)
kilowatts (kW)
Btu/hr
kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Btu
meter (m)
Divide
NOTE: Ali approximate conversion factors above are presented with tour significan\ digits.
0.5556
e X 1.8) + 32
B-1
as a breakdown in insulation.
The cause of the short normally burns away during the
initial flash, and the are fault is then sustained by the
establishment of a highly conductive plasma. The
plasma will conductas much energy as is available and
is only limited by the impedance of the are. This
massive energy diseharge burns the bus bars, vaporizing
the copper and thus eausing an explosive volumetrie
1.2
25
40
Untreated eotton
.:
Coordination Study
maximum seivice continuity. The study consists of timecurrent coordination curves that illustrate coordination
among the devices shown on the one-line diagram.
Note that protective devices are set or adjusted so
pickup currents and operating times are short but
The Problems
Once the hazards associated with are flash are understood, the challenge becomes to eliminate or at least
reduce them. The fallowing section discusses sorne of
the problems and subtleties involved in implementing
Short-Circuit Study
The short-circuit study is based on a review of one-line
drawings. The drawings must be created if they do not
exist and field-verified if they do. Maximum available
fault curren! is calculated at each significan! point in
the system. Each interrupting protective device is then
analyzed to determine whether it is appropriately
designed and sized to interrupt the circuit in the event
of a bolted type of short circuit. Next, the associated
equipment must be reviewed to insure that the bus bar
corrective action.
There are several problems in dealing with are flash
analysis:
1. Being overly conservative in the short-circuit analysis
may result in the required PPE category being set
at a level higher than necessary.
C-2
10 kA
= 6.56 kA
20 kA
= 11.85 kA
30 kA
=16.76kA
40 kA
= 21.43 kA
circuit current.
'il
termined.
Solution
The solution is to first perform, as accurately as practica!,
a short-circuit analysis. The goal far most people
performing a short-circuit analysis has always been to
C-3
CURREr IN AMPERES
10
1000
1000
100
100
point far the fuse, which is approximately 28,000 amps. Thus, there is no
current-limit effect from using the fuse.
Current-limiting fuses often do provide
additional protection, and they are very
good devices, but they must be applied
properly. In this example, the circuit
breaker provides the best protection.
">-----"auft Current
10
10 F U S E - - - - - - - - - - - 1
BUSSMANN
KRP-C. 600VClaul
Tr1p1600A
1---------<
IRCUIT BREAKER------D<
1
SOUARSD
Maoiarpaot. lffl LF. 6.0PIH
Tnp1600A
Set1mg~P~ .. e
LTl'UILTO(AO 1.0 SJ 1 (1600A),
STPU (15"10 1 LTPU) 3j4800A)
sm (INST-0.4) INST(12r Out
Jl'l5T(215 Sl 10 (16000A)
0.10
0.01
05
10
CNome:
Test
Cum:111tSeole x100
nellno:
eptemiwr 8, 2008 2:01 PM
' "" repaZred By; Pfelffer Englneallng co .. lnc. Louisvillo, KY
Point 1
Are fault curren\ 1600 amps
Bolted fault curren\ 3200 amps
Results:
Circuit breaker ctears in 0.06 seconds 4.57
cal/cm' PPE Category 2
Fuse ctears in 0.02 seconds 1.45 cal/cm' PPE
Category 1
Point 2
Are fault curren\ 1400 amps
Bolted fault curren\ 2400 amps
Results:
Circuit breaker clears in 0.06 seconds 4.57
cal/cm' PPE Category 2
Fuse clears in 0.1 seconds 7.62 cal/cm' PPE
Category 2
Point 3
Are fault curren\ 1100 amps
Bolted fault curren\ 1600 amps
Results:
"Circuit breaker clears in 0.06 seconds 4. 78
cal/cm' PPE Category 2
"Fuse ctears in 1.0 seconds 79.8 cal/ cm' PPE
Category >4
Atan are fault curren\ of 4000 amps the fuse wilt begin
to curren\ limit and will open the circuit in quarter cycle,
C-4
10
1000
1000
100
100
MOTOR:-------C>f
FlA 152.24A
POINT3
o burns,
10
POINT2
~ Conclusions
~
POINT 1
0.10
0.10
t7Pf:'11.~o..c-u1xso.6(150A);a 1----1"1
STPU (1.5-IOx L'IPU)a (1200A)
STO (INST--O.) INST(l"2 T Ol,11)
INST(215x S)6(150CIA)
0.01
0.01
0.5
choices:
9 Be very conseivative and require
10
short-circuit current as well as the maximum shortcircuit current from the electric utility. Voltage fluctuations
in the plant supply should be considered when developing
the short-circuit calculations. The are fault calculations
need to be evaluated at more than just the worst-case
and the minimum-case conditions. In the example
above, a reduction in the are fault curren! actually
resulted in worse conditions. This represents a subtle,
coordination studies.
The Risk
In a study of 33 plants with 4892 busses or switch
points under 600 V, the median incident energy was
C-5
C-6
to you. IDEA welcomes your comments or notices of errors or omissions you deem
importan!. Please email us at bpg.idea@districtenergy.org with detailed infarmation
on your comments, including the page number and location of any errors, plus your
suggestions far additional content far consideration far the Second Edition.
Along with your comments, please be sure to include your complete contact
infarmation, as listed below, so IDEA staff can contact you.
Na me
Title
Organization
Mailing Address [street, city, state/province (as applicable), country]
Phone (office and mobile)
Email address
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICT ENERGY
ASSOCIATION
24 Lyman Street, Suite 230
Westborough, MA 01581 USA
+ 1 508-366-9339 phone
+1 508-366-0019 fax
www.districtenergy.org