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Topic 1 Concepts and Issues in Curriculum: 1.0 Synopsis
Topic 1 Concepts and Issues in Curriculum: 1.0 Synopsis
TOPIC 1
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum. It
provides insights to the types of curriculum, relationship between curriculum,
syllabus, course and programme. It also looks at the the forces that influence
curriculum construction..
Originated from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which
Roman chariots raced (means literally to run a course). A plan for achieving
goals (Tyler and Taba). Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as the planned and
guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices
2
Company.
Enacted Curriculum
Null Curriculum
That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these
elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society.
Tutorial Task
Social
Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies
are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is
important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated
by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), the complexion of our students is changing
from one colour to various shades of colour and this adding of colour and
cultural diversity will continue into the foreseeable future (p.146). As the
world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even
more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new
way of life.
Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for
educators. It is a task that will at times be politically sensitive. One concept
that has interested educators is assimilation or integration of the diverse
groups. In the 60s and 70s the melting pot approach was adopted in some
countries in an attempt to assimilate people of different cultural, ethnic and
religious backgrounds. It is metaphor for the way in which diverse societies
develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures,
languages and religions) are combined so as to lose their distinct identities
resulting in a final product that is quite different from the original inputs.
Usually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the majority. It was
hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied attributes.
However, in practice the culture of the majority became dominant. This
approach has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has
been replaced by the salad bowl approach. Here people of diverse
backgrounds are all in the same salad but maintain their own unique
features. Cultural diversity of pluralism recognises that most societies are
composed of many voices and many ethnic groups. It is a framework in which
groups show respect and tolerance of each other; coexist and interact without
conflict. Power and decision making is shared leading to more widespread
participation and greater feeling of commitment from society members.
Reflection
Do you think that the syllabuses & textbooks used in our country adequately
reflect your national ideology & the demands of our society?
Then take a break and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
TOPIC 2
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 introduces you to the models, principles and develooopment of
curriculum design
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 2, you will be able to:
discuss the models of curriculum design
compare and contrast the curriculum design models
identify the steps in curriculum design and relate it to the composition
and structure of curriculum design in Malaysia
discuss the underlying principles in curriculum design
discuss the objectives of the current curriculum i.e. KSSR and KBSM,
the principles and main focus of the current curriculum in relation to
NEP
compare and contrast the current curriculum with previous Malaysia
English Language school curriculum
2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPIC
Models , Principles and
Development of curriculum
design
Models of
curriculum
design
Principles in
curriculum
design
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Development
of the
Malaysian
curriculum
2.3
CONTENT
content
method
assessment strategies(evaluation)
These decisions are made in relation to the context in which the curriculum
will operate
Tutorial Task
In one/two sentences, define the term model.
1)
(How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction?) meaning, organizing experiences to maximize their effect.
He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised so as to
enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concepts, values and skills be
used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements
would serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (e.g.
History, Economics, Science) and also determine the method of instruction or
delivery of content.
4)
(How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?) meaning, evaluating the process and revising that were not effective.
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the
curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know
whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For
example, if the objective was to develop critical thinking among students, did
the learning experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation
it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or
ineffective.
Wheelers Model
1
Aims, goals and
objectives
5
Evaluation
2
Selection of
learning experiences
3
Selection of
content
4
Organisation and
integration of
experiences
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Reflection
Do you think that the curriculum used in our country is based on a particular
curriculum design model?
Summary
The curriculum design models discussed show that curriculum designing is
conducted stage by stage. Some of the models discussed consider the
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TOPIC 3
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 introduces you to the considerations in designing a curriculum.
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 3, you will be able to:
discuss the factors involved in curriculum design
discuss the importance of knowledge of the curriculum in organising
teaching and learning
Needs
analysis
Personnel
Target
group
Material
selection
Aims and
objectives
Content
Monitoring
and support
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Learning
theories,
approaches
and methods
Assessment
and
evaluation
Constraints
3.3
CONTENT
Needs
Needs Analysis
Analysis
Constraints
Constraints
Target
Group
Target Group
Assessment
&
Assessment &
Evaluation
Evaluation
Aims
& Objectives
Aims &
Objectives
Consideration
in
Consideration in
Curriculum
Curriculum
Design
Design
Monitoring
Monitoring &
&
Support
Support
Content
Content
Learning
Learning theories,
theories,
approaches
approaches &
&
methods
methods
Material Selection
Selection
Material
Personnel
Personnel
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Need analysis
Target Group
Who is the target audience? For whom we design our curriculum?
Consider the pupils
Individual needs
Abilities
Interests
Potentials
Multiple intelligence (visual, auditory or kinesthetic learner)
Various learning styles or learning modes (hands on, discovery
learning, experiential; learning, distance learning )
Who is the target audience; What is the minimum/maximum current
knowledge of the participant audience? What are their characteristics? What
are their special needs? What knowledge and skill deficiencies currently
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The stated aims of a curriculum tell students what are the results of studying
it is likely to be. (what would they gain by learning from it). Aims are not the
same as desired learning outcomes.
a) aims should relate to the combined impact of the curriculum, the pedagogy
and the assessment of the various elements.
b) desired learning outcomes need to be student oriented, and should point
to the knowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes of those students who
successfully complete the course.
Aims and Learning Objectives - Aim statements are broad and all
encompassing, while, desired objective/learning outcomes are
specific, behavioural, student- focussed statements.
Content selection
All curricula have content. Choices have to be made on what to be included
in curriculum. The content includes :
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When selecting content for curriculum, you should bear in mind the following
principles:
1) it should be relevant to the outcome of the curriculum (what do we
seek to achieve, in line with aims/ objectives)
an effective curriculum is PURPOSIVE
Clearly focused on the planned outcomes
The inclusion of irrelevant topics, however interesting in themselves, acts as
a distraction and may confuse students.
2) the content should be appropriate to the level of the target group
an effective curriculum is progressive (simple complex, basics
advanced), leading students onward and building their knowledge
Materials which is too basic or too advanced for their current stage
makes students either bored or baffled, and erodes their motivation to
learn
3) it should be up-to-date.
The students should be aware of whats happening around them and
the world.
The content should be constantly updated.
4) the content should be valid (Ornstein and Hunkins,1998)
Validity refers to whether the information passed on to the students is
authentic and obtained from credible sources (reliable).
Internet?? Doubt the reliability..
Contents need to be checked to determine its accuracy.
5) feasibility (capable of being done/workable / executable) Ornstein
and Hunkins (1998)
educators who select content have to take into consideration the
constraints of time, expertise of staff, funding, and other educational
resources that schools might face when implementing the curriculum.
E.g. the time allocated for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the
topics, because school have to allocate time for extra-curricular
activities and other school events.
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Radical Design
In this design, the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the childcentred design; the difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the
need for the curriculum to reform society. Proponents of the radical design
operate on the assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children
should be educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known
proponent of the radical design was Paulo Freire who opposed treating
students as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He
objected to the teacher-student dichotomy (contrast) and proposed the
relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal (mutual), which is,
the teacher who learns and the learner who teaches.
According to proponents of this curriculum design, learning is reflective and
not externally imposed by those in power. Knowledge is not the finished
product to be acquired by learners because this is indoctrination. Learning is
something that results from the interaction between and among people.
Learners should challenge content and be allowed to give their opinions
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Life-centred situations
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How relevant are the teaching and learning methods to the content
and learning outcomes?
How are practical skills going to be taught and supervised?
How are students supported in independent learning and study (eg self
directed learning)?
What resources are required and available to ensure effective teaching
and learning?
Does the teaching promote critical and logical thinking at the level of
the learner?
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What are the constraints affecting the teaching and learning process?
Are the teaching and learning methods appropriate for the selected
assessment methods?
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Whether the learners entry requirements are well defined and at the
right level.
Whether the materials and delivery are pitched at the right level for the
learners at different points in the course.
Whether the balance of teaching and learning methods is appropriate
and whether there is enough time to ensure learning.
Whether teachers have the knowledge and skills required to deliver
the curriculum.
Whether the learning resources that have been identified are
adequate, appropriate and available.
Monitoring and Support
What should be monitored?
Student recruitment and selection processes: Do the candidates meet
the selection criteria? Do the criteria provide students who are
appropriate for the course?
Teaching staff are the teachers available, motivated and capable of
teaching the new course?
Have any training needs for teachers been identified and addressed?
The teaching and learning process:
How is the written curriculum translated into practice?
Are the teaching and learning methods appropriate?
Is the balance between different types of learning mode
appropriate in achieving the stated outcomes?
Assessment
Are the assessments appropriate in terms
of
level,
reliability and validity and do they discriminate
between
assessing skills, knowledge and attitudes?
Are the regulations and procedures
appropriate and are
they being followed?
Learning resources
- Are the recommended books and journals
and
other
teaching materials available?
- Is access to the library and other resources adequate?
Performance standards Are the minimum performance standards
being reflected and achieved?
Constraints
What are the program constraints? Technological: ICT, lab, LCDs etc.
-Timing: Implementation, Readiness
- Duration: Length lectures,
- Co-curriculum, practicum, internship, etc
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Summary
Curriculum design is a complex activity both conceptually and its
implementation. Designing a curriculum requires a vision of educations
meaning and purpose. Curriculum design must be carefully considered so
that the curriculum imparts essential knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
TOPIC 4
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 4 introduces you to the roles of a teacher in educational development
and the relationship between teacher beliefs and curriculum implementation.
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Curriculum
and the
teacher
Role of a
teacher
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Relationship
between teacher
beliefs and
curriculum
implementation
CONTENT
Exercise 1
a. Define a teacher?
b. What are the roles of teachers in curriculum development?
Share them with your friends.
Compare differences and similarities.
Curriculum and the Teacher
Without doubt, the most important persons in the curriculum implementation
process
are
the
teachers.
With
their
knowledge,
experience
and
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Description
Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum.
Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff,
administrators and community; e.g. school
administration recognises the importance of the
subject in the overall school curriculum.
Adequacy of
resources
Professional
support
Professional
knowledge
Professional
attitudes
Time
Interest
understanding,
Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and
referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his
students well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has
high standards and expectations coexisting with encouragement,
support and flexibility. The teacher empower students and get them to
do things of which they did not think they were capable.
Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and insights.
Disseminator of knowledge and skills
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43
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4.4
Relationship between teacher beliefs and curiculum
implementation
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies,
teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of
which philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no
denying that teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster
better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of
teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom.
The key to getting teachers committed to a curriculum is to enhance their
knowledge of the curriculum. This means teachers need to be trained
and workshops have to be organised for professional development.
Unfortunately, in any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will
have the benefit of such exposure. There are just too many teachers and
insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach is to have oneday workshops given by experts with the lecture method being the dominant
pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may
impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos
and professional support. The intrinsic factors are: professional knowledge,
professional adequacy and professional interest and motivation.
Hence, professional development of teachers is an important factor
contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have
teacher education programmes required prospective teachers to study
curriculum development? Certainly an adequate teacher education
programme should include curriculum development (both the theory and the
work of curriculum development) if teaching is to be a profession and if
educational opportunities for learners are really to be improved.
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How do I do it?
Am I getting it right?
Summary
Teachers occupy the central position in curriculum decision making.
They decide which aspects of the curriculum, newly developed or ongoing, to implement or stress in a particular class. teachers decide
hoow much time to spend on developing basic or critical thinking skills.
With collaboration, teachers can create quality programme and also
modify external programmes to personalize them to the specific needs
of their learners.
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TOPIC 5
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 5 introduces you to the curent issues in curriculum implementation. As
a classroom practitioner, it is important that you know what is involved in
implementing the prescribed curriculum. The aim of this unit is therefore to
take you through the processes and stages of curriculum implementation.
5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 5, you will be able to:
Literacy
Access
Equity
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Multilangualism
Technological
innovation
Unity
Special needs
Exercise
What do you understand by the term curriculum implementation?
5.3
The Teacher
As Whitaker (1979) asserts in the University of Zimbabwe (1995) module, the
teachers view their role in curriculum implementation as an autonomous one.
They select and decide what to teach from the prescribed syllabus or
curriculum. Since implementation takes place through the interaction of the
learner and the planned learning opportunities, the role and influence of the
teacher in the process is indisputable.
You could be thinking, I understand that teachers are pivotal in the
curriculum implementation process, but what is their role in the curriculum
planning process? If the teacher is to be able to translate curriculum
intentions into reality, it is imperative that the teacher understand the
curriculum document or syllabus well in order to implement it effectively
(University of Zimbabwe, 1995). If the curriculum is what teachers and
students create together, as Wolfson (1997) states, the teacher must play a
more significant role in designing the curriculum. Teachers must be involved
in curriculum planning and development so that they can implement and
modify the curriculum for the benefit of their learners.
The Learners
Learners are also a critical element in curriculum implementation. While
teachers are the arbiters of the classroom practice, the learners hold the
key to what is actually transmitted and adopted from the official curriculum.
The official curriculum can be quite different from the curriculum that is
actually implemented. The learner factor influences teachers in their
selection of learning experiences, hence the need to consider the diverse
characteristics of learners in curriculum implementation. For example, home
background and learner ability can determine what is actually achieved in
the classroom.
Resource Materials and Facilities
From your experience, you are aware that no meaningful teaching and
learning take place without adequate resource materials. This applies to
curriculum implementation as well.
For the officially designed curriculum to be fully implemented as per plan, the
government or Ministry of Education should supply schools with adequate
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Interest Groups
Can you identify interest groups in your country that could influence the
implementation of curricula?
A number of these groups exist in almost all Southern African Development
Community (SADC) countries. These include parents, parents and teachers
associations, School Development Associations (SDAs) and School
Development Committees (SDCs) in Zimbabwe, religious organisations,
local authorities, companies and private school proprietors. These groups
can influence implementation in the following ways:
Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required materials.
Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum.
Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the
interests of the group.
It is therefore important to involve these groups at the curriculum
planning stage.
The School Environment
One other factor that influences curriculum implementation concerns the
particular circumstances of each school (University of Zimbabwe, 1995).
Schools located in rich socio-economic environments and those that have
adequate human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an
extent that would be difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic
environments.
Culture and Ideology
Cultural and ideological differences within a society or country can also
influence curriculum implementation. Some communities may resist a
domineering culture or government ideology and hence affect the
implementation of the centrally planned curriculum.
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deploying staff,
allocating time to subjects taught at the school,
providing teaching and learning materials, and
creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and learning.
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Self-Assessment
From what you have read so far, list what you can identify as determinants of
curriculum implementation.
5.5
5.5.1 Literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or
analphabetism. Visual literacy also includes the ability to understand visual forms of
communication such as body language, pictures, maps, and video. Evolving
definitions of literacy often include all the symbol systems relevant to a particular
community. Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and use
the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community development.
In a technological society, the concept of literacy is expanding to include the media
and electronic text, in addition to alphabetic and number systems. These abilities
vary in different social and cultural contexts according to need, demand and
education.
The primary sense of literacy still represents the lifelong, intellectual process of
gaining meaning from a critical interpretation of the written or printed text. The key to
all literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability
to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep
understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language
underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns
(orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and patterns of word
formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency
and comprehension. Once these skills are acquired, the reader can attain full
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language literacy, which includes the abilities to approach printed material with
critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and
to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and
creative thought.
5.5.2 Access to Education
Access to education is the ability of people to have equal opportunity in education,
regardless of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or physical and mental
disabilities.
Access to education encourages a variety of pedagogical approaches to accomplish
the dissemination of knowledge across the diversity of social, political, cultural,
economic, national and biological backgrounds. Initially developed with the theme of
equal opportunity access and inclusion of students with learning or physical and
mental disabilities, the themes governing universal access to education have now
expanded across all forms of ability and diversity. However, as the definition of
diversity is within itself is a broad amalgamation, teachers exercising universal
access will continually face challenges and incorporate adjustments in their lesson
plan to foster themes of equal opportunity of education.
Equitable access
Across the globe, UNICEF is committed to nothing less than full and complete
access to free, quality education for every child. Universal access to quality
education is not a privilege it is a basic human right.
With progress towards universal enrolment slowing, it is now without doubt that the
world will not meet its most prominent global education. The current financial crisis
has put extra pressure on stretched public funding. The aid to education has fallen
by 10 per cent since 2010. If funds become scarcer, access to education will
continue to stagnate and the quality of schools will decline, denying the most
vulnerable children in the worlds poorest countries their basic human right to quality
education: without it, their future opportunities are dramatically limited.
UNICEF is deeply committed to creating a world in which all children, regardless of
their gender, socio-economic background or circumstances, have access to free,
compulsory and quality education. In education, UNICEF supports the Education for
All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals 2 and 3 to ensure that all children
have access to and complete a full course of primary schooling, and to eliminate
gender disparity in education by 2015. Other global goals echoing these
commitments include the World Education Forums Dakar Framework for Action,
which stresses the rights of girls, ethnic minorities and children in difficult
circumstances; and the emphasis in A World Fit for Children on ensuring equal
access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.
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Tracking
Another contributor to the inequality in the education system is tracking. Tracking
sorts students into different classes or groups based on ability or future plans. The
point of tracking is to create an environment in which the student's abilities match
both the curriculum as well as the other student's in the class.
This separation, however, creates an inequality within itself. Starting at an extremely
young age, the sorting of students mimics hierarchy similar to one which will form
later on in life. Students are both viewed and treated differently depending on which
track they take. The quality of teaching and curricula vary between tracks and as a
result, those of the lower track are disadvantaged with inferior resources, teachers,
etc. In many cases, tracking stunts students who may develop the ability to excel
past their original placement.
Racial equity in education
From a scientific point of view, the human species is a single race. It is therefore
misleading to use terms such as races and racial groups. Nevertheless, the term
racial group is enshrined in legislation, and phrases such as race equality and race
relations are in widespread official use. Racial equity in education means the
assignment of students to public schools and within schools without regard to their
race. This includes providing students with a full opportunity for participation in all
educational programs regardless of their race.
The educational system and its response to racial concerns in education vary from
country to country. Below are some examples of countries that have to deal with
racial discrimination in education.
South Africa : A major task of South Africa's new government in 1994 was to
promote racial equity in the state education system. During the apartheid era,
which began when the National Party won control of Parliament in 1948 and
ended with a negotiated settlement more than four decades later, the
provision of education was racially unequal by design. Resources were
lavished on schools serving white students while schools serving the black
majority were systematically deprived of qualified teachers, physical
resources and teaching aids such as textbook and stationary. The rationale for
such inequity was a matter of public record.
Higher education
Higher education plays a vital role in preparing students for the employment market
and active citizenship both nationally and internationally. By embedding race equality
in teaching and learning, institutions can ensure that they acknowledge the
experiences and values of all students, including minority ethnic and international
students.
Gender equity in education
Gender equity in practicality refers to both male and female concerns, yet most of
the gender bias is against women in the developing world. Gender discrimination in
education has been very evident and underlying problem in many countries,
especially in developing countries where cultural and societal stigma continue to
hinder growth and prosperity for women. Global Campaign for Education (GCE)
followed a survey called "Gender Discrimination in Violation of Rights of Women and
Girls" states that one tenth of girls in primary school are 'unhappy' and this number
increases to one fifth by the time they reach secondary schools. Some of the
reasonings that girls provided include harassment, restorations to freedom, and an
inherent lack of opportunities, compared to boys. United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) understands Education as a "
fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human rights. It
promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development
benefits."
UN Special Rapporteur Katarina Tomasevki developed the '4A' framework on the
Right to Education. The ''4A' framework encompasses availability, accessibility,
acceptability and adaptability as fundamental to the institution of education. And yet
girls in many underdeveloped countries are denied secondary education. Countries
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like Sudan, Somalia, Thailand and Afghanistan face the highest of inequity when it
comes to gender bias.
Gender based Inequity in education is not just a phenomenon in developing
countries. A New York Times article 'Teaching boys and girls separately' highlights
how education systems, especially public school systems, tend to segregate. Boys
and girls are often taught with different approach which programs children to think
that they are different and deserve different treatment. However, studies show that
boys and girls learn differently and therefore should be taught differently. Boys learn
better when they are kept moving while girls learn better sitting in one place with
silence. Therefore, segregation of gender for this reasoning promotes gender equity
in education as both boys and girls have optimized learning.
Causes of gender discrimination in education
VSO is a leading independent international development organization that works
towards eliminating poverty and one of the problems they tackle is gender inequity in
education. VSO published a paper that categorizes the obstacles (or causes) into:
Why do you think inequities occur in the education system? List down your
recommendations and solutions.
Discussion
To what extent does racial, gender, and socioeconomic discrimination still exist? Is
discrimination no longer a major problem in Malaysian society or in public education?
5.5.4 Multilingualism
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The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the
definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may
define multilingualism as complete competence and mastery in another language.
The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the
language so as to sound native. On the opposite end of the spectrum would be
people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate
language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall
somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people
multi-competent.
In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language.
For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or
a dialect of English. Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often
for purely political purposes, such as when Serbo-Croatian was created as a
standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as
umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects, and after the breakup of Yugoslavia
was split into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, or when Ukrainian was
dismissed as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings.
Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn
multiple languages because of international interactions. For example in Finland, all
children are required to learn at least two foreign languages: the other national
language (Swedish or Finnish) and one alien language (usually English). Many
Finnish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as German or Russian. In
some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, school children may
routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In
major metros of Central, South and East India, many children may be fluent in four
languages (the mother tongue, the state language, and the official languages of
India, Hindi and English.) Thus a child of Gujarati parents living in Bangalore will end
up speaking his or her mother tongue (Gujarati) at home and the state language
(Kannada), Hindi and English in school and his or her surroundings.
Multilingual individuals
A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one
language, either actively (through speaking, writing, or signing) or passively (through
listening, reading, or perceiving). More specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual
are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are
involved. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a polyglot.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during
childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also
referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education. Children
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acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the
case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can
have multilingual policies and recognise several official languages, such as Canada
(English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with
particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g.,
Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the
community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:
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these class blogs, the teacher can use free website hosting services like
wordpress.com or blogger.com. Via these platforms, the teacher will create a blog
under a sub domain of that host. For example, matchclass.wordpress.com, so
students will find all academic assignments via that blog. It is very easy to manage
and post data to a blog, because they have simple HTML editors.
3. Use of digital microphones in the classroom: Big classrooms are characterized
by endless noise, so teachers can resort to these wireless digital microphones. The
microphone will transmit the voice to the loud speakers and every student will hear
their teacher clearly. This helps the teacher not to strain their voice while trying to
explain points to their students. These digital microphones are not too expensive so
even a small income generating school can manage to buy a wireless microphone
for every classroom. Also students can use the same microphone when asking
questions to their teachers in class, or when they are explaining a subject to their
fellow students during a classroom debate.
4. Use of mobile devices: Teachers and students can use smart-phones for
academic purposes in the classroom. Mobile learning is becoming so popular. It is
similar to e-learning or long distance education. Though its based on mobile phones.
M-Learning is convenient because it is accessible from anywhere. Mobile phones
are very light yet they can also have the same application a simple PC can have, a
student can access academic information like assignments via an educational mobile
application (APP). Teachers can tell their students to use mobile apps like
PIAZZA to access course materials and also to post questions about specific
subjects, all this can be done in the classroom or outside the classroom.
5. Use of smart interactive Whiteboards: Modern smart white boards have a touch
screen functionality, so the teacher can illustrate points using a pen or their finger.
Using a projector, teachers can display visual images on these white boards which
improves the learning process. Students will learn more easily with visual images.
Also students can use a white board to draw, write or manipulate images. Smart
whiteboards come in various sizes, the wide ones are better, because they can show
a lager image and can also be used by two students at a time. Most of them are
electronically powered , so they can be switched on with a button, and they can also
save teachers work for latter use.
6. Use of online media: Teachers and students can both use online streaming
Medias to learn in the classroom. With the aid of a projector, computer, internet and
a white board, a teacher displays a real-time example using sites like Youtube.com.
This website has videos which can be used for academic reference. Lets take a
simple example on how a Geography class can use technology. Teachers can
explain volcanic activities and its impacts on the environment using live stream
YouTube videos about the subject. This type of illustration will attract the students
attention and they will learn easily.
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7. Use of online study tools : Online study tools like Dynamic Periodic Table
(ptable.com) which can be used by Chemistry students in keeping elements apart ,
Foldit (fold.it) this tool can help biology students easily understand basics about
proteins. Mathway (Mathway.com) this helps math students solve math challenges,
students can simply select a subject and hit solve, the equation will be solved by the
tool. All these academic tools can improve the way students learn.
Question 2
List down other types of technologies found in your institute
In the United Kingdom, special needs often refers to special needs within an
educational context. This is also referred to as special educational needs (SEN). In
the United States, 18.5 percent of all children under the age of 18 (over 13.5 million
children) had special health care needs as of 2005.
More narrowly, it is a legal term applying in foster care in the United States, derived
from the language in the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997. It is a diagnosis
used to classify children as needing "more" services than those children without
special needs who are in the foster care system. It is a diagnosis based on behavior,
childhood and family history and is usually made by a health care professional.
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Problems during Pregnancy or Birth: Disabilities can result from fetal exposure
to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation or by premature birth.
Accidents After Birth: Head injury, malnutrition or toxic exposure can increase a
child's risk.
Social-Environment Factors: Living in a high risk neighborhood and poor living
conditions have been linked to children being more vulnerable to disabilities.
Individual needs
A special education program should be customized to address each individual
student's unique needs. Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which
students with special needs receives varying degrees of support based on their
individual needs. Special education programs need to be individualized so that they
address the unique combination of needs in a given student.
Students with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and
weaknesses. Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the
student's needs. Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may
include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or equipment, and the
provision of specialized physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the
educational environment as much as possible. Students may need this help to
access subject matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional
needs. For example, if the assessment determines that the student cannot write by
hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for
typing assignments, or allow the student to answer questions verbally instead. If the
school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a
large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such
as a resource room.
Special schools
A special school is a school catering for students who have special educational
needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or behavioural
problems. Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to
provide appropriate special education for children with additional needs. Students
attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream
schools.
Special schools provide individualised education, addressing specific needs. Student
to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or lower depending upon the needs of the
children. Special schools will also have other facilities for children with special needs,
such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or swimming pools, which are necessary for
treating students with certain conditions.
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In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children
with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. However, there will always
be some children, whose learning needs cannot be appropriately met in a regular
classroom setting and will require specialised education and resources to provide the
level of support they require. An example of a disability that may require a student to
attend a special school is intellectual disability. However this practice is often
frowned upon by school districts in the USA in the light of Least Restrictive
Environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also called a self-contained
classroom, which is a separate room or rooms dedicated solely to the education of
students with special needs within a larger school that also provides general
education. These classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained teachers, who
provide specific, individualized instruction to individuals and small groups of students
with special needs. Self-contained classrooms, because they are located in a
general education school, may have students who remain in the self-contained
classroom full-time, or students who are included in certain general education
classes. In the United States a part-time alternative that is appropriate for some
students is sometimes called a resource room.
Instructional strategies
Different instructional techniques are used for some students with special
educational needs. Instructional strategies are classified as being either
accommodations or modifications.
An accommodation is a reasonable adjustment to teaching practices so that the
student learns the same material, but in a format that is more accessible to the
student. Accommodations may be classified by whether they change the
presentation, response, setting, or scheduling of lessons. For example, the school
may accommodate a student with visual impairments by providing a large-print
textbook. This is a presentation accommodation.
A modification changes or adapts the material to make it simpler. Modifications may
change what is learned, how difficult the material is, what level of mastery the
student is expected to achieve, whether and how the student is assessed, or any
another aspect of the curriculum. For example, the school may modify a reading
assignment for a student with reading difficulties by substituting a shorter, easier
book. A student may receive both accommodations and modifications.
Examples of modifications:
with poor fine motor skills may be taught to print block letters, but not cursive
handwriting.
Simplified assignments: Students may read the same literature as their peers
but have a simpler version, such as Shakespeare with both the original text
and a modern paraphrase available.
Extended time: Students with a slower processing speed may benefit from
extended time for assignments and/or tests in order to have more time to
comprehend questions, recall information, and synthesize knowledge.
Examples of accommodations:
Response accommodations: Typing homework assignments rather than handwriting them (considered a modification if the subject is learning to write by
hand). Having someone else write down answers given verbally.
Summary
The quality of an education system encompasses multiple dimensions.
The assessment of quality in this chapter focuses largely on the intellectual
dimension of academic student outcomes, with the benefit of available and
measurable data. It is acknowledged that the numbers alone tell only one side of the
story. There are other critical aspects vital to the quality of education such as a
students spiritual, emotional, and physical development. Nonetheless, children who
are unable to master core intellectual skills such as literacy and numeracy, as well as
higher-order thinking, will be less likely to succeed in todays rapidly
changing economy and globalised society.
Relax for a while. When you are ready, move on to the next Topic.
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TOPIC 6
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum
evaluation. It provides insights to the various forms of evaluation in curriculum. It also
discusses a variety of methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluation.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 6, you will be able to:
explain the term curriculum evaluation
explain forms of evaluation
summarise the purposes of curriculum evaluation
discuss a variety of methods used in conducting the evaluation
Curriculum
Evaluation
Definition
of
Curriculum Evaluation
Forms
Of
Evaluation
Purposes
Of
Evaluation
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Evaluation
Methods
and
Tools
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2.1 Definition of Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. Things may
include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation are
different even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three dimensions
on which they may differ are:
First, evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge.
Evaluation is applied while research tends to be basic.
Second, evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make
decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has
immediate use while research need not.
Third, evaluation is a judgment of worth. Evaluation result in value judgments
while research need not and some would say should not.
Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an activity, project,
programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area or institution. As
an essential part of the policy development process, evaluation provides timely
assessments of the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of
interventions. Evaluation is essentially about are we doing the right thing, are we
doing it right and are there better ways of achieving the results?
Evaluations should:
provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and
unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision-makers
and inform stakeholders;
provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and useful,
enabling the timely incorporation of findings, recommendations and lessons;
feed into management and decision-making processes as a key component to
managing for results;
inform the planning, programming, budgeting, implementation and reporting
cycle;
improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results, optimize
the use of resources, provide client satisfaction and maximize the impact of
activities; and
involve a rigorous, systematic and objective process in the design, analysis
and
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Gay (1985) argued that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation; to
improve the curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the
curriculum and the returns on finance allocated.
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1. Aspects of the
3. Analysis of
Information
4. Reporting of
Information
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a form that can be analysed and this is to be done well to ensure accuracy and to
maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of interviews is that it can get a full
range and depth of information and it develops a relationship with teachers and
students and it is more flexible. However, interview is time consuming, can be hard to
analyze and compare, can be costly and the interviewer can be biased towards
respondents responses.
1.2.4.3 Observations and check lists
Observation is useful data collection method o gather accurate information about
how a program actually operates, particularly about processes especially to view
operations of a program as they are actually occurring. The instrument generally
used is a check list.
1.2.4.4Documents
To get impressions of how a programme operates without interrupting the
programme; one can review the memos, minutes, etc to get a comprehensive and
historical information about the implementation of the programme. However, one has
to be quite clear about what looking for as there may be massive amount of
documents.
Method
surveys
interviews
Overall Purpose
Advantages
- can complete
anonymously
- inexpensive to administer
- easy to compare and
when need to quickly
analyze
and/or easily get lots of
- administer to many
information from people in
people
a non threatening way
- can get lots of data
- many sample
questionnaires already
exist
get full range and depth
when want to fully
of
information
understand someone's
develops
relationship
impressions or
with
client
experiences, or learn more
- can be flexible with client
about their answers to
questionnaires
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Challenges
- might not get careful
feedback
- wording can bias client's
responses
- are impersonal
- in surveys, may need
sampling expert
- doesn't get full story
- can be complex to
categorize observations
- can influence behaviors
of program participants
- can be expensive
- can be hard to analyze
responses
- need good facilitator for
safety and closure
- difficult to schedule 6-8
people together
Exercise
1. Why do you need to evaluate curriculum?
2. Whats the difference between formative and summative evaluation?
3. What data collection methods and instruments can be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the KSSR English language curriculum?
TOPIC 7
CURRICULUM CHANGE
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum change.
It provides definitions of curriculum change and innovation. It also discusses context
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2.
3.
4.
Curriculum
Change
Definition
of
Curriculum Change and Innovation
Contexts
Of
Curriculum Change
Strategies
of Evaluation
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2.1 Definition of Curriculum Change and Innovation
Hoyle (1995) defines change as embracing the concepts of innovation, development,
renewal and improvement of a curriculum. Change has magnitude and direction and
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takes place within a definite time frame. In the context of curriculum, curriculum
change is dictated by the changes in the economic, social and technological aspects
of a society. Change is a process not an event; it requires time, energy and
resources. It is achieved incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills
in using new programmes. Change should lead to improvement
Harris et al. (1995) describes innovation as an intentional and deliberate process to
bring out desired effects and change. As such, curriculum innovation refers to ideas
or practices that are new and different from those that exist in the formal prescribed
curriculum. Westerly (1969) and Richard (1965), state that curriculum innovation is
any improvement that is deliberate, measurable, durable and unlikely to occur
frequently. Curriculum innovations occurs when human and material resources are
created, selected, organised and used in ways where the outcomes are higher
achievement of curriculum goals and objectives.
The difference between innovation and change is innovation is always planned while
change may occur in response to external events. Curriculum innovations become
meaningful and effective, if they are planned and organised. It is possible that other
types of changes may occur when they are not planned.
1.2.2 Contexts of Curriculum Change
Curriculum change and curriculum innovation are made necessary due to a countrys
political, social, economic, cultural and technological environments. The education
system changes in order to address the needs and demands brought about by these
factors.
At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policy
decisions. Changes in the education system in Malaysia occur when the central
authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually made known through
a circular. One such example is the introduction of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah (KSSR) or the Primary School Standard Curriculum.
Another reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire of authorities at
various levels to deliberately change established practices in order to tackle existing
problems or identify new problems and seek ways of dealing with these problems.
Curriculum change and innovation can also be a due to development in technology.
For example, computers are being used in almost every aspects of our society. Thus,
the education system and its curriculum must adapt to this new development.
Computers must not be seen as merely a tool for administrative purposes, but also
to make the computer and related technological advancements part and parcel of the
curriculum.
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In this model, an innovation is thought out at the head or centre and then fed into
the system. This views the processes of change as a logical sequence of phases in
which an innovation is:
1. invented or discovered,
2. developed,
3. produced, and
4. disseminated to the user.
1.2.3.2 Problem-Solving Model
This model is built with the user of the innovation in mind. The user of the innovation
would follow the steps below.
1. Determine the problem.
2. Search for an innovation.
3. Evaluate the trials.
4. Implement the innovation.
1.2.3.3Social Interaction Model
In this model, change proceeds or diffuses through formal or informal contacts
between interacting social groups. The model stresses the importance of
interpersonal networks of information, opinion, leadership and personal contact.
This model is based on the following:
awareness of innovation
interest in the innovation
trial
adoption for permanent use.
This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is directed.
Time
Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time.
These factors interact with change and are changed by each other during the
process of innovation. The curriculum change agent is involved with the process, the
planning and the strategies, and is also frequently the user of the innovation.
The Innovation Process
Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:
1.
Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.
2.
Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need.
3.
Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as the most
appropriate.
4.
Conduct a trial.
5.
Evaluate the proposed solution.
6.
Review the evaluation.
7.
If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide
scale.
8.
Adopt and institutionalise the innovation or search for another solution.
Innovation Planning
Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following elements are
considered in the process:
social contexts
time involved
sequencing of activities
Exercise:
1. Effectively planned innovations can be successful. What elements or
resources are needed for the successful implementation of a curriculum
innovation?
2. What are the basic steps involved in implementing any significant curriculum
change?
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