ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer

Convectionisthemechanismofheattransferthroughafluidinthepresenceofbulkfluid
motion.Convectionisclassifiedasnatural(orfree)andforcedconvectiondependingon
how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by
naturalmeanssuchasthebuoyancyeffect,i.e.theriseofwarmerfluidandfallthecooler
fluid.Whereasinforcedconvection,thefluidisforcedtoflowoverasurfaceorinatube
byexternalmeanssuchasapumporfan.

MechanismofForcedConvection
Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction. Thefluidmotionenhancesheattransfer(thehigherthe velocitythehigher
theheattransferrate).
TherateofconvectionheattransferisexpressedbyNewtonslawofcooling:

q conv
hTs T

Qconv
hATs T

W / m
2

The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties and
roughnessofthesolidsurface,andthetypeofthefluidflow(laminarorturbulent).

T
Qconv

Qcond

Zerovelocity
atthesurface.

Solidhotsurface,Ts

Fig.1:Forcedconvection.

Itisassumedthatthevelocityofthefluidiszeroatthewall,thisassumptioniscalledno
slip condition. As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer
adjacenttothesurfaceisbypureconduction,sincethefluidismotionless.Thus,

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer1

conv

cond

k fluid

T
y

h Ts T
q conv

T
k fluid

y 0
Ts T

y 0

W / m .K
2

Theconvectionheattransfercoefficient,ingeneral,variesalongtheflowdirection.The
mean or average convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface is determined by
(properly)averagingthelocalheattransfercoefficientovertheentiresurface.

VelocityBoundaryLayer
Considertheflowofafluidoveraflatplate,thevelocityandthetemperatureofthefluid
approachingtheplateisuniformatUandT.Thefluidcanbeconsideredasadjacent
layersontopofeachothers.

Fig.2:Velocityboundarylayer.
Assumingnoslipconditionatthewall,thevelocityofthefluidlayeratthewalliszero.
Themotionlesslayerslowsdowntheparticlesoftheneighboringfluidlayersasaresultof
friction between the two adjacent layers. The presence of the plate is felt up to some
distance from the plate beyond which the fluid velocity U remains unchanged. This
regioniscalledvelocityboundarylayer.
Boundarylayerregionistheregionwheretheviscouseffectsandthevelocitychangesare
significantandtheinviscidregionistheregioninwhichthefrictionaleffectsarenegligible
andthevelocityremainsessentiallyconstant.
Thefrictionbetweentwoadjacentlayersbetweentwolayersactssimilartoadragforce
(frictionforce).Thedragforceperunitareaiscalledtheshearstress:

V
y

N / m
2

y 0

whereisthedynamicviscosityofthefluidkg/m.sorN.s/m2.
Viscosityisameasureoffluidresistancetoflow,andisastrongfunctionoftemperature.
Thesurfaceshearstresscanalsobedeterminedfrom:
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer2

s Cf

U 2

N / m
2

where Cf is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is determined

experimentallyinmostcases.
Thedragforceiscalculatedfrom:
FD C f A

U 2
2

Theflowinboundarylayerstartsassmoothandstreamlinedwhichiscalledlaminarflow.
Atsomedistancefromtheleadingedge,theflowturnschaotic,whichiscalledturbulent
anditischaracterizedbyvelocityfluctuationsandhighlydisorderedmotion.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is called
transitionregion.
Thevelocityprofileinthelaminarregionisapproximatelyparabolic,andbecomesflatter
inturbulentflow.
Theturbulentregioncanbeconsideredofthreeregions:laminarsublayer(whereviscous
effectsaredominant),bufferlayer(wherebothlaminarandturbulenteffectsexist),and
turbulentlayer.
Theintensemixingofthefluidinturbulentflowenhancesheatandmomentumtransfer
betweenfluidparticles,whichinturnincreasesthefrictionforceandtheconvectionheat
transfercoefficient.

NondimensionalGroups
Inconvection,itisacommonpracticetonondimensionalizethegoverningequationsand
combinethevariableswhichgrouptogetherintodimensionlessnumbers(groups).
Nusseltnumber:nondimensionalheattransfercoefficient

h q conv
Nu

k
q cond

where is the characteristic length, i.e. D for the tube and L for the flat plate. Nusselt
number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a result of
convectionrelativetoconductionacrossthesamefluidlayer.
Reynoldsnumber:ratioofinertiaforcestoviscousforcesinthefluid
Re

inertia forces V V

viscous forces

At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the
velocityofthefluid,arelargerelativetotheviscousforces;thustheviscousforcescannot
preventtherandomandrapidfluctuationsofthefluid(turbulentregime).

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer3

TheReynoldsnumberatwhichtheflowbecomesturbulentiscalledthecriticalReynolds
number.ForflatplatethecriticalReisexperimentallydeterminedtobeapproximatelyRe
critical=5x105.
Prandtlnumber:isameasureofrelativethicknessofthevelocityandthermalboundary
layer
Pr

molecular diffusivity of momentum C p

k
molecular diffusivity of heat

wherefluidpropertiesare:
massdensity:,(kg/m3)specificheatcapacity:Cp(J/kgK)
dynamicviscosity:,(Ns/m2)kinematicviscosity:,/(m2/s)
thermalconductivity:k,(W/mK)thermaldiffusivity:,k/(Cp)(m2/s)

ThermalBoundaryLayer
Similar to velocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at
specifictemperatureflowsoverasurfacewhichisatdifferenttemperature.

Fig.3:Thermalboundarylayer.
Thethicknessofthethermalboundarylayertisdefinedasthedistanceatwhich:
T Ts
0.99
T Ts

Therelativethicknessofthevelocityandthethermalboundarylayersisdescribedbythe
Prandtlnumber.
For low Prandtl number fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster than
momentum flow (remember Pr = /<<1) and the velocity boundary layer is fully
containedwithinthethermalboundarylayer.Ontheotherhand,forhighPrandtlnumber
fluids,i.e.oils,heatdiffusesmuchslowerthanthemomentumandthethermalboundary
layeriscontainedwithinthevelocityboundarylayer.
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer4

FlowOverFlatPlate
Thefrictionandheattransfercoefficientforaflatplatecanbedeterminedbysolvingthe
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations (either approximately or
numerically). They can also be measured experimentally. It is found that the Nusselt
numbercanbeexpressedas:

Nu

hL
C Re mL Pr n
k

whereC,m,andnareconstantsandListhelengthoftheflatplate.Thepropertiesofthe
fluidareusuallyevaluatedatthefilmtemperaturedefinedas:
Tf

Ts T

LaminarFlow
The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at the location x for laminar flow
overaflatplateare

hx
0.332 Re1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3
k
0.664
1/ 2
Re x

Nu x
C f ,x

Pr 0.6

wherexisthedistantfromtheleadingedgeoftheplateandRex=Vx/.
TheaveragedfrictioncoefficientandtheNusseltnumberovertheentireisothermalplate
forlaminarregimeare:

hL
0.664 Re1L/ 2 Pr1 / 3
k
1.328
C f 1/ 2
Re L
Nu

Pr 0.6

TakingthecriticalReynoldsnumbertobe5x105,thelengthoftheplatexcroverwhichthe
flowislaminarcanbedeterminedfrom
Re cr 5 10 5

V xcr

TurbulentFlow
ThelocalfrictioncoefficientandtheNusseltnumberatlocationxforturbulentflowovera
flatisothermalplateare:

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer5

hx
0.0296 Re 4x / 5 Pr 1 / 3 0.6 Pr 60
k
0.0592

5 10 5 Re x 10 7
1/ 5
Re x

Nu x
C f ,x

5 10 5 Re x 10 7

The averaged friction coefficient and Nusselt number over the isothermal plate in
turbulentregionare:

hL
0.037 Re 4x / 5 Pr 1 / 3 0.6 Pr 60
k
0.074
Cf
5 10 5 Re L 10 7
1/ 5
Re L
Nu

5 10 5 Re L 10 7

CombinedLaminarandTurbulentFlow
Iftheplateissufficientlylongfortheflowtobecometurbulent(andnotlongenoughto
disregard the laminar flow region), we should use the average values for friction
coefficientandtheNusseltnumber.
x
L

1 cr
Cf
C
dx
C
dx

f , x , La min ar
x f , x,Turbulent
L 0
cr

x
L

1 cr
h
h
dx
h
dx

x , La min ar
x , x,Turbulent
L 0
cr

wherethecriticalReynoldsnumberisassumedtobe5x105.Afterperformingtheintegrals
andsimplifications,oneobtains:

hL
0.037 Re 4x / 5 871 Pr 1 / 3 0.6 Pr 60
k
0.074 1742
Cf

5 10 5 Re L 10 7
1/ 5
Re L
Re L
Nu

5 10 5 Re L 10 7

Theaboverelationshipshavebeenobtainedforthecaseofisothermalsurfaces,butcould
alsobeusedapproximatelyforthecaseofnonisothermalsurfaces.Insuchcasesassume
thesurfacetemperaturebeconstantatsomeaveragevalue.
Forisoflux(uniformheatflux)plates,thelocalNusseltnumberforlaminarandturbulent
flowcanbefoundfrom:

hx
0.453 Re 0x.5 Pr 1 / 3 Laminar (isoflux plate)
k

hx
0.8
1/ 3
Turbulent (isoflux plate)
Nu x
0.0308 Re x Pr
k
Nu x

Note the isoflux relationships give values that are 36% higher for laminar and 4% for
turbulentflowsrelativetoisothermalplatecase.
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer6

Example1
Engine oil at 60C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20C with a
velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit
widthoftheentireplate.
oil
T=60C
V=2m/s

Ts=20C

L=5m

We assume the critical Reynolds number is 5x10 . The properties of the oil at the film
temperatureare:
5

Ts T
40 C
2
876 kg / m 3

Tf

k 0.144 W /(m.K )
Pr 2870

242 10 6 m 2 / s
TheRenumberfortheplateis:
ReL=VL/=4.13x104
whichislessthanthecriticalRe.Thuswehavelaminarflow.Thefrictioncoefficientand
thedragforcecanbefoundfrom:

C f 1.328 Re L0.5 0.00653

FD C f A

V2
2

0.00653 5 1m 2

876kg / m 2m / s
3

57.2 N

TheNusseltnumberisdeterminedfrom:

Nu

hL
0664 Re 0L.5 Pr 1 / 3 1918
k

Then,
h 55.2

W
m2 K

Q hAT Ts 11040W
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer7

FlowacrossCylindersandSpheres
Thecharacteristiclengthforacirculartubeorsphereistheexternaldiameter,D,andthe
Reynoldsnumberisdefined:

Re

V D

ThecriticalRefortheflowacrossspheresortubesis2x105.Theapproachingfluidtothe
cylinder(asphere)willbranchoutandencirclethebody,formingaboundarylayer.

Fig.4:Typicalflowpatternsoversphereandstreamlinedbodyanddragforces.
At low Re (Re < 4) numbers the fluid completely wraps around the body. At higher Re
numbers,thefluidistoofasttoremainattachedtothesurfaceasitapproachesthetopof
thecylinder.Thus,theboundarylayerdetachesfromthesurface,formingawakebehind
thebody.Thispointiscalledtheseparationpoint.
To reduce the drag coefficient, streamlined bodies are more suitable, e.g. airplanes are
builttoresemblebirdsandsubmarinetoresemblefish,Fig.4.
Inflowpastcylinderorspheres,flowseparationoccursaround80forlaminarflowand
140forturbulentflow.

FD C D AN

V2
2

AN : frontal area

wherefrontalareaofacylinderisAN=LD,andforasphereisAN=D2/4.
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer8

The drag force acting on a body is caused by two effects: the friction drag (due to the
shear stress at the surface) and the pressure drag which is due to pressure differential
betweenthefrontandrearsideofthebody.
Asaresultoftransitiontoturbulentflow,whichmovestheseparationpointfurthertothe
rearofthebody,alargereductioninthedragcoefficientoccurs.Asaresult,thesurfaceof
golfballsisintentionallyroughenedtoinduceturbulentatalowerRenumber,seeFig.5.

Fig.5:RoughenedgolfballreducesCD.
Theaverageheattransfercoefficientforcrossflowoveracylindercanbefoundfromthe
correlationpresentedbyChurchillandBernstein:

Nu Cyl

hD
0.62 Re1 / 2 Pr 1 / 3

0.3
2 / 3 1/ 4
k
1 0.4 Pr

Re 5 / 8

1
282,000

4/5

wherefluidpropertiesareevaluatedatthefilmtemperatureTf=(Ts+T)/2.
Forflowoverasphere,Whitakerrecommendedthefollowing:

Nu Sph hD / k 2 0.4 Re1 / 2 0.06 Re 2 / 3 Pr 0.4 / s

1/ 4

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer9

whichisvalidfor3.5<Re<80,000and0.7<Pr<380.Thefluidpropertiesareevaluated
at the freestream temperature T, except for s which is evaluated at surface
temperature.
The average Nusselt number for flow across circular and noncircular cylinders can be
foundfromTable103Cengelbook.
Example2
Thedecorativeplasticfilmonacoppersphereof10mmdiameteriscuredinanovenat
75C.Uponremovalfromtheoven,thesphereissubjectedtoanairstreamat1atmand
23Chavingavelocityof10m/s,estimatehowlongitwilltaketocoolthesphereto35C.
Coppersphere

P=1atm.

D=10mm

V=10m/s

Ti=75C

T=23C

Tf=35C

Assumptions:
1. Negligiblethermalresistanceandcapacitancefortheplasticlayer.
2. Spatiallyisothermalsphere.
3. NegligibleRadiation.
Copperat328K

Airat296K

=8933kg/m3

=181.6x107N.s/m2

k=399W/m.K

v=15.36x106m2/s

Cp=387J/kg.K

k=0.0258W/m.K

Pr=0.709
s=197.8x107N.s/m2

Thetimerequiredtocompletethecoolingprocessmaybeobtainedfromtheresultsfora
lumpedcapacitance.

VC P
hA

ln

C p D Ti T
Ti T
ln

6h
T f T
T f T

Whitakerrelationshipcanbeusedtofindhfortheflowoversphere:

Nu Sph hD / k 2 0.4 Re1 / 2 0.06 Re 2 / 3 Pr 0.4 / s

1/ 4

whereRe=VD/=6510.
Hence,
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer10

Nu Sph hD / k 2 0.4(6510)
h Nu

1/ 2

0.06(6510)

2/3

181.6 10 7
(0.709)
7
197.8 10

0.4

1/ 4

47.4

k
122 W / m 2 K
D

Therequiredtimeforcoolingisthen

8933kg / m 387 J / kg.K 0.01m ln 75 23 69.2 sec

3

6 122 W / m 2 .K

35 23

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer11