The Singapore Academy of Law

Style Guide Quick Reference

2007 July Edition

Publications Department,
Singapore Academy of Law

The Singapore Academy of Law Style Guide

for freelance editors of journal articles and other legal works
2007 Edition
prepared by Jack Tsen-Ta Lee, Ranald Or, Anita Parkash and Hung Ning Shing for the
Publications Department, Singapore Academy of Law
1 Supreme Court Lane
Level 6
Singapore 178879
Tel: +65.6332.4388
Fax: +65.6334.4940
E-mail: publications@sal.org.sg
Website: http://www.sal.org.sg
July 2007 Singapore Academy of Law. All rights reserved.

2006 Edition 2 October 2006

2007 Edition 10 July 2007

Feedback or reports of errors should be sent to

publications@sal.org.sg.

- iii -

LATEST UPDATES

[This page is reserved for notes of future updates to this Guide.]

A Formatting Rules

FORMATTING RULES

A1

Heading Levels and Styles. Use the following heading levels and styles, which
are all to be aligned with the left margin:
For SAL Journal
I.
First-level heading
A.

Second-level heading

(1)

Third-level heading

(a)

Fourth-level leading

(i)

FIFTH-LEVEL HEADING

For SAL Annual Review

First-level heading
Second-level heading
Third-level heading
Fourth-level heading
FIFTH-LEVEL HEADING

Headings should be in the following format: Principle of consistency in

sentencing. Do not use Title Case, ie, do not use initial capital letters for the
headings and do not put a full stop at the end of a heading.
Where headings are to be in italics (such as second- and third-level headings), and
contain a word or words which need to be italicised (such as case names or Latin
words), change the particular word(s) to normal font.
Examples:
Ad hoc admission of foreign lawyers (First-level heading)
Ad hoc admission of foreign lawyers (Second-level heading)
Ad hoc admission of foreign lawyers (Third-level heading)
Ad hoc admission of foreign lawyers (Fourth-level heading)
AD HOC ADMISSION OF FOREIGN LAWYERS (FIFTH-LEVEL HEADING)

A2

Paragraph numbers. To number paragraphs, use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc)

without full stops. For sub-paragraphs, follow the rule for lists below, so the subparagraphs are numbered (a), (b), (c), etc, and sub-sub-paragraphs are numbered
(i), (ii), (iii), etc.

A3

Lists. For items in a list, the numbering level (1), (2), (3), etc, is not to be used
because the use of Arabic numerals is reserved for numbering paragraphs. Do not
use bullet points to introduce items in a list either. To number items in a list, use
the following numbering levels:

First Level (a), (b), (c), etc.

Second Level (i), (ii), (iii), etc.
Third Level (A), (B), (C), etc.
Fourth Level (I), (II), (III), etc.

After each paragraph or item number, a tab should be inserted before the text, ie,
(a)TabA lipstick.
Items in a numbered list should be punctuated in one of the following ways:

If the items in the list are incomplete sentences, each item should begin
with a lowercase letter and end with a semicolon. The second-last item in
the list should end with a semicolon followed by a conjunction, such as
and or or.

If the items in the list are complete sentences or consist of more than one
sentence, each item should begin with an uppercase letter and end with a
full stop.
Examples
The following items were found in the accuseds bag:
(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)

a lipstick;
chequebooks from the following banks:
(i)
POSB;
(ii)
Citibank;
a bunch of keys; and
a penknife.

In order to succeed in establishing that the defendant acted

negligently, the plaintiff must prove the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)

A duty of care was owed by the defendant to her.

The defendant breached the duty in that he did not achieve
the standard of care required of him.
The breach of duty caused damage to the plaintiff. Among
other things, the damage must not be too remote.

A Formatting Rules

A4

Quotations.

A4.1

Quotations within a sentence. Enclose quotations within a sentence in double

quotation marks ( ). A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in single
quotation marks ( ). Include punctuation within quotation marks only if a
complete sentence is quoted. Where a sentence ends with a full stop, question
mark or exclamation mark followed by a closing quotation mark, it is not
necessary to add a full stop after the latter.
Examples
In addition, s 2 also states that these activities must be done in any
place to which the public or any class of the public has access
whether gratuitously or otherwise. [Full stop after the closing
quotation mark as the quotation is not a complete sentence.]
When asked what was in the bag, the defendant told the narcotics
officer, I am carrying Chinese medicine. [Full stop within the
quotation marks as a complete sentence is quoted; no additional
full stop required after the closing quotation mark.]

A4.2

Quotations in a separate block. A quotation longer than three lines should be

set out in a separate block indented from both the left and right margins. Do not
enclose the quotation in quotation marks. A quotation is introduced with a colon;
not a dash or a colon with a dash.
Examples
Drawing from the notes of evidence, she gave reasons why Yeo
did not raise his concerns formally with the company. To this end,
she stated:
Mr Yeo explained that at the time of the trades, he was more
concerned that the contra losses be paid for, and that the appellant
stopped using his trading account. The appellant had promised to
do both. Indeed, true to the appellants promise, Mr Yeo was not
made to pay for the contra losses, and the appellant stopped using
his trading account after the SP Setia transactions.

A4.3

Emphasis in quotations. Words, phrases or sentences in a quotation to be

emphasised should be in italics with the phrase [emphasis added] or [emphasis
in original] in brackets added to the end of the quotation.
Examples
Where the quotation is set out in a separate block:
The latter indorsement may be to the transferee by name or in blank,
in which latter case, no further indorsement, but only delivery, is as a
matter of law required for subsequent transfers. [emphasis added]

Where the quotation is part of the paragraph:

In that case, the judge expressed the view that it is trite
law that there must be consideration for a contract
[emphasis added]. I cannot agree more that the law in
this area is settled.
[Note that there is no full stop or other punctuation mark before
the closing quotation mark the full stop comes after [emphasis
added].]
Where a quotation set out in a separate block consists of several paragraphs, the
phrase [emphasis added] or its variants should be on a new line.
Example
Cocaine acts by preventing the removal of adrenalin from its site of
action. Blood pressure is raised and the action of the heart may become
irregular which is why injections and freebasing can be fatal.
Prolonged ingestion by sniffing is said to damage the nasal tissues.
Abuse has been said to lead to sleeplessness, mental disturbance,
stomach disorder and emaciation. Regular users complain of a feeling as
if insects were creeping below their skin.

Cocaine is occasionally mixed with heroin to produce a speedball for

intravenous injection in which the subject enjoys the euphoria induced by
heroin without the narcotic effect.
[emphasis added]

A4.4

Changes to quotations. In general, a quotation should be reproduced exactly as

it appears in the source, with no changes to spelling, capitalisation or
punctuation. However, if desired, citations may be omitted and the phrase
[internal citations omitted] added to the end of the quotation.
If it is necessary to make interpolations, corrections, explanations, translations or
comments for clarity, these should be enclosed in brackets ([ ]). Omissions
should be indicated with the use of an ellipsis (), which should consist of
three full stops, no more or less, with a space before and after. Do not type a full
stop after an ellipsis that ends a sentence.
Examples
The contract specified that property in the goods shall not pass to
the Buyer [ie, the plaintiff] until payment in full has been received
by the Vendor [the defendant].

A Formatting Rules

He clearly intend[ed] to take dishonestly the cheque out of the

plaintiffs possession.
The manner of the attack was vicious and very destructive.
[T]here can have been no excuse.
A4.5

Errors in quotations. Spelling or grammatical errors in quotations should be

retained, with the word [sic] (Latin for thus or so) in brackets inserted after
the error. Do not overuse the word [sic] as a quotation that contains too many
becomes difficult to read. If there are numerous errors that are obvious, either do
not use [sic] or consider rephrasing the quotation in indirect speech. Minor
erroneous words or phrases can be omitted entirely (using ellipses where
appropriate) and the correct words or phrases inserted within brackets.
Examples
He cannot have had [sic] been unaware of the presence of the
clause.
He cannot have been unaware of the presence of the clause.
The trial judge took the view that the case was governed by the
principle in Rylance [sic] v Fletcher.
The trial judge took the view that the case was governed by the
principle in [Rylands] v Fletcher.

A4.6

Quoting mid-sentence.
(a) Where the quotation is in a separate block, and what is quoted, although midsentence, can still be a complete sentence, change the first letter into a capital
letter, enclosing the capital letter within square brackets. Exception to this rule is
when the quote starts with the word I, which is already a capital letter, in which
case begin the quote with an ellipsis.
Examples
Original text is:
Drawing from the notes of evidence, she gave reasons why
Yeo did not raise his concerns formally with the company.
Where only part of the text is quoted, set it out as follows:
[S]he gave reasons why Yeo did not raise his concerns formally
with the company.

Original text is:

After looking at the cover of the book, I decided not to read
it. I thought it more worthwhile to spend my time doing something
else.
When quoting the second part of the text, use an ellipsis. Thus:
... I decided not to read it. I thought it more worthwhile to spend my
time doing something else.

(b) Where the quotation is in a separate block, but what is quoted does not form a
complete sentence in itself, then start off with an ellipsis.
Example
Using the same original text as the first example above:
Drawing from the notes of evidence, she gave reasons why Yeo:
... did not raise his concerns formally with the company.

(c) Where the quotation is not in a separate block, there is no need to begin the
quote with a capital letter within square brackets, nor to use ellipses, whether at
the beginning or at the end. If the quote ends with a full-stop or a comma, the
punctuation marks may be ignored. (See also the first example given at para A-4.1
above.)
Examples
In addition, s 2 also states that these activities must be done ... in
any place to which the public or any class of the public has access
whether gratuitously or otherwise ....
To comply with housestyle, the above sentence should be amended
as follows:
In addition, s 2 also states that these activities must be done in any
place to which the public or any class of the public has access
whether gratuitously or otherwise.

A4.7

Quoting mid-paragraph.
When quoting a range of paragraphs and some
paragraphs are not quoted in full, use ellipses to indicate which paragraphs are left
out and which are being quoted mid-paragraph.

A Formatting Rules

Example
Cocaine acts by preventing the removal of adrenalin from its site of
action. Blood pressure is raised and the action of the heart may become
irregular which is why injections and freebasing can be fatal. ...
... Prolonged ingestion by sniffing is said to damage the nasal tissues.
Abuse has been said to lead to sleeplessness, mental disturbance,
stomach disorder and emaciation. Regular users complain of a feeling as
if insects were creeping below their skin. ...

Cocaine is occasionally mixed with heroin to produce a speedball for

intravenous injection in which the subject enjoys the euphoria induced by
heroin without the narcotic effect.

The above example shows that the rest of the first paragraph has been omitted from
the quote, while the second paragraph is quoted mid-paragraph, with the rest of it
omitted. It then shows that the next paragraph is entirely left out. Note that there is no
need for an ellipsis to appear at the end of the quotation, unless the quotation ends
mid-sentence.
A4.8

Rules on the use of ellipses in quotations.

(a)

An ellipsis consists of only 3 dots, no more, no less.

(b)
An ellipsis is treated like a word, so there should be both a space before
and a space after an ellipsis.

A5

Italics. Note the following specific uses of italics:

(a)

To emphasise words and phrases, eg, The defendants fingerprints were

found inside the suitcase containing the drugs. Do not use boldface type
or underlining for this purpose.

(b)

To cite the names of ships. Do not italicise the definite article The unless
it forms part of a ships name, eg, The Ivanovo collided into El
Neputuno.

(c)

To cite foreign words and phrases that have not been assimilated into the
English language. See Appendix 1A for a table of foreign words and
phrases that should be italicised.

When indicating the possessive form of an italicised word or phrase using an

apostrophe followed by the letter s ( s ), the s should not be italicised, eg,
applying Ong Ah Chuans case, the RSS Morning Stars bow was damaged.

Where a passage of text is already italicised and the passage contains a word or
phrase that would normally require italics, that word or phrase should be set out in
ordinary roman type, eg, The famous case of Brown v Board of Education was a
landmark in American legal history. (This rule is similar to that for headings at
para A1.)

A6

Spaces. There should only be one space between words and sentences. Do not
use double spaces between sentences. When editing a typeset, switch on the
Show/Hide button by clicking the icon with the paragraph symbol () on your
toolbar. You will then be able to see clearly whether there are any double spaces
in the document.

A6.1

Non-breaking spaces. A non-breaking space is to be inserted between pre-fixes

and numerals or names, and between names and suffixes. To type such a space,
press Ctrl+Shift+Space on your keyboard. When you switch on the Show/Hide
button on your toolbar, the non-breaking space appears as a bubble ().
Examples
s 23 of the Act (the non-breaking space is between s and 23)
O 18 r 1 of the Rules of Court (the non-breaking spaces are
between O and 18, and between r and 1)
No 1 on the list (the non-breaking space is between No and
1)
Mr Lee and Mdm Ng (the non-breaking spaces are between Mr
and Lee, and between Mdm and Ng)
Chan Sek Keong CJ (the non-breaking space is between Keong
and CJ)
A non-breaking space is also inserted between an initial and a surname, such as
J Lee (the non-breaking space is between J and Lee), and Kevin Y L Tan
(the non-breaking spaces are between Y and L, and between L and
Tan).
A non-breaking space is also inserted between the day and month in dates, such as
29 November 2005 (the non-breaking space is between 29 and November).

C Citations

RULES OF EXPRESSION

B1

Spelling. Apply British spelling conventions as set out in the current edition of
the Oxford English Dictionary. Note the following preferred spellings.
Variant Spellings

Preferred Spelling

-ce/-se defence, licence, offence; or

defense, license, offense

-ce defence, licence, offence; but

license and practise when used as
verbs

-g-/-ge- acknowledgment, judgment,

lodgement; or acknowledgement,
judgement, lodgement

-g- acknowledgment, judgment,

lodgment

-l-/-ll- instalment, fulfil, fulfilment;

marshal, instil or installment, fulfill,
fulfillment, instill, marshall

-l- instalment, fulfil, fulfilment,

marshal, instil; but install, fulfilled,
marshalled, instilled

-m/-mme gram, kilogram; or

gramme, kilogramme

-m gram, kilogram; but use

program only in the context of a
computer program, and programme
for all other senses of the word

-our/-or colour, labour, odour,

favour; or color, labor, odor, favor

-our colour, labour, odour, favour

-re/-er centre, litre, metre, theatre; or

center, liter, meter, theater

-re centre, litre, metre, theatre; but

meter for a measuring device

-s/-z analyse, authorise, emphasise,

organisation, organise, paralyse,
realisation, realise, recognise,
sterilisation; or analyze, authorize,
emphasize, organization, organize,
paralyze, realization, realize,
recognize, sterilization

-s analyse, authorise, emphasise,

organisation, organise, paralyse,
realisation, realise, recognise,
sterilisation

-t/-ed burnt, learnt, spelt, spoilt; or

burned, learned, spelled, spoiled

-t burnt, learnt, spelt, spoilt (but

learned counsel)

disc or disk

disc (as in compact disc); but use

disk when referring to a computer
peripheral such as a hard disk

dispatch or despatch
focused or focussed
in so far or insofar
inquire, inquiry; or enquire, enquiry

despatch
focused
in so far
inquire, inquiry; but enquiry may be
used when referring to an informal

Variant Spellings

Koran or Quran
moneys or monies
movable or moveable, sizable or
sizeable, unmistakable or
unmistakeable
per cent or percent
trade mark or trademark
linchpin or lynchpin
adviser or advisor, payer or payor
straitjacket or straightjackets
travelled or traveled, levelled or
leveled
benefited or benefitted, profited or
profitted
by-law or bye-law

Preferred Spelling
request for information
Koran
moneys
movable, sizable, unmistakable

per cent or % (if used with a numeral)

trade mark
linchpin
adviser, payer
straitjacket
travelled, levelled, totalled, labelled,
but paralleled
benefited, profited, but retrofitted,
outfitted
by-law

Variant spellings in quotations from other sources (such as cases, letters or notes
of evidence) should not be altered.
Appendix 3C contains a list of words that are often misspelt.

B2

Abbreviations. Unless a name or phrase is internationally known, always state it

in full when it first appears in an article and indicate its abbreviation after it in
parentheses, thus: Housing and Development Board (HDB). For acronyms,
there is no need to add the to the acronyms, thus: the Land Titles Act (LTA)
not (the LTA).
Do not place spaces or full stops after the letters in an abbreviation.
Examples
3m

25,400.50

16.5mg

RM105,000

Exception: 52 sq ft (use non-breaking spaces)

A non-breaking space should be typed between a citation word and a digit. (In
Microsoft Word, a non-breaking space can be typed by pressing
Ctrl+Shift+Space.)
Examples
ss 4(5) and 4(6)
O 14 of the Rules of Court

C Citations

11

Note the preferred abbreviations set out in Appendix 2A (words and phrases that
may be abbreviated after the first occurrence) and Appendix 2B (words and
phrases that may always be abbreviated), as well as the words and phrases that
should not be abbreviated that are set out in Appendix 2C.
Important: Except for forms of address (eg Mr, Mrs, Mdm, etc), do not
abbreviate the first word of a sentence.
Examples
Sections 4(5) and 4(6)
Order 14 of the Rules of Court

B3

Dates and Times.

B3.1

Dates.
y
24 September 1999 (use a non-breaking space between the day and
month, ie, between 24 and September).
y
2427 September 1999
y
30 April and 1 May 2006
y
Spell days of the week in full.

B3.2

Times.
y
10.00am, 3.15pm.
y
12.00 noon, 12.00 midnight.
y
Periods of time: from 11.00am to 1.00pm, between 7.00pm and
9.00pm.

B4

Numbers.
y
Spell out numbers ten and below: one, two, three, , nine, ten,
11, 12, etc.
y
First, second, third, , ninth, tenth, 11th, 12th, etc. Do not
use superscript type when setting out ordinal numbers, eg, 15th, not
15th.
y
Numbers greater than 999: 1,004.35, 1,098,999.
y
Numbers from a million that are used in the context of measurement or
currency may be abbreviated thus: $1m, RMB4.75m, US$1bn. In
other contexts, the words million and billion should be spelt in full, eg,
Singapore has a population of about four million people, He received
one million shares.
y
Where a sentence starts with a number, the number should be spelt in full,
eg, Twenty-seven grams of raw heroin were found in the bag. If a
number would be unwieldy if expressed in words, the sentence should be
rephrased so that is does not begin with the number, eg, The bag was
found to contain 127.5g of raw heroin.
y
Percentages may be expressed thus: 5%, 100%, 22.33%

B5

Punctuation.

B5.1

The comma bracketing commas. The general rule is that a pair of bracketing
commas is used to mark off a weak interruption of the sentence one that does
not disturb the flow of the sentence.
Examples
These findings, I would suggest, cast doubt upon his evidence.
That case, in my view, was wrongly decided.
When used at beginning of sentences, only the second comma is
required:
However, he immediately gave notice to terminate the contract.
Unlike most nations, Britain has no written constitution.
To check if bracketing commas have been correctly used, remove the weak
interruption from the sentence. The result should still be a complete sentence that
makes good sense, eg, These findings cast doubt upon his evidence.
Generally, use a pair of commas before and after inter alia, ie and however.
Examples
The following orders, inter alia, were made.
Such damage would fall under the section, ie, be subject to
limitation of liability.
The defendant, however, immediately gave notice to terminate the
contract.
Bracketing commas should not be used with clauses that are required to identify
what is being talked about, rather than merely adding additional information.
Example
Because of problems with the test, all the people who were told
that they were HIV-negative had to be recalled. [No bracketing
commas used around the clause who were told that they were
HIV-negative, as without this clause it would not be evident
which people were being referred to.]

B5.2

The colon. The colon is used to indicate that what follows it is an explanation or
elaboration of what precedes it. If the material introduced by a colon is a formal

C Citations

13

statement or quotation, or consists of more than one sentence, it should begin with
a capital letter; otherwise, it may begin with a lowercase letter.
Examples
Although her testimony was not always clear, she was sure of one
thing: she did not intend to enter into a contract with him.
The rule may be stated thus: An appellate court will be slow to
overturn findings of fact of the trial judge, especially when an
assessment of credibility and veracity of witnesses is made.
The question was: Why did the plaintiff not report the matter to the
authorities?
B5.3

The semicolon. The semicolon is used to join two complete sentences into a
single written sentence when all of the following conditions are met: (a) the two
sentences are felt to be too closely related to be separated by a full stop; (b) there
is no connecting word that would require a comma, such as and or but; and (c)
the special conditions requiring a colon are absent (see paragraph B5.2).
However, certain connecting words require a preceding semicolon, the most
important being consequently, hence, however, meanwhile,
nevertheless, therefore and thus. Preferably, these words should be used to
begin a separate sentence.
Examples
The report was published in November 2002; a supplement
followed in January 2003.
It was believed that the existence of the will was known only to the
deceaseds widow; however, it is now evident that this is not the
case.
Where a sentence contains numerous commas, for clarity semicolons may be used
in place of some of the commas to mark important breaks in the sentence.
Example
The people present were the surgeon, Dr Sunita Prakash; the
attending nurse, Mr Tan Khaw Bee; and the defendant. [If only
commas were used, it would not be clear how many people were
present.]

B5.4

The apostrophe. As a general rule, use the possessive ending s after

singular words, including words or names that end in s. Note, however, two
exceptions: (a) a plural noun which already ends in s takes only a following

apostrophe, ie, s ; and (b) a name ending in s takes only an apostrophe and
not s if the possessive form is not pronounced with an extra s.
Examples
The general rule
the accuseds girlfriend
childrens rights
a weeks notice
the witnesss testimony
Exception (a)
the appellants costs
the two Malaysians passports
two months imprisonment
the witnesses testimonies

the buss arrival

St Jamess Park
Thomass job

Exception (b)
Reuters journalists.
Socrates philosophy
the United States next move

Do not use an apostrophe in setting out plural forms of decades, eg, This research
was carried out in the 1970s, not This research was carried out in the 1970s.
B5.5

The hyphen. Note the compound words that should be hyphenated (see
Appendix 3A) and those that should not (see Appendix 3B).

B5.6

The dash. Dashes should be typed using en-dashes (). Do not use a hyphen
(-) or an em-dash (). To type an en-dash using Microsoft Word, hold down
the Ctrl key on your keyboard and press the minus-sign key on the numeric
keypad.
A dash may be used to indicate a range of numbers such as amounts, dates and
numbers in the form between X and Y or from X to Y. No spaces should be
typed between the dash and the words or numbers with which it appears. As the
dash replaces the words between and and from to , do not write
between XY or from XY. If it is desired to use the words between and
from, the range should be written in full (between X and Y) and the dash
should not be used.
A dash may also be used to express a relationship between two nations, places or
other objects.
Examples
She was an undergraduate at the Nanyang Technological
University 19931996.
The supermarket was open 10.00am9.00pm.
The sample contained at least 14.515.5g of morphine.
[2004] 1 SLR 23 at [3][4]

C Citations

15

His alibi was that he was on a Kuala LumpurSingapore flight

when the incident occurred.
The United StatesSingapore Free Trade Agreement has important
implications for intellectual property law in Singapore.
(NB: For Annual Review) The facts of the case have been
discussed at paras 11.1511.17 above.
B5.7

Capital letters. Capitalise the following categories of words and phrases:

(a)

The first word, and each significant word, of a title of a case, piece of
legislation, treaty, book, journal, newspaper, television programme, film,
musical composition, etc. Small words like and, in, on, of, the
and with need not be capitalised unless it is the first word, eg,
Singapore Academy of Law Journal, On Golden Pond.

(b)

Proper names, that is, names or titles that refer to an individual person,
place, institution or event, eg, President S R Nathan, Yong Pung
How CJ, Robert Miller, Raffles Square, the Supreme Court,
Singapore, the Internet, the World Wide Web, Commonwealth
Heads of Government Meeting 2003.
In Singapore Academy of Law Publications, the following words are
capitalised:
the Bar
the Government
the Bench
the Judiciary
the Defence (party in a
the Prosecution (party in a
criminal proceeding)
criminal proceeding)
the Executive
the Legislature
the Registrar (of the Supreme Court) (do not capitalise if
the word registrar is used to refer to an assistant
registrar of the Supreme Court, a deputy registrar of
the Subordinate Courts, etc)
Court levels: the House of Lords, the Court of Appeal, the
High Court, the District Court, the Magistrates Court,
the Family Court, the Juvenile Court, the Subordinate
Courts

(c)

References to the parties in a criminal proceeding, namely, the

Prosecution and the Defence, eg, the Prosecutions witness, the
Defence contended that but not when it is used as an adjective, ie, a
prosecution witness.

(d)

References to the State when referring to a country considered as an

organised political community. Do not capitalise when using state as an

adjective or verb, eg, state immunity. Similarly, references to the

Judiciary, the Bar, the Bench, but the Singapore judiciary.
(e)

Manufacturers brand names and products (if they have not become
generic labels for classes of objects), and trade marks, eg, Microsoft
Windows XP, Sony Discman, Coca-Cola.

The following words and phrases should not be capitalised:

B5.8

(f)

Words or titles that do not refer to any specific person or thing, eg, The
company hired a new managing director in September and Marion
Wong was the managing director of the company, but Marion Wong,
Managing Director of ABC Company.

(g)

References to the court, the judge, the trial judge, etc, except where
required or appropriate (eg, where the Court in a statutorily provision
has a specific definition)

(h)

References to the parties in proceedings, eg, the second defendant, not

the Second Defendant. However, when referring to opposing sides in
criminal proceedings, capitalise the Prosecution and the Defence (see
(c) above).

(i)

References to currencies, eg, dollar notes, five 20-sen coins, an

account denominated in pound sterling.

(j)

References to specific court documents, eg, the second paragraph of the

statement of claim, the defendants affidavit of evidence-in-chief, and
to documents generally, eg, lease agreement, letter of offer, deed of
separation, memorandum and articles of association.

Quotation marks. Apart from their use in quotations, quotation marks should be
used in the following situations:
(a)

To cite English words or short phrases that are being talked about, eg, The
phrase wrongful gain is defined in s 23 of the Penal Code (Cap 224,
1985 Rev Ed) as meaning gain by unlawful means of property to which
the person gaining it is not legally entitled.

(b)

To cite the names of trade marks, eg, the plaintiffs trade mark Breez .

B6

Miscellaneous Rules of Expression.

B6.1

Corporate and unincorporated entities. When using terms like plaintiff,

defendant, appellant and respondent in reference to corporate and
unincorporated entities, including associations, bodies corporate, companies,
partnerships, societies and statutory boards, use the singular forms of the terms.
The plural forms plaintiffs, defendants, appellants and respondents
should be used for multiple parties.

C Citations

B6.2

17

Names of law lords. Where the name of a law lord of the House of Lords bears
a place-name, eg, Lord Keith of Kinkel, Lord Keith of Avonholm, Lord
Bingham of Cornhill, Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead, the first occurrence of the
judges name should include the place-name. Thereafter, Lord Keith, Lord
Bingham, Lord Nicholls will suffice.

CITATIONS

Use the following citation forms set out in the examples below.
C1

Cases.
(a)
Case names. Case names should be exactly as they appear in the report.
However, phrases such as (a firm), and another, and others,
formerly known as , (in liquidation) and trading as should be
omitted. Generally, omit whatever appears in round brackets, except where
the case is numbered or the name of the case is redacted or it is part of the
partys name (eg, Lee Kuan Yew v Tang Liang Hong (No 2), Re A (an
infant), Taylor (Pte) Co v Toyo (Singapore) Pte Ltd.
Also omit all full-stops (especially for abbreviations) in the case names
unless a full-stop is part of a partys name, eg, The Two.99 Shop v
Electromall.com.
Where the case name is the name of a ship, the quotation marks can be
omitted, eg, The Rainbow Joy.
The following abbreviations should be used for Singapore cases only:
Word or Phrase
Attorney-General
Management Corporation
Strata Title Plan Number
Public Prosecutor

Abbreviation
AG
MCST Plan No
PP

(b)

SLR citations. When a Singapore case has been reported in the SLR, use
the SLR citation. If a MLJ or Singapore neutral citation is used by the
author, check the Legal Workbench on LawNet to see if the case has been
reported in SLR.

(c)

Unreported Singapore cases. Where a Singapore case is unreported, cite it

by its neutral citation (eg, [2004] SGHC 12). The neutral citations of
Singapore cases can be obtained from the Legal Workbench module of
LawNet at http://www. lawnet.com.sg.
Examples
Tan Ching Seng v Raffles Town Club Pte Ltd [2002] 3 SLR 345 at
[10]
Sheldon v Outhwaite [1996] 1 AC 102
Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 45
Herbage v Times Newspapers Ltd The Times (1 May 1981)
An unreported case cited by neutral citation
Tan Kim Seng v Victor Adam Ibrahim [2003] SGCA 49

C Citations

19

A UK case cited by neutral citation

Grobbelaar v News Group Newspapers Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ
1213 at [10]
A case with parallel citations
Halpern v Toronto (City) (2003) 172 OAC 276; 65 OR (3d) 161
(d)

Pinpoint citations. When referring to a particular passage in a case, cite to

the relevant paragraph number(s) in the judgment rather than to the page
number(s), thus: [2004] 1 SLR 23 at [3][4]. An en-dash rather than a
hyphen should be typed between a range of paragraph numbers (see
paragraph B5.6). For pre-1997 SLR cases, cite the page followed by the
paragraph number. Older judgments that did not come with paragraph
numbers have since been edited and the newly-inserted paragraph numbers
can be found on the Legal Workbench module of LawNet.
Example
This principle was applied in two subsequent cases: Andermatt
Investments Pte Ltd v Comptroller of Income Tax [1995] 3 SLR
451 (Andermatt) at 460, [27]; and JD Ltd v Comptroller of
Income Tax [2006] 1 SLR 484 (JD Ltd) at [486][487].

(e)

Abbreviations of case names.

Where a case is cited and referred to
subsequently in an article, the name of the case may be abbreviated and
referred to subsequently by its abbreviated name. The above examples show
how this is done. The abbreviated name appears within brackets and
quotation marks just after the citation of the case.

(f)

US cases. Put the year of the judgment at the end of the citation, following
the US practice
Example: Lojuk v Quandt 706 F 2d 1456 at 1458 (7th Cir, 1983)

(g)

Indicating court levels. Use abbreviations HC for High Court, CA for

Court of Appeal, HL for House of Lords, DC for District Court, PC
for Privy Council, starting always with the lower/lowest court. If, however,
neutral citations (which are self-explanatory) are used, there is no further
need to indicate court levels using the abbreviations.
Example: The Seaway [2004] 2 SLR 577 (HC), [2005] 1 SLR 435
(CA)

If, however, the name of the case is changed on appeal, both names will have to
set out.

Example: Burswood Nominees Ltd v Liao Eng Kiat [2004] 2 SLR

436 (HC), Liao Eng Kiat v Burswood Nominees Ltd [2004]
4 SLR 690 (CA)

C2

Statutes.
y
Cite a statute by its chapter number and edition year.
Examples
The Constitution
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (1999 Reprint) Art 14(1)
Where a chapter number has been assigned
Misuse of Drugs Act (Cap 185, 2001 Rev Ed) s 2(1)
Where no chapter number has been assigned
Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 2001 (Act 39 of 2001)
A Malaysian statute
Film Censorship Act 2002 (No 620 of 2002) (Msia) s 5
A UK statute
Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003 (c 27) (UK) s 3
US legislation
Non-Detention Act 18 USC (US) 4001(a) (2000)
NB: USC stands for United States Code.

C3

Subsidiary Legislation.
Examples
Where a chapter number has been assigned
Central Provident Fund (Investment Schemes) Regulations
(Cap 36, Rg 9, 2002 Rev Ed)
Rules of Court (Cap 322, R 5, 2004 Rev Ed) O 14 r 1
Where no chapter number has been assigned
Prevention of Pollution of the Sea (Oil) Regulations 1991 (GN
No S 58/1991) reg 3
A piece of UK subsidiary legislation
Electronic Communications (Universal Service) Regulations 2003
(SI 2003 No 33) (UK)

C Citations

C4

Other Government Publications.

Examples
Bills
Computer Misuse (Amendment) Bill 2003 (Bill 22 of 2003) cl 4
Parliamentary debates
Singapore Parliamentary Debates, Official Report (31 October
2002) vol 20 at cols 14241426 (David T E Lim, Acting
Minister for Information, Communications and the Arts)
United Kingdom, House of Lords, Parliamentary Debates (4 July
2003) vol 650 at col 1148 (Baroness Pitkeathley)
Commonwealth
(Australia),
House
of
Representatives,
Parliamentary Debates (4 November 2003) at 23761,
<http://www.aph.gov.au/hansard/reps/dailys/dr041-203.
pdf (accessed 5 January 2004) (Peter Costello, Treasurer)
Select committee reports
Report of the Select Committee on the Advance Medical Directive
Bill (Bill No 40/95) (Parl 1 of 1996, 11 March 1996)
United Kingdom, Report of the Committee on Homosexual
Offences and Prostitution (Cmnd 247, 1957) at 42
(Chairman: Sir John Frederick Wolfenden)

C5

Books.
Examples
Colin Tapper, Cross and Tapper on Evidence (Butterworths,
9th Ed, 1999) at p 74
Kevin Y L Tan, Yeo Tiong Min & Lee Kiat Seng, Constitutional
Law in Malaysia and Singapore (Malayan Law Journal,
1991)
Jaroslav Pelikan et al, The Idea of the University: A Reexamination
(Yale University Press, 1992)
Aristotle, Ethics (J A K Thomson trans) (The Folio Society, 2003)
Benjamins Sale of Goods (A G Guest gen ed) (Sweet & Maxwell,
6th Ed, 2002) at para 10-039

21

Halsburys Laws of Singapore vol 5 (Butterworths Asia, 2001) at

para 60.142
Halsburys Laws of England vol 8(3) (Butterworths, 4th Ed
Reissue, 2003) at para 405

C6

Articles in Journals.
Legal Journals
Examples
Peter Birks, No Consideration: Restitution After Void Contracts
(1993) 23 UWALR 195 at 203
Walter Woon, The Applicability of English Law in Singapore in
The Singapore Legal System (Kevin Y L Tan ed)
(Singapore University Press, 2nd Ed, 1999) ch 6 at p 230
Mei-lan E Wong, Note, The Implications of School Choice for
Children with Disabilities (1993) 103 Yale LJ 827 at 830
Scientific Journals
Examples
Ooi Giok Ling, The Role of the State in Nature Conservation in
Singapore
Society
and
Natural
Resources
2002; 15(5): 455460, at 459.
[Note that 15 is the volume no, 5 is the number of the part, and the
article runs from pages 455 to 460.]
Edwin Ng, Medical Ethics Singapore Medical Journal
2004; 42(2): 128134.
Note that for scientific journals, the year of publication appears before the
volume number and is separated from the volume number by a semi-colon
and a non-breaking space. The part or issue number appears in round
brackets immediately after the volume number. Use a non-breaking space
after the colon before indicating the page numbers.

C7

Articles in Serial Publications.

Examples
Ho Ka Wei & Ben Nadarajan, Thwarting the Cyber Terrorist
The Straits Times (14 November 2003) at p H1

C Citations

Jeremy Summers, Were Innocent Until Were Proved Guilty

or Until Our Assets are Seized The Times (London)
(29 November 2003) at p 34
Michael Walsh, Asias Different Drum Time (14 January 1991)
at pp 1718

C8

Material on the Internet.

Examples
David Bainbridge, Trademark Infringement, the Internet and
Jurisdiction [2003] 1 JILT (4 July 2003) <http://elj.
warwick.ac.uk/jilt/03-1/bainbridge.htm> (accessed 23 April
2004)
Joanne Mariner, Battlefield Chicago? In the Padilla Case, a
Federal Court Says No, FindLaw (23 December 2003)
<http://www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/12/22/findlaw.analysis.
mariner.padilla/index.html> (accessed 26 December 2003)
National Heritage Board website <http://www.nhb.gov.sg/About_
NHB/About_Us> (accessed 23 April 2004)

C9

Law Reform Working Papers and Reports

Examples
Law Reform Committee, Singapore Academy of Law, Report of
the Sub-Committee on the Status of Children Born Through
Artificial Conception (26 September 1997) at para 1.2
(Chairman: Jeffrey Chan Wah Teck)
Law

Reform and Revision Division, Attorney-Generals

Chambers, Proposed Amendment to the International
Arbitration Act on Rules of Arbitration: Report (LRRD
No 11/2002, 2 October 2002)

United Kingdom, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice, Report

(Cmnd 2263, 1993) (Chairman: Viscount Runciman of
Doxford)
Australian Law Reform Commission, Sentencing: Penalties
(Discussion Paper No 30, 1997) at para 286

23

C10

Treaties.
Examples
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (4 November 1950), Eur TS No 5, 312 UNTS
221, 1953 UKTS No 71, Art 6 (entered into force 3
September 1953) (European Human Rights Convention)
United StatesSingapore Free Trade Agreement (6 May 2003)
<http://www.fta.gov.sg>

C11

Dissertations and Forthcoming Materials.

Examples
S M Huang, Equality Before the Law: Article 8: Constitution of the
Federation of Malaya (1963) (unpublished LLM thesis,
University of Singapore, archived at the C J Koh Law
Library, National University of Singapore)
Kevin Y L Tan A Short Legal and Constitutional History of
Singapore in Essays in Singapore Legal History (Kevin
Y L Tan ed, forthcoming, 2004) (manuscript at para 3)

C-12

Miscellaneous notes

C12.1

Pinpoint citations.
(a)

For paragraphs in cases, use [ ] and for all other materials including
articles and books, use para. When referring to pages, prefix with a p
except when the pin cite is to a page in a case or journal article.

(b)

For Singapore legislation, the sub-provisions (a), (b), (c), etc are in italics.
Section 10(3)(a)(ii) of the Civil Law Act (Cap 43, 1999 Rev Ed)

FOOTNOTES

D1

Types of Footnotes. Citation footnotes are used to indicate the authority for a
proposition made in the text of an article, or the source of the material referred to.
Only the names of cases and legislation should be set out in the main text the
citations of the cases and legislation should appear in footnotes. A series of
citations should be arranged in some order (eg, in chronological or reverse
chronological order) and should be separated with semicolons.

C Citations

25

Textual footnotes can be used to set out information that is related to the subject
matter of the article, but which is considered sufficiently peripheral such that
putting it in the body of the article would detract from the propositions being
made.
A single footnote can contain both citation and textual elements.
Do not use endnotes.
Examples
38

Waugh v British Railways Board [1980] AC 521; In re Highgrade

Traders Ltd [1984] BCLC 151; Guinness Peat Properties Ltd v Fitzroy
Robinson Partnership [1987] 1 WLR 1027; Ventouris v Mountain
[1991] 1 WLR 607.

170

Re L (A Minor) [1997] AC 16. In practice, a party who wishes to rely

on his expert evidence at trial normally waives litigation privilege and
discloses the report to the other party and the court with a view to
establishing the experts opinion in court.

If a case is to be subsequently referred to (whether in the main text or another

footnote) set out the abbreviated name of the case after the citation.
Example
38

Guinness Peat Properties Ltd v Fitzroy Robinson Partnership [1987] 1

WLR 1027 (Guinness v Fitzroy).

40

Guinness v Fitzroy, supra n 38.

Singapore Academy of Law Annual Review of Singapore Cases. Footnotes are

not used. Set out all citations in the main text after the authorities referred to, as
with judgments. For subsequent references, see D3.4 below.
D2

Introductory Signals.
The following introductory signals may be used in
citations where appropriate:
[No introductory
signal]

The authority is directly referred to or states the

proposition made in the main text.

See

The authority directly supports the proposition.

See especially

The authority is the best or strongest of several

authorities supporting the proposition.

See, eg,

The authority provides qualified support for the

proposition or is one of several authorities supporting

the proposition.
See also

The authority provides added support for the

proposition, but is not the most authoritative or is not
directly on point.

See generally

The authority supports and provides background

information to the proposition.

Confer (cf); compare

The authority provides a contrast which illustrates the

proposition. Do not use cf or compare when what is
meant is see.

But see

The authority disagrees partially with the proposition

but does not contradict it directly.

Contra; contrast

The authority directly contradicts the proposition.

D3

Prior and Subsequent References.

D3.1

Academy Journal. In general, for the Academy Journal, the first occurrence of
a source in an article should have a full citation set out in a footnote. Subsequent
references to the same source should then refer to the full citation.
The general format for prior and subsequent references in footnotes is as follows:
[Abbreviated name of case or legislation,] ibid/id/supra/infra, n footnote
number [at pinpoint]

[Authors surname, [Abbreviated Book Title or Abbreviated Article

Title],] ibid/id/supra/infra, n footnote number [at pinpoint]
Refer to a range of footnote numbers thus: nn 1015.
When giving pinpoints, avoid the use of et sequentes (abbreviated et seq; Latin:
and those (pages, sections, etc) that follow). Instead, set out a range of page
numbers, paragraph numbers, etc.
For references to portions of the main text, use the formats in the examples below:
Examples
11

See Part II.of the main text below for more on this topic.

C Citations
24

D3.2

27

For a detailed discussion of Union Discount, see paras 10 and 11 of the

main text above.

Ibid and Id. Ibidem (abbreviated ibid; Latin for in the same place) is used to
refer to an authority in the footnote immediately preceding the current footnote,
and the same pinpoint is being referred to. If the authority is the same but the
pinpoint is different, use idem (abbreviated id; Latin for the same).
Ibid should also be used for subsequent references to a particular authority in the
same footnote.
Type a comma between ibid or id and the phrase at pinpoint. The comma
should not be italicised.
If the authority referred to is not in the footnote immediately preceding the current
footnote, use supra ( paragraph D-3.2 below).
Examples
78
79
80
81

[2001] 3 SLR 587 at 598601.

Ibid.
Id, at 603.
Id, at 610; see also PP v Mazlan bin Maidun [1993] 1 SLR 512.

____________________
26

27
28

D3.3

Yogambikai Nagarajah v Indian Overseas Bank [1997] 1 SLR 258

(Yogambikai); see also Min Seng Auto Supply Pte Ltd v Loh Chun
Hua [1993] 3 SLR 233 (Min Seng Auto Supply) and Peng Ann Realty
Pte Ltd v Liu Cho Chit [1994] 3 SLR 576 (Peng Ann Realty).
Contrast the dissenting judgment of Lai J in Min Seng Auto Supply,
ibid, at 254.
Yogambikai, ibid.
Peng Ann Realty, supra n 26, at 502503.

Supra and Infra. Supra (Latin: above) is used to refer to a prior footnote but
not to a prior part of the main text ( paragraph D-3 above).
Infra (Latin: below) is used to refer to a subsequent footnote or part of the main
text. Where possible, avoid the use of infra by providing the full citation at the
first reference.
To refer to a footnote and the text to which it refers, use the following format:
Supra/infra n footnote number and the accompanying text. Do not put a comma
after supra or infra. Put it after the footnote number, and before the phrase at
pinpoint. For references to portions of the main text only, see the examples at
paragraph D-3 above.
Do not use above, below, ante (Latin: before) or post (Latin: after). Also,
do not use the expressions loco citato (loc cit) (Latin: in the place cited, used to

mean at the passage of a book cited), opera citato (op cit) (Latin: the book
previously cited) or quod vide (qv) (Latin: which see) as such expressions make
it more difficult for readers to locate references.
Examples

D3.4

26

Supra n 20.

29
42

The point is forcefully made in PP v Sagar, supra n 16, at [20].

Sutcliffe v Thackrah, supra n 40, at 737 and 740.

45

Michael Hor, supra n 3, at 367.

59

See also Pettit, Equity and the Law of Trusts, supra n 50, at p 9.

61

This point is examined at paras 2021 of the main text below.

Annual Review Where a case has been cited previously with its full citation,
any subsequent references to the case, within the same chapter and same section,
are to be followed by (supra para x.yy) where x.yy is the paragraph number
where the case is first cited. The exception to this rule is where the subsequent
reference is only one or two paragraphs away from the first reference (as the
citation will still be fresh in readers minds).
The following are separate sections in the Annual Review:
Chapter 1 Administrative Law, Constitutional Law
Chapter 2 Admiralty Law, Shipping Law, Aviation Law
Chapter 11 Criminal Procedure, Evidence, Sentencing

 29

APPENDIX 1A
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES TO BE ITALICISED

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

a fortiori

(Latin) by even greater force of logic, even more so

a posteriori

(Latin: from what comes after) inductively, from the

particular to the general, from known effects to their inferred
causes

a priori

(Latin: from what is before) deductively, from the general

to the particular

ab initio

(Latin) from the beginning

actus reus

(Latin: guilty act) wrongful deed that comprises the

physical components of a crime and that generally must be
coupled with mens rea to establish criminal liability

ad hoc

(Latin: for this) arranged or formed for this purpose

ad idem

(Latin) to the same point or matter, of the same mind

ad infinitum

(Latin: without limit) to an indefinite extent

ad valorem

(Latin: according to value) (of a tax) proportional to the

value of the thing taxed

administration cum
testamento annexo

(Latin: with the will annexed) administration granted

where the testators will does not name any executor or
where the executor named is incompetent to act, is deceased
or refuses to act

administration de bonis non

(Latin) administration granted for the purpose of settling the

remainder of an estate not administered by the previous
executor or administrator

administration durante
absentia

(Latin: during absence) administration granted in the

absence of either the executor or the person who has
precedence as administrator

administration durante
minore aetate

(Latin) administration granted during the minority of either

the executor or the person who has precedence as
administrator

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

administration pendente lite

(Latin) administration granted during the pendency of a suit

concerning a wills validity

aliter

(Latin) otherwise, it would be otherwise

aliunde

(Latin) from another source, from elsewhere

alter ego
amicus curiae;
plural amici curiae

(Latin) second self

(Latin: friend of the court) a person, not being a
representative of a party to the proceedings, permitted to
argue a point of law or fact before a court

audi alteram partem

(Latin: hear the other side) no one should be condemned

unheard or without prior notice of allegations against him

autrefois acquit

(Law French) formerly acquitted

autrefois convict

(Law French) formerly convicted

bona fide, bonae fidei

(Latin) in good faith

bona fides

(Latin) good faith

bona vacantia

(Latin: vacant goods) property not disposed of by will and

to which no relative is entitled under intestacy laws;
ownerless property

carte blanche

(French: blank paper) complete freedom or authority to do

whatever one likes

causa causans

(Latin) immediate or effective cause

causa sine qua non

(Latin) a necessary cause, the cause without which the thing

cannot be or the event could not have occurred

caveat emptor

(Latin) let the buyer beware

caveat venditor

(Latin) let the seller beware

cestui que trust;

plural cestuis que trust

(Law French) one who possesses equitable rights in property

and receives the rents, issues and profits from it; a
beneficiary

ceteris paribus

(Latin) other things being equal

 31

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

certiorari

(Law Latin: to be more fully informed) formerly a

prerogative writ directed to an inferior court commanding it
to certify; now an order on an application for judicial
review to quash a judgment, order or conviction

compos mentis/
non compos mentis

(Latin: master of ones mind) of sound mind/not of sound

mind

confer (cf)

(Latin) compare

consensus ad idem

(Latin) agreement of parties to the same thing, meeting of

minds

contra

(Latin: against) (in citations) the cited authority supports a

contrary view

contra proferentem

(Latin: against the offeror) the doctrine that, in

interpreting documents, ambiguities are to be construed
unfavourably to the drafter

coram

(Latin) before, in the presence of

corpus;
plural corpora

(Latin: body) capital of a fund, as contrasted with the

income

curriculum vitae

(Latin: course of life) a written record of ones education

and employment

cy prs

(Law French: as near as) an equitable doctrine under

which a court interprets a written instrument with a gift to
charity as closely to the donors intention as possible so that
the gift does not fail

de bene esse

(Latin: of well being) as conditionally allowed for the

present, in anticipation of a future need

de facto

(Latin: in point of fact) having effect though not formally

or legally recognised

de jure

(Latin: as a matter of law) existing by right or according to

law

de minimis non curat lex

(Latin) the law does not concern itself with trifles

de novo

(Latin) anew

dictum

[see obiter dictum]

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

donatio inter vivos;

plural donationes inter
vivos

(Latin) gift made during the donors lifetime and delivered

with the intention of irrevocably surrendering control over
the property; an absolute gift

donatio mortis causa;

plural donationes mortis
causa

(Latin) gift in contemplation of immediate death

ejusdem generis

(Latin: of the same kind or class) a canon of construction

that when a general word or phrase follows a list of specific
persons or things, the general word or phrase will be
interpreted to include only persons or things of the same type
as that listed

en banc

(Law French: on the bench) with all judges present and

participating, in full court

en bloc

(French) as a whole, as a unit

en ventre sa mere

(Law French: in the womb of the mother) (of a fetus) in

the mothers womb
(Latin) therefore

ergo
esprit de corps

(French) feelings of pride, care and support shared by

members of a group

et alii or et alia (et al)

(Latin) and other persons

et cetera (etc)

(Latin: and others) and other things

et sequentes (et seq)

(Latin) and those (pages, sections, etc) that follow

ex abundanti cautela

(Latin: from abundant caution) out of an excess of

caution, to be on the safe side

ex aequo et bono

(Latin) according to what is equitable and good (a decisionmaker authorised to decide ex aequo et bono, especially in
international law, is not bound by legal rules and may instead
follow equitable principles)

ex debito justitiae

(Latin: from or as a debt of justice) as a matter of right, in

accordance with the requirements of justice

ex facie

(Latin: from the face) apparently, evidently

ex gratia

(Latin: by favour) as a favour, not legally necessary

 33

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

ex officio

(Latin: from the office) by virtue of ones office

ex parte

(Latin: from the part) on or from one party only, usually

without notice to or argument from the adverse party

ex post facto

(Latin: from a thing done afterward) after the fact,

retroactively

ex propio motu

(Latin) of ones own accord

ex turpi causa non oritur

actio

(Latin) from an immoral consideration an action does not

arise (a party does not have a right to enforce performance of
an agreement founded on a consideration that is contrary to
the public interest)

exempli gratia (eg)

(Latin) for example, for instance

expressio unius est exclusio

alterius

(Latin) a canon of construction holding that to express or

include one thing implies the exclusion of the other or of the
alternative

forum conveniens

(Latin: a suitable forum) a court in which an action is most

appropriately brought, considering the best interests and
convenience of the parties and witnesses

forum non conveniens

(Latin: an unsuitable court) the doctrine that an

appropriate forum, even though competent under law, may
divest itself of jurisdiction if, for the convenience of litigants
and witnesses, it appears that the action should proceed in
another forum in which the action might originally have been
brought

functus officio

(Latin: having performed ones office) (of an officer or

official body) without further authority or legal competence
because the duties and functions of the original commission
have been fully accomplished

habeas corpus

(Latin: have the body [brought before the judge]) writ

requiring a prisoner to be brought into court for a judge to
decide if the imprisonment is legal

ibidem (ibid)

(Latin) in the same place used in legal citation to denote

that the reference is to a work cited immediately before, and
that the cited matter appears on the same page of the same
book

id est (ie)

(Latin) that is

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

idem (id)

(Latin) the same used in legal citation to refer to the

authority cited immediately before

ignorantia juris non excusat

(Latin: ignorance of the law is no excuse) lack of

knowledge about a legal requirement or prohibition is never
an excuse to a criminal charge

in camera

(Latin: in a chamber) in the courtroom with all the

spectators excluded

in extenso

(Latin) in full, unabridged

in futuro

(Latin) in the future

in globo

(Latin) as an undivided whole rather than separately

in limine

(Latin) preliminarily, at the outset

in loco parentis

(Latin: in the place of a parent) acting temporarily as the

guardian of a child

in pari delicto

(Latin: in equal fault) equally at fault

in pari materia

(Latin in the same matter) in an analogous case, on the

same subject, referring to the same matter

in personam

(Latin: against the person) involving or determining the

personal rights and interests of the parties

in praesenti

(Latin) at present, right now

in re

(Latin: in the matter of) (of a judicial proceeding) not

formally including adverse parties, but rather involving
something, such as an estate

in rem

(Latin: against a thing) involving or determining the status

of a thing, and thus the rights of persons generally with
respect to that thing

in situ

(Latin) in place

in specie

(Latin: in kind) in the same or like form

in terrorem

(Latin: in order to frighten) by way of threat, as a warning

infra

(Latin) below used in legal citation to refer to a later-cited

authority in the text

 35

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

inter alia

(Latin) among other things

inter alios

(Latin) among other persons

inter partes

(Latin: between the parties) between two or more parties,

with two or more parties in a transaction

inter se

(Latin: between or among themselves) between parties

rather than in relation to others

inter vivos

(Latin: between the living) of or relating to property not

conveyed by will or in contemplation of an imminent death
but during the conveyors lifetime

in toto

(Latin: in whole) completely, as a whole

intra vires

(Latin: within the powers of) of or referring to an action

taken within the scope of authority

ipse dixit

(Latin: he himself said it) something asserted but not

proved

ipsissima verba

(Latin: the very (same) words) the exact words used by

somebody being quoted

ipso facto

(Latin: by the fact itself) by the very nature of the situation

ipso jure

(Latin: by the law itself) by the operation of the law itself

jus cogens

(Latin: compelling law) a mandatory norm of general

international law from which no two or more nations may
exempt themselves or release each other

jus dispositivum

(Latin: law subject to the disposition of the parties) a norm

created by the consent of participating nations, as by an
international agreement, and binding only on nations that
agree to be bound by it

jus gentium

(Latin: law of nations) international law

jus soli

(Latin: right of the soil) the rule that a childs citisenship

is determined by place of birth

lex causae

(Latin) the applicable law

lex domicilii

(Latin: law of the domicile) the law of the country where a

person is domiciled

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

lex fori

(Latin: law of the forum) the law of the jurisdiction where

the case is pending

lex loci

(Latin) the law of the place

lex loci celebrationis

(Latin: law of the place of the ceremony) the law of the

place where a contract, especially a marriage, is made

lex loci contractus

(Latin: law of the place of the contract) the law of a place

where a contract is executed or to be performed

lex loci delicti or lex loci

delicti commissi

(Latin: law of the place of the wrong or law of the place

of commission of the wrong) the law of the place where a
tort was committed
(Latin: law of the place of solution) the law of the place
where the contract is to be performed (especially by
payment)

lex loci solutionis

lex mercatoria

(Latin: mercantile law) the law merchant

lex situs

(Latin: law of the location) the law of the place where

property is located

lex posterior derogat priori

(Latin: a later law derogates from an earlier one) the

principle that a later statute negates the effect of a prior one if
the later statute expressly repeals or is obviously repugnant
to the earlier statute

lis

(Latin) a piece of litigation, a controversy or dispute

lis pendens

(Latin) a pending suit

locum tenens

(Latin: holding the place) a deputy, a substitute, a

representative

locus actus

(Latin: place of the act) the place where an act is done, the
place of performance

locus contractus

(Latin: place of the contract) the place where a contract is

made

locus delicti

(Latin: place of the wrong) the place where an offence is

committed; the place where the last event necessary to make
the actor liable occurs

locus in quo

(Latin: place in which) the place where something is

alleged to have occurred

 37

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

locus poenitentiae

(Latin: place of repentance) the point at which it is not too

late for one to change ones legal position; the possibility of
withdrawing from a contemplated course of action,
especially a wrong, before being committed to it

locus standi

(Latin: place of standing) right to bring an action or to be

heard in a given forum

mala fide

(Latin) in bad faith

mala fides

(Latin) bad faith

mandamus

(Latin: we command) writ issued by a superior court to

compel a lower court or government officer to perform
mandatory or purely ministerial duties correctly

mens rea;
plural mentes reae

(Latin: guilty mind) state of mind that the prosecution, to

secure a conviction, must prove that a defendant had when
committing a crime; criminal intent

modus operandi

(Latin: manner of operating) method of operating or a

manner of procedure, especially a pattern of criminal
behaviour so distinctive that investigators attribute it to the
work of the same person

mutatis mutandis

(Latin) all necessary changes having been made, with the

necessary changes

nemo dat quod non habet

(Latin) no one can give what he does not have

nemo judex in causa sua

(Latin) no one should be a judge in his own cause

nisi

(Latin: unless) (of a courts ruling or grant of relief)

having validity unless the adversely affected party appears
and shows cause why it should be withdrawn

nolle prosequi

(Latin) to abandon (a suit or prosecution); to have a case

dismissed by nolle prosequi

non est factum

(Latin: it is not his deed) a denial of execution of an

instrument sued upon

non sequitur

(Latin: it does not follow) inference or conclusion that

does not logically follow from the premises

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

noscitur a sociis

(Latin: it is known by its associates) a canon of

construction holding that the meaning of an unclear word or
phrase should be determined by the words immediately
surrounding it

novus actus interveniens

(Latin: a new act intervening) event that comes between

an initial event in a sequence and the end result, thereby
altering the natural course of events that might have
connected a wrongful act to an injury

nudum pactum

(Latin: bare agreement) agreement unenforceable as a

contract because it is not clothed with consideration

nulla poena sine lege

(Latin) no punishment without a law authorising it

nunc pro tunc

(Latin: now for then) having retroactive legal effect

through a courts inherent power

obiter dictum;
plural obiter dicta

(Latin: something said in passing) a judicial comment

made during the course of delivering an opinion but one that
is unnecessary to the decision of the case and therefore not
precedential (though it may be considered persuasive). Also
obiter or dictum or in obiter.

pace

(Latin) by the permission of

pacta sunt servanda

(Latin: agreements must be kept) the rule that agreements

and stipulations, especially those contained in treaties, must
be observed

parens patriae

(Latin: parent of ones country) the state in its capacity as

provider of protection to those unable to care for themselves

pari passu

(Latin: by equal step) proportionately, without preference

participis criminis

(Latin: partner in crime) an accomplice or accessory

passim

(Latin: here and there) throughout (the cited work)

pendente lite

(Latin: while the action is pending) during the proceedings

or litigation; contingent on the outcome of litigation

per

(Latin) through, by

per alium

(Latin) by means of another

per curiam

(Latin) by the court as a whole

 39

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

per incuriam

(Latin) (of a judicial decision) wrongly decided, usually

because the judge or judges were ill-informed about the
applicable law

per se

(Latin) of, in or by itself, standing alone, without reference

to additional facts

prima facie

(Latin: at first sight) on first appearance but subject to

further evidence or information

pro forma

(Latin: for form) made or done as a formality; (of an

invoice or statement) provided in advance to describe items,
predict results or secure approval

pro rata

(Latin) proportionately; according to an exact rate, measure

or interest

pro tanto

(Latin: to that extent) for so much, as far as it goes

pro tempore (pro tem)

(Latin) for the time being, appointed to occupy a post

temporarily

pur autre vie

(Law French: for anothers life) for or during a period

measured by anothers life

qua

(Latin) in the capacity of, as

quaere

(Latin) inquire, query, examine used to show that a point is

doubtful or open to question

quantum meruit

(Latin: as much as one has deserved) damages awarded in

an amount considered reasonable to compensate a person
who has rendered services in a quasi-contractual relationship;
a claim or right of action for the reasonable value of services
rendered

quantum valebant

(Latin: as much as they are worth) an equitable remedy to

provide restitution for unjust enrichment by awarding the
reasonable value of goods and materials supplied

quia timet

(Latin: because one fears) a legal doctrine that allows a

person to seek equitable relief from future probable harm to a
specific right or interest

quicquid plantatur solo, solo

cedit

(Latin: whatever is fixed to the soil belongs to the soil)

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

quid pro quo

(Latin: something for something) thing that is exchanged

for another thing of more or less equal value; a substitute

quo warranto

(Latin: by what authority) a writ used to inquire into the

authority by which a public office is held or a franchise is
claimed

quoad

(Latin) as regards, with regard to

quoad hanc (hunc)

(Latin) so far as this woman (man) is concerned (with

reference to nullity of marriage or to sexual impotence)

ratio decidendi;
plural rationes decidendi

(Latin: reason for deciding) principle or rule of law on

which a courts decision is founded; rule of law on which a
later court thinks a previous court founded its decision

re

(Latin) regarding, in the matter of, in re

res;

(Latin: thing) an object, interest or status, as opposed to a

person; the subject matter of a trust, a corpus

plural res
res gestae

(Latin: things done) events at issue, or other events

contemporaneous with them

res integra

(Latin: an entire thing) an undecided question of law; a

case of first impression

res inter alios acta, or res

inter alios acta alteri
noncere non debet

(Latin: a thing done between others) a doctrine holding

that a contract cannot unfavourably affect rights of a person
not a party to the contract

res ipsa loquitur

(Latin: the thing speaks for itself) a doctrine providing

that, in some circumstances, the mere fact of an accidents
occurrence raises an inference of negligence so as to
establish a prima facie case

res judicata

(Latin: a thing adjudicated) an issue definitively settled by

judicial decision; an affirmative defence barring the same
parties from litigating a second lawsuit on the same claim, or
any other claim arising from the same transaction or series of
transactions, and that could have been but was not raised in
the first suit.

restitutio in integrum

(Law Latin) restoration to the previous condition or status

quo

resum

(French) a short summary or account of something

 41

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

semble

(Law French: it seems) used chiefly to indicate an obiter

dictum in a court opinion or to introduce an uncertain thought
or interpretation

sic

(Latin: so, thus) used to indicate that the preceding word

or phrase in a quoted passage is reproduced as it appeared in
the original document

simpliciter

(Latin: simply) in a simple or summary manner;

absolutely, unconditionally, per se

sine die

(Latin: without day) with no day assigned (as for

resumption of a meeting or hearing)

sine qua non

(Latin: without which not) an indispensable condition or

thing, something on which something else necessarily
depends

stricto sensu

(Latin: strict sense) in its strict meaning

sub judice

(Latin) under consideration

sub nomine (sub nom)

(Latin: under the name) used in case citations to indicate

that there has been a name change from one stage of the case
to another

sub voce

(Latin: under the word) under a specified word

subpoena ad testificandum

(Law Latin: for testifying under penalty) order directing a

witness to appear in court and give testimony

subpoena duces tecum

(Law Latin) order directing a witness to appear in court and

bring specified documents or records

sui generis

(Latin: of its own kind) of its own kind or class; unique or

peculiar

sui juris

(Latin: of ones own right) of full age and capacity;

possessing full social and civil rights

supra

(Latin: above) earlier in the text used in legal citations to

refer to a previously-cited authority in the text

travaux prparatoires

(French: preparatory works) materials used in preparing

the ultimate form of an agreement or statute, especially of an
international treaty; materials constituting a legislative
history

Foreign Word or Phrase

English Meaning

uberrima fides

(Latin) utmost good faith

uberrimae fidei

(Latin) of the utmost good faith

ultra vires

(Latin: beyond the powers of) beyond the scope of power

allowed by a company charter or by law, unauthorised

versus (v)

(Latin) against

vice versa

(Latin: the position being reversed) with the order or

correspondence reversed; the other way round

vide

(Latin: see) used in legal citations for cross-references

videlicet (viz)

(Latin) to wit, that is to say, namely used to point out,

particularise or render more specific what has been stated in
general (or more obscure) language

vis--vis
viva voce

(French) in relation to, in comparison with

(Latin: with living voice) by word of mouth, orally

voir (or voire) dire

(Law French: to speak the truth) a preliminary

examination to test the competence of a witness or evidence

volenti non fit injuria

(Latin: a person is not wronged by that to which he or she

consents) the principle that a person who knowingly and
voluntarily risks danger cannot recover for any resulting
injury

 43

APPENDIX 2A
WORDS AND PHRASES THAT MAY BE ABBREVIATED
AFTER THE FIRST OCCURRENCE
The following words and phrases should be spelt in full the first time they occur in the
judgment. Thereafter, they may be abbreviated as shown in the following table.
Word or Phrase to be Spelt in Full
on First Occurrence
Chief Justice Yong Pung How or Yong
Pung How CJ
The Acting Chief Justice Tan Ah Tah or
Tan Ah Tah Ag CJ
Judge of Appeal Andrew Phang Boon
Leong or Andrew Phang Boon Leong JA
Judges of Appeal L P Thean and Chao
Hick Tin or L P Thean and Chao Hick
Tin JJA
Justice V K Rajah or V K Rajah J
Justices Kan Ting Chiu and Belinda Ang
Saw Ean or Kan Ting Chiu and Belinda
Ang Saw Ean JJ
Judicial Commissioner T Q Lim or
T Q zaLim JC
Senior District Judge Richard Magnus
District Judge Mavis Chionh
Deputy Registrar
Senior Assistant Registrar
Assistant Registrar
Senior Deputy Registrar
Attorney-General
Solicitor-General
Public Prosecutor
Deputy Public Prosecutor
Assistant Public Prosecutor
Senior State Counsel
Investigating Officer
Narcotics Officer

Abbreviation

The Chief Justice or Yong CJ

The Acting Chief Justice or Tan Ag CJ
Phang JA
Thean and Chao JJA

Rajah J
Kan and Ang JJ

Lim JC
The Snr District Judge or
Snr District Judge Magnus
District Judge Mavis Chionh or
District Judge Chionh
Dy Registrar
Snr Asst Registrar
Asst Registrar
Snr Dy Registrar
AG
SG
PP
DPP
APP
Snr State Counsel
IO
NO

APPENDIX 2B
WORDS AND PHRASES THAT MAY ALWAYS BE ABBREVIATED
Word or Phrase
Forms of Address
Mister (correctly Master)
Missus (correctly Mistress)
Madam
Messrs (correctly Messieurs)
Doctor
Professor
Associate Professor
Assistant Professor
Queens Counsel
Senior Counsel
Baron
Lord Chancellor
Lord Justice(s)
Lord President
Master of the Rolls
Vice Chancellor
Units of Measurement: Length
millimetre(s)
centimetre(s)
metre(s)
kilometre(s)
inch(es)
foot/feet
Units of Measurement: Area
square millimetre(s)
square centimetre(s)
square metre(s)
square kilometre(s)
hectare(s)
square feet

Units of Measurement: Volume

cubic centimetre(s)
cubic metre(s)
millilitre(s)
litre(s)

Abbreviation

Mr
Mrs Ms may be used instead
Mdm Ms may be used instead
M/s
Dr
Prof
Assoc Prof
Asst Prof
QC only after counsels name
SC only after counsels name
B
LC
LJ(J)
LP
MR
VC

mm
cm
m
km
in (use only in combination with ft, eg
5 ft 3 in, otherwise spell out in full)
ft
mm2
cm2
m2
km2
ha
sq ft type a non-breaking space
between the numeral and sq ft.
cm3
m3
ml
l italicise the l so that it is not
mistaken for a one (1)

 45

Word or Phrase
Units of Measurement: Weight
milligram(s)
gram(s)
kilogram(s)
metric tonne(s)
ounce(s)
pound(s)

Units of Measurement: Time

second(s)
minute(s)
hour(s)

Abbreviation

mg
g
kg
mt
oz
lb italicise so that the l is not
mistaken for a one (1)

sec
min
hr use only in combination with
precise periods of time, eg, 2 hr 20
min 5 sec

Units of Measurement: Speed

kilometres per hour
miles per hour

km/h
mph

Units of Measurement: Temperature

degrees Celsius
degrees Fahrenheit

C
F

Units of Measurement: Others

revolutions per minute

rpm

Currencies
Singapore dollar
Australian dollar
Deutsch mark (Germany)
Euro (European Monetary Union)
New Zealand dollar
Pound sterling (United Kingdom)
Renminbi (Peoples Republic of
China)
Ringgit Malaysia
United States dollar
Yen (Japan)

$
(or, if necessary for clarity, S$)
A$
DM

NZ$

RMB

Words and Phrases Used Mainly in Citations

article(s) (of articles of association,
constitutions, contracts, model laws
and treaties)
chapter (of legislation)
chapter(s) (of a book or in legislation)
clause(s) and subclause(s)

RM
US$

Art(s)

Cap
ch(s)
cl(l), sub-cl(l)

Word or Phrase
compiler(s)
confer (Latin: compare)
Division(s) (of legislation)
editor(s), general editor(s)
edition (of a book or of legislation)
et alii or et alia
(Latin: and other persons)
et cetera (Latin: and others)
et sequentes
(Latin: and those that follow)
exempli gratia (Latin: for example)
exhibit(s)
figure(s)
(and the pages) following
ibidem (Latin: in the same place)
id est (Latin: that is)
idem (Latin: the same)
Illustration(s)
note(s) (references to footnotes within
an article)
Notification Number (subsidiary
legislation)
number(s) (in legislation citations or
suit or application numbers)
order(s) (eg of the Rules of Court)
Order Number (subsidiary legislation)
paragraph(s) and sub-paragraph(s) (of
court documents, letters, legal
texts, etc)

Part(s) (of legislation)

regulation(s)
Regulation Number (subsidiary
legislation)
Revised Edition (of a book or of
legislation)
rule(s)
Rule Number (subsidiary legislation)
Schedule(s) (of legislation)

section(s) and subsection(s)

translator(s)

Abbreviation
comp(s)
cf
Div(s)
ed(s), gen ed(s)
Ed
et al
etc
et seq
eg
Exh(s)
fig(s)
ff
ibid
ie
id
Illus
n(n)
N
No(s)
O for orders, use,
eg, O 3 and O 4
O
para(s), sub-para(s)
do not use the symbol.
For references to paragraphs
of case reports and judgments, use
square brackets: see para C1(d)
Pt(s)
reg(s)
Rg
Rev Ed
r(r)
R
Sched(s)
but First Schedule, Second Schedule,
etc (spell out in full)
s(s), sub-s(s)
do not use the symbol except when
referring to US legislation: see
para C2
trans

 47

Word or Phrase

Abbreviation

versus (Latin: against)

videlicet (Latin: namely)

v
viz

Other Words and Phrases

cargo, insurance and freight
free on board

CIF
FOB

APPENDIX 2C
WORDS AND PHRASES THAT SHOULD NOT BE ABBREVIATED
Do not abbreviate the following words and phrases.
Appendix (part of legislation)
District Judge
Exception (part of legislation)
Registrar
State Counsel
Principal Senior State Counsel

 49

APPENDIX 3A
COMPOUND WORDS THAT SHOULD BE HYPHENATED
For Singapore Academy of Law publications, the following compound words should be
hyphenated:
co-operate, co-operation, co-operative, co-ordinate, co-ordination
(but non-cooperation, non-coordination as non-co-operation,
non-co-ordination look awkward avoid these compound
words as far as possible)
co-respondent
court-martial
cross-examination
e-mail
evidence-in-chief
examination-in-chief
a well-known actor (contra the
actor is well known)
well-defined laws (contra the
laws are well defined)
father-in-law, mother-in-law,
etc
vis--vis
mid-July
above-mentioned, lastmentioned (but aforementioned,
abovesaid)

getting-up (for a case)

officer-in-charge
re-examination
set-off (noun)
time-barred (adjective) eg a
time-barred action (contra the
action is time barred)
winding-up (of a company)
(adjective) eg winding-up
proceedings (contra the
winding up of the company)
a five-year-old girl, a ten-yearold car (adjectives)
volte-face
long-term, short-term
(adjectives)

APPENDIX 3B
WORDS THAT SHOULD NOT BE HYPHENATED
For Singapore Academy of Law publications, the following compound words should not be
hyphenated:
backdate (verb)
bypass, bystander, byword (but byelection, by-product, by-law)
car park
case law
charterparty
common sense (but a
common-sense answer, or
commonsensical)
counterclaim
creditworthy, creditworthiness
down payment
ill health, ill will
judge in chambers
misstatement
motor car
motorcycle
next of kin
ongoing
online
coastguard
rehearing

prerequisite, precondition
registrar in chambers, summons
in chambers
set off (verbal phrase)
subcharter, subcharterer,
subcharterparty
subcontract, subcontractor
subject matter
subsection
takeover (noun)
time bar (noun)
webpage, website
wind up, winding up (of a
company) (noun)
well founded, well known (but
a well-founded argument, a
well-known actor)
workplace, workflow,
workforce, workday
worldwide
coffee shop

APPENDIX 3C
WORDS THAT ARE OFTEN MISSPELT
CORRECT SPELLING
liaise
supersede
beside the point
kept apprised of (a situation)
wreak havoc
keep a tight rein
dependent on
humorous
pronunciation
license (verb), licence (noun)
homogeneous
spitting image

INCORRECT SPELLING
liase
supercede
besides the point
kept appraised of (a situation)
wreck havoc
keep a tight reign
dependant on
humourous
pronounciation
licence (verb), license (noun)
homogenous
splitting image

 51