AAU - Strength of Materials - Lecture Notes - 09-05-21 PDF

Lecture Notes
Strength of Materials
ceng1002
beta version, 29th April 2009

Karsten Schlesier (Dipl.-Ing.)
for use at Addis Abeba University only!
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Technology
Department of
Civil Engineering

Department of
Civil Engineering
Strength of Materials 2009
Calendar Semester II 2009

week
Date
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5
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8
9
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13.04. 17.04.
20.04. 24.04.
27.04. 01.05.
04.05. 08.05.
11.05. 15.05.
18.05. 22.05.
25.05. 29.05.
01.06. 05.06.
08.06. 12.06.
15.06. 19.06.
22.06. 26.06.
29.06. 03.07.
06.07. 10.07.
13.07. 17.07.
20.07. 24.07.
27.07. 31.07.
Chapter Content
1
1/2
2
3
3
4
5
6
7
8
Introduction to SOM
Stress - Axial Load
Stress / Strain - Axial Load
Strain - Axial Load
Bending of Beams
Bending of Beams
Lab Sessions / videos
Mid-Semester Exam
Shear in Beams
Torsion
Analysis of plane Stress
Deflection of Beams
Stability of Compression Members
Final Exam
Course Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Stress Axial Loads

Normal Stress, Shearing Stress, Transformation of Stress, Concept of Design
Strain Axial Loads
Strain, Stress-Strain Diagram, Hookes Law, Deflection under Axial Load, Material Properties
Bending of Beams
Stress due to pure Bending, Moment of Inertia, Stress Distribution, Design of Beams
Shear in Beams
Shearing Stress in members due to Bending
Torsion
Moment of Torsion, Shearing Stresses and Deformations of Circular Shafts
Analysis of plane Stress
Compound Stresses, Combined Stresses, Transformation of Stress, Mohrs Circle
Deflection of Beams
Deflection of members due to Bending
Stability of Compression Members
Euler Formula, Buckling Load, Buckling Analysis
Assessment / Requirements
Attendance is compulsory during lecture hours, tutorials and practical work sessions (except for
unpredicted mishaps).
Quota of Total Course Credit:
40% mid-semester examination
60% final-semester examination
Literature / Teaching Material

Popov, E.P., Mechanics of Materials; Beer and Johnson, Mechanics of Materials, 2001; Gere and
Timoshenko, Mechanics of Materials, 1990
Course Information: www.elboon.net e-learning board online
Lecture Notes
Index
1 Stress Axial Loads

Normal Stress, Shearing Stress, Transformation of Stress, Concept
of Design
2 Strain Axial Loads

Strain, Stress-Strain Diagram, Hookes Law, Deflection under Axial
Load, Material Properties
11
3 Bending of Beams
Stress due to pure Bending, Moment of Inertia, Stress Distribution,
Design of Beams
22
4 Shear in Beams
Shearing Stress in members due to Bending
31
5 Torsion
Moment of Torsion, Shearing Stresses and Deformations of Circular
Shafts
38
6 Analysis of plane Stress

Compound Stresses, Combined Stresses, Transformation of Stress,
Mohrs Circle
46
7 Deflection of Beams
Deflection of members due to Bending
8 Stability of Compression Members
Euler Formula, Buckling Load, Buckling Analysis

material by Karsten Schlesier
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1 Stress
By setting up the equilibrium conditions, the inner forces of a member subjected to an
external load situation can be determined. So far neither the material nor the type of
cross section applied for the member are being taken into account. But both material
and type of cross section obviously have an impact on the behaviour of the member
subjected to load.
To design the member therefore a closer look on how the internal forces act along its
cross section needs to be taken.
1.1 Normal Stress Axial Loading
Within this part of the chapter the internal forces are limited to only axial forces
(normal forces) acting along the centroidal axis of a member.
F
F
plane of cut
a)
b)
c)
d)
fig 1.11: axially loaded rod
A suspended rod is subjected to an axial load. The free body diagram in external
equilibrium is shown in fig. 1.11a.
The rod is cut perpendicular to its axis at any arbitrary distance from its ends and the
equations of equilibrium are applied on the part. Thus the internal force found acting
normal to the cut surface (area A) is of equal amount but opposite direction of the
applied external force (fig. 1.11b).
Consider the normal force to equally act on any particle A of the cut surface A (fig.
1.11c).
F F
=
A A

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The intensity of a normal force acting on a surface at a certain point is described as

the normal stress, denoted by the Greek letter (fig.1.1d).
F
A 0 A
= lim
amount of internal force

unit area
kN
cm2
Considering a uniform distribution the normal stress is defined as:
F
A
F = dA
and
(1.1), (1.2)
conclusion: the normal stress acting along a section of a member only depends on
the external load applied (e.g. a normal force F) and the geometry of its
cross section A (true for statically determinant systems).
example 1.1 - stress

Fig 1.12 shows a typical specimen used for uniaxial tensile testing for materials like
timber or plastic.
question:
1 =
F
;
A1
answer:
At which position will the specimen break if the applied force F is

increased up to failure?
2 =
F
2
A2 < A1,
hence
2 > 1
linear correlation!
the specimen breaks at the maximum normal stress 2 along the plane
with the minimum cross sectional area A2.
F
A2
A1
fig 1.12: specimen for tensile test subjected to axial load

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1.2 Average Shearing Stress Transverse Loading

So far the discussion focussed on normal stress, oriented perpendicular to the cutting
plane or in direction of the main axis of the member.
Stress can also act in the cutting plane thus perpendicular to the main axis of the
member. This occurs if the member is subjected to a situation of transverse loads (fig.
1.21).
F
F
fig 1.21: transverse load situation
A situation like this is very common in a bolt or rivet connection (fig 1.22). Here the
forces acting in the direction of the steel plates are transmitted by the bolt.
In fig 1.23 the bolt is cut along the upper two connecting surfaces of the steel plates.
To meet the equilibrium conditions, the force being transported along the cutting
plane through the bolt is equal to the force being applied on the upper steel plate (F).
2F
F
F
fig 1.22: bolt connection
fig 1.23: plane of cut
Dividing the force by the cut area of the bolt, the stress in the plane of cut is
determined (fig. 1.24). Assuming the stress is uniformly distributed, the stress is
defined as the average shearing stress, denoted by the Greek letter :
F
A
fig 1.24: shearing stress

in the plane of cut cross section through bolt

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1.3 Stress Analysis and Concept of Design

Every material has its individual properties. It can be ductile, flexible or brittle. It
deforms under the influence of a temperature change. It may plastically deform at a
certain stress (load) and break at another. Its properties according to perpendicular
directions may be equal (isotropic) or different (orthotropic).
To ensure a safe design, these specific material properties have to be taken into
account. The essential information is collected by conducting different tests in a
material testing laboratory.
At the failure of the material its ultimate stress is reached. The point of plastic
deformation of the material is indicated as the yield point, corresponding to the yield
stress. Taking this into account, an allowable stress can be defined for each
individual material to be used within the design analysis. These stresses such as
further indications concerning the maximum allowable deformation (serviceability of a
structure) can be found in the respective national codes.
A secure design requires a certain safety clearance towards the failure of the
employed material. This is ensured by applying a safety factor (in national codes
usually denoted by the Greek letter ). In the design analysis the existing stress due
to the existing load increased by the factor of safety (the design stress) has to be
proofed less or equal to the allowable stress.
Since the applied material might be orthotropic (different properties in different
directions, e.g. timber) different allowable stresses are defined for normal and
shearing stresses depending on their orientation (parallel or perpendicular, or ,
see example 1.4).
ratio of safety:
ultimate load
allowable load
design analysis:
Fd = F
d =
Fd
d allowed
d =
Fd
d allowed

design load = existing load factor of safety

design normal stress, axial loaded
design stress allowable stress
design average shear stress

design stress allowable stress
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example 1.2 - design of axially loaded members

The lattice truss displayed in fig 1.3 is subjected to a vertical load of 100 kN at its
lower chord.
a) determine the normal forces of members S1, S2 and S3
b) carry out the design analysis for diagonal member S2, considering a solid
square cross section 24 mm x 24 mm such as the given safety factor and the
allowable stress
c) design lower chord member S3 by choosing the appropriate diameter of a solid
circular cross section
3.0 m
S1
given:
S2
load safety factor
= 1.5
material steel:
allowable stress
allow = 22 kN/cm2
3.0 m
S3
100 kN
A
6.0 m
a)
external equilibrium:
M = 0
V = 0
A
B
6.0 m
fig 1.31: lattice girder
6.0m
100 kN = 50kN
12.0m
FA = FB = 50kN
FB =
cutting plane - internal equilibrium at left part:
=0
M = 0
V = 0
2
50kN 6.0m
= 100kN
S1 =
3.0m
50kN 3.0m
S3 =
= 50kN
3.0m
1
S 2 sin45 o = 50kN
S1
S2
S3
FA
3.0
S 2 = 70.71kN
6.0
b)
S 2,d = S 2 = 70.71kN 1.5 = 106.06kN
d =
c)
S 2,d
106.06kN
= 18.41kN/cm 2
2
2
(2.4) cm
allow = 22 kN/cm 2
OK
S 3,d = S 3 = 50kN 1.5 = 75kN
d =
A=
S 3,d
allow = 22kN/cm 2
d2
d required =
4

A required
S 3,d
allow
4 3.41cm 2
= 2.08cm
75kN
= 3.41cm 2
2
22kN/cm
chosen: d = 22 mm
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example 1.3 - design of a pin bolt connection

A hinge steel connection consisting of three butt straps and a bolt (fig. 1.32) is
subjected to a tensile force Fd = 100 kN (design load).
Design the steel bolt by choosing the appropriate diameter considering an allowable
shearing stress of allow = 33.6 kN/cm2 (steel 8.8).
fig 1.32: bolt connection
average shear stress per shear plane in the bolt:
average,d
F/2
F
= d
2A
A
F/2
condition from design analysis:

F
average, d = d allow
2A
A=
Fd
100kN
=
= 1.49cm 2
2
2 allow 2 33.6kN/cm
d2
4
d 1.38cm
chosen : d = 14mm

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example 1.4 - orthotropic properties, design of a timber connection

A diagonal member made of timber is connected to a support beam as shown in fig.
1.33. The orientation of the grain is indicated by the hooked lines. The diagonal
element is subjected to a negative normal force along its axis of symmetry (centroidal
axis).
Carry out the design stress analysis for the timber beam (bottom element). Consider
all relevant stresses and the load safety factor.
F
given:
applied load
F = 500 N
load safety factor
= 1.5
10 mm
30
material timber:
allowable stresses ,allow = 6.0 N/mm2
,allow = 2.0 N/mm2
allow = 0.9 N/mm2
30 mm
30 mm
20 mm
fig 1.33: timber connection
resolution of force F:
F,d = (sin 30 F) 1.5 = (0.5 500 N) 1.5 = 375.0 N
F,d = (cos 30 F) 1.5 = (0.87 500 N) 1.5 = 652.5 N
areas of bearing planes for respective force components:

A1 = 600 mm2 plane for vertical force (F)
A2 = 300 mm2 plane for horizontal force (F)
A2
A3
A1
A3 = 900 mm2 shear plane (F)

design analysis:
,d = F,d / A1 = 375.0 N / 600 mm2 = 0.625 N/mm < allow = 2.0 N/mm
OK
||,d = F,d / A2 = 652.5 N / 300 mm2 = 2.175 N/mm < || allow = 6.0 N/mm
OK
= F,d / A3 = 652.5 N / 900 mm2 = 0.725 N/mm < allow = 0.9 N/mm

OK
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1.4 Transformation of Stress Oblique Plane under Axial Loading

Normal and shearing stresses, thus stress acting perpendicular and parallel to the
axis of symmetry of the member have been analysed in the previous parts of this
chapter.
The plane of cut being used to isolate a part of the member was perpendicularly
oriented in all the situations regarded so far. How about the situation of stress on an
oblique plane of cut?
Fig. 1.41 shows a member subjected to an axial load. A part of the member is
isolated by a plane of cut, inclined by the angle towards the axis of the member.
Setting up the free body diagram and the conditions of equilibrium the stress
components acting normal to or within the plane of cut are determined.
plane of cut
a)
N
F
V
b)
c)
fig 1.41: axially loaded member,

oblique plane of cut
x =
F
A
N = cos F
initial situation, normal stress
resolution of force F
shear force V
V = sin F
A =
A
cos

normal force N
area of oblique plane
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N =
N
F
= cos 2
A A
N = x cos 2
=
normal stress acting on oblique plane
V
F
= sin cos = x sin cos
A A
using angle function (2 sin cos = 2 sin):
x
sin2
2
shear stress acting on oblique plane
conclusion:
max N = x
max =
x
2

= 0o
= 45 o
[ 4]
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2 Strain
Any object being subjected to load is deformed, changing its initial shape. This is true
for any load and any material. It is easily visualised on objects consisting of soft and
flexible materials like rubber or foam but also applies for hard materials like steel or
rock.
Within a certain load limit the object will return to its initial shape again after the load
is released. This is called the elastic behaviour of a material.
Exceeding the load above a certain limit, the object will not fully return to its initial
shape. Some residual deformation is left, being called the plastic behaviour of a
material.
A further increase of load leads to the break of the object at a certain point. This is
also indicated as the rupture or the failure of the material.
2.1 Strain Axial Loading
A suspended rod of an elastic material and of length L is subjected to axial loading
situations. The load is not exceeding the elastic limit of the material. The
deformations shown in fig. 2.11 can be proven by uniaxial tests.
2A
L/2
2L
F
F
a)
fig. 2.11: axially loaded rod
2F
c)
b)
2F
The rod of cross section A is subjected to an axial load F, fig. 2.11 a). Due to the load,
the rod is extended by L in its axial direction.
Increasing the load F by factor 2, the elongation of the rod amounts to 2L, fig.
2.11 b).
Fig. 2.11 c) shows a situation of a rod of twice the cross section of system a) and b),
being equal to two rods of cross section A. The rod again is subjected to the axial
load F. The elongation due to the load found on this system amounts to L/2.
materialbyKarstenSchlesier
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The results are summarised in tab. 2.11.

situation
load
cross section
stress
elongation
a)
F
A
a) *
L
b)
2F
A
2a)
2L
c)
F
2A
a)/2
L/2
a) =
F
A
tab. 2.11
Like the stress for a member of a certain cross section subjected to a certain load
also the elongation of the member can be expressed as a generalised term.
The strain is equal to the amount of elongation L under the applied load divided by
the initial length L of the member. It is denoted by the Greek letter .
strain:
L
L
= deformation of member per unit length

[unitless]
(2.11)
The results of the stress and strain analysis are plotted in a coordinate system of
abscissa strain and ordinate stress, the so called stress-strain diagram (fig. 2.12).
The graph connecting the origin and the points of results is a straight line. The
correlation between stress and strain is linear within the elastic limit of the material.
b)
a)
a)
c)
a)
= L/L
fig. 2.12: stress-strain diagram,

Hookes Law
The slope (gradient) of the stress-strain-graph represents the correlation between

stress and strain. It is a specific property of a material, indicating its elastic behaviour.
It is called the Modulus of Elasticity or the Youngs Modulus of a material denoted
by E.
Elastic Modulus:
E=
kN
cm 2
(2.12)
A high Modulus of Elasticity therefore represents a hard, rigid material like steel, a
low Modulus of Elasticity a soft, deformable material like rubber.
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Precondition to determine a constant Elastic Modulus is the proportional correlation

between stress and strain, the linear elastic range of a material. It is represented by a
straight curve on the stress-strain diagram (fig.2.12). This is known as Hookes Law
(Robert Hooke, English Scientist).
Transforming equation (2.12), it can also be expressed as:
= E
or
F
=
E AE
Hookes Law is not only applicable for members consisting of a constant cross
section. Fig. 2.13 is showing a general situation of a member consisting of a variable
cross section.
Generalized equations for Hookes Law (see finite element fig 2.13):
x
dx
strain, factor of elongation of finite element
x
x
F
L = x dx =
dx = x dx
Ex
AxEx
0
0
0
L =
FL
AE
L =
total elongation of a member consisting

of a constant section
Fi L i
Ai Ei
total elongation of a member consisting

of multiple constant sections
F
dx
x
a)
(x)
dx
b)
dx+x
c)
x
fig 2.13: specimen for tensile test subjected to axial load

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example 2.1 - strain

An aluminium bar is consisting of two different square cross sections is subjected to
an axial load situation fig.2.14.
question:
Determine the total amount of displacement of the member.
given:
AI,II = 20 cm2; AIII = 10 cm2

Ealuminium = 70 000 N/mm2
II
F1=60kN
III
F2=20kN
F3=100kN
answer:
100 cm
200 cm
200 cm
fig. 2.14
horizontal equilibrium:
NIII = 100 kN
for part III
NII = 80 kN
for part II
NI = 20 kN
for part I
L total =
Fi L i
Ai Ei
100kN 200cm
= 0.286cm
10cm 2 7000kN / cm 2
80kN 100cm
L II =
= 0.057cm
20cm 2 7000kN / cm 2
20kN 100cm
L I =
= 0.014cm
20cm 2 7000kN / cm 2
L III =
L total = 0.286 + 0.057 + 0.014 = 0.357cm

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2.2 Stress-Strain Diagram

Looking at a member of a certain cross section deforming to a certain extent under a
certain load reflects an individual situation. Using stress and strain ( and ), the
situation is generalised. The correlation between stress and strain depends on the
applied material and is represented by the Elastic Modulus, E.
The established method to determine the Elastic Modulus of a material is to conduct
tensile tests in a laboratory. The results of this test are plotted on the stress-strain
diagram.
Fig. 2.21 shows a typical stress-strain curve of mild steel, being a ductile material. A
ductile material shows considerably large deformation before it fails.
Up to the yield point the correlation between stress and strain is proportional, the
curve is represented by a straight line. It is the linear elastic range of the material.
At the yield point, the proportional limit is reached and plastic deformation occurs.
Without an increase of stress, a certain amount of deflection takes places (the curve
develops parallel to the abscissa).
The ultimate stress (highest stress) lies beyond the yield point, correlating to
relatively large deflections. Finally the material breaks at the point of rupture.
yield
point
rupture
ultimate
stress
rupture
0.2%
offset
yield
point
0
linear elastic plastic range
range
fig. 2.21: stress-strain diagram

for mild steel
fig. 2.22: stress-strain diagram

for a brittle material
Fig. 2.22 shows a typical stress-strain curve of a brittle material. Relatively small
deformation takes place up to its point of rupture. Also it does not possess a well
defined yield point indicating the proportional limit. Here the offset method is used to
determine an artificial yield point, thus the linear elastic range for the material.
Typical Elastic Moduli of materials being common in the field of construction:
Steel:
210 000 N/mm2
Aluminium:
70 000 N/mm2
Timber:
10 000 N/mm2
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2.3 Thermal Strain

Any change of temperature has an impact on the shape of an object. It shrinks at a
thermal decline and expands at a thermal increase.
The amount of strain is a property being specific to a certain material. It is
represented by the coefficient of thermal expansion denoted by T.
coefficient of thermal expansion:
thermal strain:
thermal expansion:
T
T
L
= T T
= T T L
steel:
concrete:
aluminium:
T
T
T
= 12 10-6 1/C
= 12 10-6 1/C
= 23 10-6 1/C
[1/C]
example 2.2 thermal strain

A rod with fixed ends and no external loads, fig 2.31, is subjected to a thermal
increase of T.
question:
Determine the compressive stress in the rod caused by that impact.
given:
cross section
material
A
E, T
fig. 2.31
answer:
LT = T T L
L P =
PL
AE
free expansion of rod

compression of rod caused by a negative support force
LT = LP
T T L = -
PA (-)
PB (-)
PL
AE
P = - T TAE
= - T TE

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example 2.3
A steel cable ( 8 mm, A = 45 mm2, E = 170 000 N/mm2) is to be tensioned by a
pretensile force of 10.0 kN to a length of 10.0 m at a temperature of 20 C.
a) Determine the initial fabrication length of the cable.
b) Determine the remaining pretension in the cable if the temperature is
increased to 60 C.
fig. 2.32
a) Li + L = 10.0 m
PL i
L =
AE
P
L i 1 +
= 10.0m
AE
10000N
L i 1 +
2
2
45mm 170000 N / mm
L i = 9986.95mm
b) T,steel
T
PT
PT
P60
10.0 m
= 10000mm
fabrication length
= 12 10-6 1/C
= 60 20 = 40 C
= - T TAE = 12 10-6 1/C 40 C 45 mm2 170 000 N/mm2
= - 3672 N
= 10.0 3.67 = 6.33 kN

remaining pretension
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2.4 Generalised Hookes Law Poissons Ratio

An object being subjected to an axial force not only deforms in axial direction. It also
deforms in its lateral direction, the directions acting perpendicular to the applied load
(fig. 2.41).
This phenomena is another property of a specific material. It is known as the
Poissons Ratio, denoted by the Greek letter .
lateral strain
axial strain
(ratio)
lateral expansion and compression of a solid body subjected to an

axial force
precondition: material is homogenous, isotropic and remains elastic
initial
shape
initial
shape
deformed
shape
fig. 2.41: element subjected to an axial force
Generalised Hookes Law of Strain:

General strain of an element in an multiaxial state of stress:
precondition:
material is homogenous, isotropic and remains elastic,

strain is independent of small shearing deformations
y
y
x
z
E
E
E
y
z
y = x +
E
E
E
y z
+
z = x
E
E
E
x =
x
z
x
z
fig. 2.42: orientation of stress on a 3D element

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example 2.4
A solid rectangular steel block is subjected to uniform pressure acting along its
surface. If edge AB is compressed by 1.2 10-2 mm determine
y
a) the deformation of all other edges
40 mm
b) the pressure p acting on the block

20 mm
given:
steel: E = 210 000 N/mm ; = 0.29
C
A
D
30 mm
B
fig. 2.43: rectangular steel block
answer:
a) x = y = z = p
uniform pressure
p
p
p
p
+ + = (1 2 )
E
E
E
E
-2
1.2 10 mm
x
=
= 3 10 4 = y = z
x =
40mm
AB
x = y = z =
uniform strain
strain in x-, y- and z-direction
y = y BC = 3 10 4 20mm = 6 10 3 mm
total compression in y-direction
z = z BD = 3 10 4 30mm = 9 10 3 mm
total compression in z-direction
p
(1 2 )
E
E
(3 10 4 ) 210000N/mm 2
=
p= x
1 2
1 2 0.29
b) x =
p = 150N/mm 2
(= -150 MPa)

pressure acting on the block
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2.5 Shearing Strain

2.5.1 General situation for Shearing Stress
To analyse the strain caused by shearing stress, a closer look is to be taken at the
general situation for shearing stress first.
precondition:
material is homogenous, isotropic and remains elastic
Fig. 2.51 shows the shearing stresses and their directions acting on mutually
perpendicular planes. Equal assumptions can be made for the xz- and yz- directions.
yx
dy
dz
xy
xy
yx
dx
fig. 2.51: shearing stress acting

on a finite element
Equations of equilibrium:
F = 0
xy = xy
xy = yx
=0
xy (dy dz ) dx = yx (dx dz ) dy
area lever arm
conclusion:
All shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes of an

infinitesimal element are numerically equal
this is also shown on Mohrs Circle see chapter 6

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2.5.1 Distortion of an element in pure shear
/2
/2
fig. 2.52: element in pure shear
Fig. 2.52 shows an element being distorted by pure shear stress acting along its
edges. As shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes are equal, the
indication of the shearing stresses is simplified to .
The total angle of distortion of the element is denoted by the Greek letter .
Like stress and strain, and , also shearing stress and shearing strain, and , are
in linear relationship (proportional correlation). This can be proven experimentally.
Hence the same rules can be applied and another material property, the Shearing
Modulus is found, denoted by G.
Hookes Law for shearing strain:
=G
Shearing Modulus:
G=
(2.51)
kN
cm 2
(2.52)
The material properties E, G and are not independent. At this stage the correlation
shall be given without derivation as:
G=

E
2(1 + )
(2.53)
Department of
Civil Engineering
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3 Pure Bending of Beams

1/9

A beam consisting of a certain cross section and material will react in a certain way
(deflection) and have a certain resistance towards applied bending loads.
A beam can be subjected to bending in various ways. In many of these situations
also shear forces will be present. Shear forces coexist with shear stresses causing
additional deflection. To analyse the impact of bending loads on a beam element we
therefore focus on a situation being free of shear forces.
Lets take into account the statical correlation of the shear force function along a
beam being a derivation function of the bending moment. Hence it is concluded that
a part of a beam showing a linear constant moment diagram (horizontal line) is free
of shearing forces. This internal load situation is called pure bending (M = constant, V
= N = 0). Fig. 3.11 a) is illustrating such a situation.
3.1 Normal Stress
Fig. 3.11 a) shows a beam subjected to pure bending. To investigate the stresses
being caused along the plane of cut by the internal moment, a closer look is to be
taken at an isolated element, shown in fig. 3.11 b).
All possible stresses acting along the plane of cut are indicated in the figure since so
far there is no evidence of the plane being totally free of shearing stresses.
y
xydA
Mz
Mz
xdA
+
xzdA
Mz
z
xzdA
a)
fig 3.11: beam subjected to pure bending
xydA
xdA
+
b)
To find the isolated element of fig. 3.11 b) in equilibrium, the stresses acting along
the plane of cut on the right face have to equal the internal moment Mz on the left
face.
Any bending moment can be expressed by a couple of forces acting at a certain
distance from another. Looking at the orientation of the stress vectors it becomes
obvious that both xy and xz are irrelevant for the solution. Since both of them act in
the plane of cut neither of them acts in a lever arm towards the applied moment.
Therefore they are neglected in the following derivation.

Department of
Civil Engineering
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2/9
Equations of equilibrium concerning x:
F = 0
M = 0
M = 0
x
dA = 0
z dA = 0
- y dA = M
(3.11)
3.2 Normal Strain

The following geometric derivations are based on the assumption that any cross
section of a beam remains plane after being subjected to bending. This is known as
the theory of elasticity for slender members undergoing small deflections established
by Jacob Bernoulli (1645-1705).
A beam member possessing a plane of symmetry is subjected to a situation of pure
bending, fig 3.21. The member will deflect uniformly since the internal moment along
the member is constant. By deflection the edges of the element (line AB) are
transformed into a circular curve. The upper edge AB of the element is decreased in
length whereas the lower edge A1B1 is increased. The middle plane, representing the
plane of symmetry, remains original in length and is therefore known as the neutral
plane (or neutral axis).
Fig 3.21 b) shows the situation on an isolated element. represents the radius of
curvature of the neutral axis. dx is the original length of the free upper and lower
edges. Both decrease and increase in length of the upper and the lower edge are
denoted by x. Since the member is considered to undertake small deflections only,
the curvature of the upper and lower edge is neglected. Furthermore the inclined left
and right edges of the deformed element are considered to remain original in length.
A
M
A1
initial shape
B
M
B1
deflected shape
a)
b)
initial shape
fig 3.21: deflection of beam subjected to pure bending
neutral axis
x c
=
By geometry: x, max =
(similar triangles)
dx
y y
x = = x,max
(3.12)
c
deflected shape
dx
dx+x
Department of
Civil Engineering
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3/9
3.3 Normal Stress

Using the proportional correlation of stress and strain:
x =
y
x, max
c
(3.13)
-max
Mz
neutral axis
y
+max
fig 3.22: stress distribution along section of beam
(3.13) in (3.11):
=0:
max
y
dA
=
dA
=
y dA =0
x
max
c
c
first moment of cross section (statical moment)
y dA :
about the neutral axis =0
neutral axis = centroidal axis
= 0:
dA =
max 2
y dA = M z
c
max
y 2 dA = M z
(3.14)
c
I = y 2 dA : second moment of cross section (moment of inertia)
M zc
Iz
M y
x = z
Iz
max =
Transformation of (3.14):
(3.13) in (3.15):
I
c
Introducing:
S=
(3.15) becomes:
max =
My
I
since
= E =
recalling (3.12):
in (3.18):
1
M
=
=
EI
flexual stress (linear elastic)

elastic flecture formulas
(3.15)
(3.16)
elastic section modulus
Mz
Sz
=
(3.17)
My
EI
(3.18)
curvature of neutral axis

EI = bending or flexual
stiffness
(3.19)
(continued in chapter 7, deflection of beams)

Department of
Civil Engineering
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4/9
example 3.1
Discuss the maximum stresses and deflections y that will occur on beams
subjected to an equal bending moment consisting of the cross sections given in the
table below.
note: all cross sections have an equal consumption of material (almost equal areas)
cross
section
[mm2]
t=19.5
200
200
100
100
t=13 200
50
400
t=10
100
360
t=13
I360
143
A [cm2]
100
100
97
96
97
I [cm4]
833
3333
...
...
...
S [cm3]
167
333
...
...
...
factor
100%
50%
...
...
...
y factor
100%
25%
...
...
...
tab. 3.31

Department of
Civil Engineering
26

5/9
example 3.2
A beam consisting of a rectangular cross section is subjected to pure bending.
Replace the linear stress distribution along the cross section by its respective force
couple. Set up the equation for the maximum stress.
y
-max
h z
+max
y
b
2
h
3
1h
bh
R = b max =
max
2 2
4
bh 2
R a =
max = M
6
M
M
max =
=
flexure formula, linear elastic
2
S
bh
6
max safety allow
e.g. design of beam
a = (2 2 3 1 2 h ) =
M = 0 :
excursion on inelastic bending, rect. cross section ( S pl = 1.5 S el )
3.3 Unsymmetrical bending
3.3.1 Superposition of stresses

Principle of superposition (also see chapter 6):
Superposition of normal stresses
x =
design analysis
F Mz y My z
+
A
Iz
Iy
max allow
For algebraic sign convention, see chapter 6.

Department of
Civil Engineering
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6/9
example 3.3
A beam is being subjected to a load situation of two concentrated loads (see below).
Given loads are design loads. Determine the maximum and minimum internal forces.
Carry out the design analysis for
a) A rectangular timber cross section 100 x 200 mm, ,allow = 0.85 kN/cm2
b) A standard T100 steel section (oriented flange down), A = 20.0 cm2, Iz = 179
cm4, position of centroidal axis see sketch below
5 kN
10 kN
1.0m
2.0m
Internal force diagrams:
N [kN]
M [kNm]
V [kN]
10.0
-5.0
-2.5
a) rect. timber cross section 100 x 200 mm

,allow = 8.5 kN/cm2
A = 200 cm
bh 3
Iz =
= 6666.7 cm 4
12
bh 2 I z
Sz =
=
= 666.7 cm 3
6
c
200
100
N
= 0.05 kN cm 2
A
500 kNcm
M
= z =
= 0.75 kN cm 2
3
Sz
666.7 cm
x, N =
x,M
Superposition:
+ M
N
+0.8
- M
max = 0.05 + 0.75 = 0.8 kN/cm 2 0.85 kN/cm 2 = allow

+N
-0.7
OK
Department of
Civil Engineering
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7/9
b) steel cross section T100

100
,allow = 21.8 kN/cm2
A = 20.9 cm2
I z = 179 cm 4
x, N =
x,M, top
72.6
100
27.4
N
y
= 0.48 kN cm 2
A
50
- 500 kNcm
Mzy
=
=
7.26 cm = 20.27 kN cm 2 (see sign convention)
4
Iz
179 cm
x,M, bottom =
- 500 kNcm
Mzy
=
- 2.74 cm = -7.65 kN cm 2
4
Iz
179 cm
Superposition:
max = 0.48 + 20.27 = 20.75 kN/cm 2 21.8 kN/cm 2 = allow
OK
3.3.2 Position of neutral surface

x = 0
Position of neutral axis demands:
My
=sin MP
MP
Mz
=cos MP
y
fig 3.31: position of neutral axis

Mzy M yz
+
=0
Iz
Iy
y=
M y z Iz
MzIy
= tan z
y Iz
= tan
z Iy
I
tan = z tan
Iy
Iz
Iy
(3.20)
Department of
Civil Engineering
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8/9
3.4 Cross sections of different materials

In the construction industry many structural members consist of more than only one
material. Due to their properties some materials cope better with tensile stress
whereas others deal well with compression (or are more cost effective). The most
commonly composite material being implemented in the construction sector is steel
reinforced concrete.
To design a cross section consisting of more than one material it is necessary to
develop a procedure to determine the stresses in each of the applied materials due
to the given load situation. In this part of this chapter cross sections of two different
materials are being investigated. The procedure developed can be projected on
composite members consisting of even more than two materials.
A cross section consisting of two different materials is shown in fig. 3.41a). Both of
the applied materials have different elastic moduli (E1 and E2). At their surface of
contact both materials are tightly fixed to one another, thus along this surface both
materials develop an equal strain under the given load (1 = 2), see fig. 3.41c).
Since the elastic moduli are different, a break along the stress distribution is found at
the surface of contact ( = E), see fig. 3.41d).
y
y
mat. 1
mat. 2
2
z
y
bI
z
1 (E1)
y
bII = bI n
n = E2/E1
2
2 = n 1
fig 3.41a) d): determination of stress for composite cross sections
To determine the stresses existing in both materials a virtual cross section of one
homogenous material is being constructed. For this the ratio n = E2/E1 is determined.
The transformed cross section consists of an equal area of material 1 (unchanged).
The area of material 2 is extruded parallel to the neutral axis by factor n, see fig.
3.41b).
On the next step the centroidal axis of the transformed cross section is computed
and the moment of inertia is determined. Now the stresses occurring along the cross
section of the homogenous material (material 1) are calculated (e.g. 1 = 1 E1 = M/S).
To determine the stresses existing along material 2, the respective results for
material one are multiplied by factor n (2 = 2 E2 = 1 n).
The same procedure can be used to determine the curvature of a composite cross
section. In equation (3.19) the moment of inertia of the transformed cross section is
applied.
Department of
Civil Engineering
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example 3.4
A beam consists of a composite cross section of timber and steel. Determine the
maximum stresses that develop in each of the materials under the given internal
bending moment.
given:
250
timber
Mz = 30 kNm
ET = 10000 N/mm2; ES = 200000 N/mm2
steel
10
150
choice: transformation into equal section of timber

E
ratio n = s = 20
ET
transformed dimension:
150
183
b II = n b I = 20 15 = 300 cm
58
72
new centroidal axis (from top):
A y
y=
A
i
(15 25)12.5 + (1 300)25.5

y=
= 18.3 cm
15 25 + 1 300
77
250
10
3000
moment of inertia:
15 25 3
300 13
+ (15 25)5.8 2 +
+ (1 300 )7.2 2
12
12
4
I z = 47723 cm
I = (I i + A i y i2 ) : I z =
stress timber (top):

M c
30000 kNcm 18.3 cm
t,max =
=
= 1.15 kN/cm 2
4
I
47723 cm
stress steel (bottom):
30000 kNcm 7.7 cm
s, max = n I = 20
= 9.68 kN/cm 2
4
47723 cm

Department of
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31
4 Shear in Beams
1/7
4 Shear Stress in Beams

Situation:
3 vertically allocated beams, not fixed along the joint surfaces
Pure bending, no shear
internal load force diagram:
M
+M
V
0
Bending with shear
internal load force diagram:
M
Mmax=Pl/4
+P/2
-P/2

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4 Shear in Beams
2/7
Derivation of Shearing Stresses in a Beam

Shear Flow
(along the horizontal plane y in the direction of x)
segment of beam subjected to bending
y
y
A
x
equilibrium at particle
p(x)
A
= MA
B
VA
VB
= MB
Fx = 0 :
H +
B) dA = 0
My
I
Q=
y dA = A y
lim x0
MBMC y dA
Statical Moment
M Q
I
[kN]
H M Q
=
dx
x I
[kN/cm]
dM = V
dx
VQ
I
[kN/cm]
Shear Flow per unit length

Department of
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4 Shear in Beams
3/7
example 4.1
A beam consists of 3 wooden planks being fixed by nails. Determine the shear force
per nail.
given: nail spacing e = 25 mm
Vd = 500 N
Iz = 1620 cm4
100
y
20
Q = A y = (2 10 ) 6 = 120cm
VQ 500 N 120 cm
=
= 37.04 N / cm
I
1620 cm 4
= 37.04 N / cm 2.5cm = 92.6 N / Nail
y
100
20
20
Shearing Stress Formula

at particle
VQ q
=
t
It
[kN/cm]
Shear Stress per area
yx
xy
yx
design:
= xy
max,d

equal shearing stresses on mutually

perpendicular planes
allowed
Department of
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4 Shear in Beams
4/7
Distribution of Shear Stress

example: Rectangular Cross Section
y
A
h
y1
b
V
VQ V
=
y dA =
(y1) =
Ib
It
Ib A
h/2
V y
y1 yb dy = I 2
h/2
y1
V h
= y1
2I 2
ave
distribution parabolically
V
A
dA = V
ave =
min at y1 = h/2
min = 0
max at y1 = 0
3V
max = Vh =
8I
max
2A
for narrow rectangular cross sections
example: Shear stress distribution in an I-beam standard section

t
q = Q V
I
approximation:
ave =
q
t
V
Aweb

Department of
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4 Shear in Beams
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Shear Flow (along the vertical plane z in the direction of x)

regarding a particle with an arbitrary curved cutting surface
y
A
Fx = 0 :
VQ
I
[kN/cm]
Shear Flow per unit length
conclusion: shear flow along the vertical plane z will be derived equivalently to the
shear flow along the horizontal plane x
Shearing Stress (along the vertical plane z in the direction of x)

at particle
VQ q
=
It
t
zy
= xz
[kN/cm]
Shear Stress per area
equal shearing stresses on mutually

perpendicular planes
zx

xz
Department of
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4 Shear in Beams
6/7
example 4.2
Determine the shear stress along the z-plane of the welding seams in the edges of
the rectangular cross section.
given: h = 120 mm
b = 60 mm
t = 5 mm
Vd = 10.0 kN
z
t
6 12 5 11
Iz =
= 309.4cm 4
12
12
Q = A y = 0.5 5.0 5.75 = 14.38cm

q
y
A
VQ 10.0kN 14.38cm
=
= 0.465 kN / cm
I
309 .4cm 4
(q is the total shear flow acting on the particle with two cutting planes)
1 q 1 0.465 kN / cm
=
= 0.465 kN / cm
2 t 2
0.5cm
Shearing Stress in thin walled members

variation and orientation of the shear flow q on a member subjected to a vertical
shear force V:

Department of
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4 Shear in Beams
7/7
Shear Center
Thin walled members in unsymmetric loading
problem:
applying the vertical force V perpendicular to the centroidal axis

causes a moment of torsion (twisting) around the x-axis of the member
solution:
applying the vertical force V at a certain distance to web center axis of

the member, the shear center
equilibrium: Fz = H H = 0
Fy = V V = 0
Mx = H h V e = 0
e=
external load (action)
Hh
V
internal load (reaction)

b
s
H
=
q
VQ
q=
I
H = q ds
0
V = q ds
0
example 4.3: channel member (see figure above)

determination of shear center:
q=
VQ
I
b
Q = Ay = st
h
2
q=
V s t h
2I
V s t h
Vth 1
V t h b
H = q ds =
ds =
s =
2I
2I 2 0
4I
0
0
2
b t
t h
h
+ 2
+ b t
I = (Ii + Ai yi ) =
12
12
2
t is very small, will be neglected
t h 1
t h
(h + 6b )
+ b t h =
12
2
12
H h V t h b
V t h b 12
3b
e=
=
=
=
V
4IV
4 V t h (h + 6b ) h + 6b
I=

Department of
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5 Torsion
1/8
5 Torsion
5.1 Torsion of Circular Shafts
Equilibrium equations at particle:
Mx = 0
Summation of Moments about

the axis of the member (torque)
internal moment = external moment
geometric assumptions for the derivation of the shear formula on a circular shaft
member with a torque applied:
a plane section perpendicular to the axis of the member remains plane
within the elastic limit, Hookes Law is applied thus shear stress and strain
(corresponding to the angle of twist ) are in proportional correlation
shearing strains (thus shearing stress) vary linearly from the central axis
parallel planes perpendicular to the axis of the member remain in a

constant distance (L)
x
Mx=T
=
max
c
max
dA
derivation of the torsion formula:
max
T = max dA =
dA
c
c A
T = torsional moment, torque

external moment = internal moment
Ip = dA [cm4]
polar moment of inertia

(constant property of cross-sectional area)

Department of
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5 Torsion
2/8
elastic torsion formula
max =
T c
Ip
maximum shear stress
T
= max
Ip
c
general shear stress
polar moment of inertia Ip

for a solid circular member:
4
Ip = dA = 2 d = 2
0
4
A
c
max
max
c 4 d 4
=
=
2
32
for a hollow circular member:
4
Ip = dA = 2 d = 2
b
4
A
c
=
b
4
c b4
2
(for b c)
Ip 2ct
example 5.1
A cantilever element with a hollow cross section with is subjected to 3 torques.
Determine the maximum shearing stress.
M3,d=10 kNm
cross section:
material:
M1,d=15 kNm
= 120 mm, t = 6 mm
steel G = 81 000 N/mm
M2,d=20 kNm
Ip =
1.0 m
c b 4 = 6 4 5.4 4 = 700.10cm 4
2
2
M [kNm]
max =
T c 1500 kNcm 6cm

=
= 12.85kN / cm
Ip
700 .1cm 4
2.0 m
2.0 m
-5
15
Department of
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5 Torsion
3/8
Angle of Twist
by Hookes Law for shearing strain:
= G
Tc
max =
Ip
max T c
max =
=
G
Ip G
by geometry:
x = c
angles measured in radians [rad]
Tc
x = c
Ip G
=
=
T x
Ip G
TL
Ip G
[rad ]
360
= []
2
example 5.2
Determine the rotation at the free end of the cantilever element of example 5.1.
T L 1500 kNcm 200 cm 500 kNcm 200 cm + 500 kNcm 100 cm

=
Ip G
700 .1cm 4 8100 kN / cm
= 0.044 rad = 2.53

Department of
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5 Torsion
4/8
5.2 Torsion of Thin-walled Members (closed sections)

Hollow section of arbitrary shape with a varying wall thickness ti.
assumption: shear stresses are evenly distributed across the wall thickness
precondition: shear stresses on mutually perpendicular planes are equal
xy = yx ; xz = zx
particle
ds
t2
1
t1
F2
q ds
r
0
F1
dx
F1 = 1 t1 dx
F2 = 2 t 2 dx
Fx = 0 :
F1 = F2
1 t1 = 2 t 2
=q
q = shear flow (shear force per meter

of the perimeter)
q = equal on all cutting planes of the
respective element
T = rq ds = q r ds
T = torque
)
A = area to center line of perimeter
r ds = 2 Atriangle r ds = 2 A
ds
T = 2A q
r
T
q=
)
2A
T
)
2At
TL
=
G Ip

max =
T
)
2 A t min
)
(
2 A)
=
)
A
shear stress
Ip
ds
t
angle of twist
Department of
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5/8
example 5.3
The beam of a bridge structure consists of a hollow trapezium section. The structure
is subjected to an unsymmetrical load situation causing a torque.
Determinate the maximum shear stress due to torsion such as the maximum angle of
twist at the free end.
2b
2t
L
T=-bF
constant torsional moment along L
) 1
3
A = (2b + b )b = b
2
2
tmin = t
max =
T
bF
F
) =
=
2 A t 3 b t 3 b t
additional shear stress due to bending

is neglected in this example
3
) 2
2 b
9 b t
2A
2
=
=
Ip =
1
2b b
ds
b 2+ 5
+ + 2
5
t
2
2t t
t
T L bFL 2 + 5
2 + 5 FL
=
=
G Ip
G 9 b t
9 G b t

Department of
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5 Torsion
6/8
5.3 Torsion of Noncircular Members (open sections)

Distribution of shear stress in a thinwalled rectangular member subjected to
a torque:
Distribution of shear stress in a

rectangular member subjected to a
torque:
max
max =
T t max
Ip
shear stress formula
1
Ip h i t 3i
3
polar moment of inertia
Members of same behaviour towards an applied torque:
wall thickness : t

Department of
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5 Torsion
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example 5.4
Compare the torsional strength and stiffness of a thin-walled tube of circular cross
section with and without a longitudinal slot.
a) closed section:
Ip 2c t = 2R t
T c
T
max =
=
Ip
2R t
b) open section (slotted):
L = 2R
1
2
Ip h i t 3i = Rt
3
3
T t max
3T
max =
=
Ip
2Rt
ratio of shear stress a) to b):
3R
t
(ratio of max )
ratio of stiffness a) to b)
1 t

3 R
(ratio of Ip )

Department of
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8/8
table 5.1: summery of formulas related to torsion

Shear Stress
Angle of Twist
Torsion
Polar Moment of
Inertia
Circular Shafts
max =
max
T
= max
Ip
c
TL
G Ip
max =
t
max
c
b
T c
Ip
T c
Ip
T
= max
Ip
c
TL
G Ip
Ip =
c 4 d 4
=
2
32
Ip =
4
(
c b4 )
2
Ip 2c t
(for b c)
Thin Walled Members (closed sections)
T
)
2 A t min
T
=
)
2At
max =
)
A
r
t
)
(
2 A)
=
Ip
ds
t
TL
G Ip
Non Circular Members (open sections)
T t max
Ip
Tt
=
Ip
max =
h
wall thickness : t
1
Ip h i t 3i
3
TL
G Ip
[rad ]

360
= []
2
Department of
Civil Engineering
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6 Stress Analysis
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6 Stress Analysis
6.1 Compound Stresses, Superposition of Stresses
Summery of formulas for the stress analysis (linear-elastic):
normal stresses due to axial force:

F
x =
A
normal stresses due to bending:
Mz y
Mz
x =
=
Iz
Sz
My z My
x =
=
Iy
Sy
shearing stresses due to shear force in a beam:

Vy Qy
xy =
Iy t
Vz Qz
xz =
Iz t
shearing stresses due to torque:

T
=
circular shafts
Ip
T
)
2At
closed thin walled members
convention for algebraic sign
My (+)
Mz(+)
My(+)
y(+)
y
(-)
z
Mz (+)
(+)
(+) (-)
z(+)
tensile fibre for Mz

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Superposition of stresses
considering single, individual load situations for each internal load reaction
summation of stresses due to the algebraic sign convention ()
maximum and minimum stresses are found at the respective positions of a
cross section
Limitation of superposition
considering internal reaction force results according to Theory 1st Order

neglects the effect on internal reaction forces caused by deflection (e.g. beam
subjected to bending plus axial force)
Superposition of normal stresses
x =
design analysis
F Mz y My z
+
A
Iz
Iy
max allow
Superposition of shearing stresses
design analysis
= V T
max allow
Special problems concerning combined loading of bending moment and axial

force
how to avoid tension (open gap) in a member with an eccentric load (e.g. dam,
masonry wall):
P
e
condition:
=
e=
(P e ) 6 = 0
P M
P
+
=
+
bh
b h
A S
h
6
zone of applicable resultant
force to meet the condition
(-)
(-)
+ (+)
b
3
h
3
=
(-)

Department of
Civil Engineering
48
6 Stress Analysis
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example 6.1
A rectangular beam member is subjected to unsymmetrical bending and an eccentric
compressive force. Determinate the maximum and minimum normal stresses within
the section at the fixed support and indicate the position of the neutral plane.
b = 50 mm
h = 100 mm
L = 1000 mm
= 30
M = 1 kNm
F = 10 kN
b
M
z
L
10 5 3
4
4
Iy =
cm = 104 .17 cm
12
5 10 3
Iz =
cm 4 = 416 .67 cm 4
12
1
M y = sin M = M = 50 kNcm
2
h
1
M z = cos M F =
3 M F 5cm = 136.6kNcm
2
2
x =
A:
B:
C:
D:
F Mz y My z
+
A
Iz
Iy
y
A
10 kN 136.6kNcm 5cm 50 kNcm 2.5cm

+
= 2.64 kN / cm
50cm
416 .67 cm 4
104.17 cm 4
10 kN 136 .6kNcm 5cm 50 kNcm 2.5cm
x =
+
= 0.24 kN / cm
50cm
416 .67 cm 4
104 .17 cm 4
+
= 0.64 kN / cm
x =
50cm
416.67 cm 4
104.17 cm 4
x =
+
= 3.04 kN / cm
50cm
416 .67 cm 4
104 .17 cm 4
x =
position of neutral plane, graphical solution:

A
+
C

Department of
Civil Engineering
49
6 Stress Analysis
4/10
example 6.2
The beam of a bridge structure consists of a hollow trapezium section. The structure
is subjected to an unsymmetrical load by an applied vertical force F. Determinate the
maximum shear stress due to the applied load.
F
2b
F
2t
t
b
shear stress due to torque:
constant torsional moment along L
T=-bF
) 1
3
A = (2b + b )b = b
2
2
tmin = t
T ,max =
T
bF
F
) =
=
3 b t
3 b t
2At
shear stress due to bending:

largest shear stress occurs in the web
V ,ave =
V
=
A web
F
5
2
b t
2
F
5 bt
approximation formula
superposition:
max = T V =
F
F
F
+
=
0.78
3 b t
5 bt bt
shear flow due to torsion T(+)

(q evenly distributed)
max

shear flow due to applied shear force V(+)

(maximum q in the web)
Department of
Civil Engineering
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6 Stress Analysis
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6.2 Analysis of plane stress

Transformation of plane stress
stress components in all directions (x, y,xy, xy) of an isolated
element (dx, dy, t)
plane stress =
Unlike the vector of a force (F [kN]), a stress vector (, [kN/cm]) is to be multiplied

by the respective area (dA) of a face to be applicable to mathematic operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication).
+
y
yx
xy
y'
+
x
x'y'
x
xy
xy
x
yx
y
yx
x'
x'
Equations of equilibrium on an isolated wedge of an infinitesimal element (dx, dy, t):

definition: area of the inclined plane BC = dA, area AB = sin dA, area AC = cos dA
=0:
x ' dA = ( x dA cos )cos + ( xy dA cos )sin
= 0:
x 'y ' dA = ( x dA cos )sin + ( xy dA cos )cos
x'
y'
+ ( y dA sin )sin + ( yx dA sin )cos
+ ( y dA sin )cos ( yx dA sin )sin
applying the same procedure to an inclined plane at an angle of +/2, the normal
stress y' is derived.
Using the correlations
1
1
2
2
2 sin cos = sin 2 , cos sin = cos 2
xy = xy , cos = (1 + cos 2 ) , sin = (1 cos 2 ) ,
the equations for the transformation of plane stress are obtained:

Department of
Civil Engineering
51
6 Stress Analysis
6/10
equations for the transformation of plane stress
1
( x + y ) + 1 ( x y )cos 2 + xy sin 2
2
2
1
1
y ' = ( x + y ) ( x y )cos 2 xy sin 2
2
2
1
x 'y ' = ( x y )sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
x' =
y'
y
yx
xy
y'
y'x'
(6.1)
(6.2)
(6.3)
x'y'
x
x'
x
adding equation (6.1) and (6.2):
x ' + y' = x + y
= constant
Principal Stresses
The plane of maximum and minimum normal stress is found by differentiating the
equations for transformation (6.1) with respect to and equalizing the derivative set
to zero:
x'
1
= ( x y )2 sin 2 + xy 2 cos 2 = 0
2
d
tan 21 =
2 xy
(6.4)
hence
(6.5)
x y
Both angels of incline, 1 and 1 + /2, meeting above condition are denoted by the
principal directions indicating the principal planes.
Applying the angle functions the principal stresses are simplified:
1, 2 =
x + y
2
x y

2
+ 2xy

(6.6)
Department of
Civil Engineering
52
6 Stress Analysis
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Equation (6.4) is equal to equation (6.3). Since the principal directions (1) are
obtained by equalizing equation (6.4) to zero it is concluded that:
on planes on which maximum and minimum normal stresses occur (principal
stresses), no shearing stresses are existent (1 = max, 2 = min, x'y' = 0).
Maximum Shearing Stresses
Differentiating equation 5.3 and equalizing the derivate to zero:
x 'y '
d
= ( x y )cos 2 + xy 2 sin 2 = 0
tan 22 =
max
x y
hence
(6.8)
2 xy
x y
=
2
max =
(6.7)
+ 2xy
or with (6.6):
1
(1 2 )
2
(6.9)
substitution of (6.8) into (6.1) or (6.2):
' =
1
( x + y )
2
(6.10)
Thus maximum shearing stresses occur on planes that are not necessarily free of
normal stress, ' = x' = y'.
tan 22 =
1
tan 21
hence directions of 22 and 21 are perpendicular, or directions of maximum normal

(1) and maximum shearing stresses (2) are 45 apart.
example:
a state of pure shear can be transformed in a state of equal but opposite

principle normal stresses under an incline of = 45
yx
2 = -xy
1 = xy
xy

Department of
Civil Engineering
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6 Stress Analysis
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6.3 Mohrs Circle

Equations (6.1) or (6.2) and (6.3) can be represented graphically. Transforming the
equations:
1
( x + y ) = + 1 ( x y )cos 2 + xy sin 2
2
2
1
= ( x y )sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
x'
x 'y '
squaring and adding both equations and simplifying:

2
x y
1
2
x ' 2 ( x + y ) + x 'y ' =
2
+ 2xy
(6.11)
since x, y and xy are given constants in a problem they are summarised as:
x y
r =
2
+ 2xy
1
with (5.10), ' = ( x + y ), equation (5.11) is written as:
2
2
( x ' ') + x 'y ' = r
(6.12)
Equation (5.12) is representing a circle or radius r in the ,-plane, having its center
at (',0). The ordinate of a point on the circle is the shearing stress x'y', the abscissa
is the normal stress x'. The circle is called Mohrs Circle of stress. The state of stress
under any arbitrary plane of incline is represented graphically.
Constructing Mohrs Circle of Stress with x, y and xy as given values:
set up a coordinate system, horizontal axis = , vertical axis =

plot both stresses for x and y on the -axis respecting the algebraic sign (+/-)
plot the shearing stresses xy using the opposite sign at x (e.g. (-), below the
-axis, for xy being positive) and the correct sign at y (e.g. (+) for for xy (+))
connect both points by a straight line, the point of intersection with the
abscissa is the center of the circle, now the circle can be drawn
The state of plane stress of an element is represented by the drawn circle. Any plane
of incline is represented by a point on the circle. The angle of incline of the respected
plane towards the initial x,y-system is equal to half of the value of the counterclockwise rotation (2) on the circle.
(+)
xy
y
(-)

(+)
2 x
' =
1
( x + y )
2
'
xy
(+)
Department of
Civil Engineering
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6 Stress Analysis
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Special states of stress on Mohrs Circle:

a)
b)
c)
a)
state of axial tension

state of pure shear
hydrostatic state of stress
'
y= -0
c)
' =
max
y = 0
b)
' = 0/2
max = 0/2
x = 0
y= -0
x = y = ' = 0
' = 0/2
x = 0 (=1)
'
1
( x + y )
2
max = 0/2
45
y= -0
x = 0
x = 0
45
'
'
'
'

'
Department of
Civil Engineering
55
6 Stress Analysis
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6.4 Failure Theories

A member of a certain material subjected to an axial load can be easily tested in a
tensile test. Thus the yield load and the ultimate load can be obtained. An allowed
tension is defined to ensure a safe design.
For any member in an bi- or tri-axial state of stress determining its load capacity and
the parameter for a safe design is not that easy.
A material specimen in a tensile test might well break along its shearing plane (45
incline, max = /2) and not along the plane of normal stress (perpendicular).
Materials that are weak in shearing strength are expected to fail along the shearing
planes (45 in pure tension or compression, 90 in pure torsion). Examples for
materials showing such behaviour: mild steel, concrete or loam (in compression).
Materials being weak in tensile strength will fail along the planes of normal stress
(90 in pure tension or compression, 45 in pure torsion). Examples for materials
showing such behaviour: sandstone, chalk.
To enable a safe design, a certain stress limit condition has to be defined to be
compared to the allowable stress being obtained by the tensile test.
Only the maximum distortion energy theory will be mentioned here without indicating
its derivation. It is denoted as the von Mises yield condition:
x2 + 2y x y + 3 2xy allow
Principle stress trajectories and crack pattern for a rectangular beam subjected to
bending:
F
45
compression
tension

Department of
Civil Engineering
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1/4
7.1 Sequence of Equations for the Deflection of elastic Beams
Geometric relations, static and equilibrium conditions are taken into account to set up
a sequence of equations.
Recalling the image and relations for small deflections
A
M
A1
initial shape
B1
initial shape
deflected shape
neutral axis
geometry:
x, max =
x c
=
dx
dx
dx+x
(7.1)
My
My
= E , =
I
EI
(6.1)=(6.2):
1
M
=
=
EI
deflected shape
y
x =
since
(7.2)
curvature
due to analytic geometry, curvature is defined as:
1
=
v' '
[1 + (v') ]
3
2 2
v' = = slope - since v' is very small:

v = deflection - due to M being
1
dv
M
= v' ' =
=
dx E I
v' ' =
positive if oriented downward, hence:
M
EI
initial shape
considering small deflections only:
v' =
deflected shape
v'
-
Department of
Civil Engineering
57
2/4
Recalling the static differential relations
M' =
dM
dV
= V and V ' =
= q ( x )
dx
dx
summery:
Sequence of equations for the deflection of beams (linear-elastic):
v(x)
deflection of elastic curve
(x) = - v'(x)
slope of elastic curve
M(x) = - v''(x)EI = (x) EI = '(x)EI
moment curvature relation
V(x) = - v'''(x)EI = M'(x)
shear force
q(x) = v'v(x)EI
lateral load per unit length
= V'(x)

Department of
Civil Engineering
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3/4
7.2 Table of Deflections and Slopes for common situations
system & load
max deflection v
slope at end
L/2
v max = v(L / 2) =
L/2
PL3
48 EI
(0) = (L) =
PL
16 EI
(0) = (L) =
qL
24 EI
L
P
Pb
6 EIL
[(L b )x x ]
v max =
b
L
v max = v(L / 2) =
5 qL4
384 EI
v max = v(L) =
PL
3 EI
(L) =
PL
2 EI
v max = v(L) =
qL4
8 EI
(L) =
qL
6 EI

Department of
Civil Engineering
59
4/4
example 7.1
A steel beam, consisting of a standard I-section is subjected to a dead load of g = 8
kN/m and a traffic load of p = 5 kN/m. The spacing between the beams is 3.0 m.
The total allowed deflection equals to L/300.
a) Determine whether the maximum vertical deflection of the beam is within the
allowed range
b) Determine the vertical camber to be applied to the beam to achieve a plane
system due to pure self weight of the structure. Does the system now meet the
required criterion?
c) The camber of the beam is to be replaced by a suspension cable at the centre
of the system. Determine the pretension force in the cable.
given: L = 5.0 m, Iz = 5740 cm4,

Esteel = 21 000 kN/cm
L
a) gbeam = 8 * 3.0 = 24.0 kN/m
Mg =
v max,g
linear force
gL
= 15.63kNm
8
5 gL4
5 24 10 2 kN / cm (500 cm ) 4
=
=
= 1.62cm
384 EI 384 21000 kN / cm 5740 cm 4
bending moment
deflection
pbeam = 5 * 3.0 = 15.0 kN/m
Mp =
v max, p
pL
= 25.0kNm
8
5 pL4
5 15 10 2 kN / cm (500cm ) 4
= 1.01cm
=
=
384 EI 384 21000 kN / cm 5740 cm 4
v max = v max,g + v max, p = 2.63cm > v allow = 500 / 300 = 1.67 cm
not sufficient!
b) height of camber = v max,g = 1.62cm
v max = v max,g + v max,g + v max, p = 1.01cm < v allow = 1.67 cm
OK
PL3
= 1.62cm = v max,g
deflection due to force at L/2
48 EI
48 EI
48 21000 kN / cm 5740 cm 4
P=
v=
1.62cm
L3
(500 cm ) 3
P = 74.98kN
pretension force
c) v max, P =

Department of
Civil Engineering
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8 Buckling
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8 Buckling
Buckling is a sudden loss of stability that occurs to a member subjected to a
compressive load. The system failure is caused by infinitesimal small deflections due
to small imperfections being inherent in each structure. It relates to the geometry of
the system (dimensions, boundary conditions, type of cross section) and the material
applied (elastic modulus).
8.1 Stability of Equilibrium
A vertical rigid bar (no bending) having a torsional spring of stiffness k at its support
is subjected to a vertical load P. The system is displaced by a small (infinitesimal)
amount.
P L sin P L
moment caused by vertical force

(small displacement)
restoring moment by torsional spring
k=PL
neutral stability - equilibrium condition
k> PL
stable
k< PL
unstable
Pcr = k/L
critical buckling load
8.2 Euler Formula for the pin-ended column

A column with a flexural rigidity of EI with pinned supports, being free to rotate about
both ends is subjected to a vertical load P. An imperfection of the system causes
bending of the column (M) and horizontal deflection at its centre (v).
M = -P v
v' ' =
=
M Pv
=
EI
EI
P
EI
v' '+ v = 0
bending moment due to deflection

differential equation for the elastic curve
applying , transforming the equation:
being equal to an equation for simple

harmonic motion having the solution:
v = A sin x + B cos x

Department of
Civil Engineering
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8 Buckling
2/5
v(0) = v(L) = 0
A and B are determined from the boundary condition
v(0) = 0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
B = 0 and
hence
v(L) = 0 = A sin L excluding the solution A = 0, the equation is satisfied by

L = n
Pcr =
EI
L
P /( EI) L = n
hence
and
Euler Formula, critical load for the pin-ended column
The Euler Formula for the pin-ended column is the fundamental case for the buckling
analysis. Buckling will take place in direction of the least moment of inertia of the
respective cross section.
8.3 Euler Formulas for various boundary conditions
Due to the boundary conditions set for a member subjected to a compressive load,
the differential equation v'' = -M/(EI) has different solutions.
The solutions can be generalised and transformed to resemble the fundamental case
of the Euler Formula for pin-ended columns by introducing Le as the effective length.
In the analysis the effective length Le is used instead of the actual column length L.
Le = KL
P
Pcr =
K = effective length factor

P
EI
Le
L
L = Le
Le = 0.7L
Le = 0.5L
Le = 2L
K=2
Pcr =
K=1
EI
4L
Pcr =

K = 0.7
EI
L
Pcr = 2
K = 0.5
EI
L
Pcr = 4
EI
L
Department of
Civil Engineering
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8 Buckling
3/5
example 8.1
A pin-ended steel column consists of a hollow rectangular cross section. At its top
end the column is supported by horizontal bracings in y- and z-directions. At a height
of 6.0 m a horizontal bracing is attached in direction of the z-axis.
a) Determine the critical buckling load Pcr of the system
b) The support at the bottom of the column is changed to a fixed support.
Determine Pcr of the new system.
y
P
given: rectangular hollow section 200 x 100 x 5 [mm]
Iz = 1522.42 cm4, Iy = 512.42 cm4
z
x
ESteel = 21000 kN/cm
z
a) buckling plane x-y: L e = 1000cm
4m
EI z 21000kN / cm 1522.42cm
Pcr =
=
= 315.5kN
Le
(1000cm)
4
buckling plane x-z, upper part:
6m
EI y
21000kN / cm 512.42cm 4
Pcr =
=
= 663.8kN
Le
(400cm)
buckling plane x-z, lower part: L e = 600cm

Pcr =
EI y
Le
21000kN / cm 512.42cm 4
= 295.0kN
(600cm)
min(Pcr) = 295.0 kN
b) buckling plane x-y: L e = 0.7 10.0m = 700.0cm
Pcr =
EI z 21000 kN / cm 1522.42cm 4
=
= 644.0kN
Le
(700cm)
buckling plane x-z, upper part: L e = 400cm

Pcr =
EI y
Le
21000kN / cm 512.42cm 4
= 663.8kN
(400cm)
buckling plane x-z, lower part: L e = 0.7 6.0m = 420cm

Pcr =
EI y
Le
21000 kN / cm 512.42cm 4
= 602.0kN
(420cm)
min(Pcr) = 602.0 kN
Department of
Civil Engineering
63
8 Buckling
4/5
8.4 Limitations of the Euler Formulas

The derivation of the Euler Formula is based on elastic material behaviour. Thus it is
only applicable within the linear-elastic range of the material.
A closer look is to be taken at the stress caused by the applied vertical load of the
column.
Pcr =
EI
Le
I = A r2
r=
I
A
introducing a new definition:

hence:
radius of gyration, transforming Pcr:
EAr
Le
P
E
critical stress
cr = cr =
A (L e / r ) 2
Pcr =
Le / r
Euler Hyperbola:
slenderness ratio
critical stress versus slenderness ratio, applicable within the

linear-elastic range
The Euler Hyperbola provides a general solution to determine the critical stress for
any column according to its slenderness ratio.
For long columns (large ratio of slenderness), the Euler Hyperbola can generally be
applied. Exceeding the linear elastic range of the material, the proportional limit is
reached, hence the Euler Hyperbola can no longer be used. The graph representing
the critical stress therefore approaches the limit stress of the material (e.g. the yield
point). Thus short column failure is not a failure due to stability but due to the strength
of the applied material.
Further criteria considering the buckling analysis of a column of a certain material
can be found in the respective national codes.

Department of
Civil Engineering
64
8 Buckling
5/5
critical stress cr
limit stress
of material
e.g. y.p., ult
yield point
no buckling, material failure
proportional limit
Euler Hyperbola
cr =
E
(L e / r ) 2
unstable
design
stable
design
slenderness ratio Le/r
short intermediate long

column range column range column range
buckling plastically
buckling elastically
figure 8.1: critical stress diagram, Euler Hyperbola

Department of
Civil Engineering

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Lecture Notes

beta version, 29th April 2009

for use at Addis Abeba University only!

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

Calendar Semester II 2009

Stress Axial Loads

Literature / Teaching Material

1 Stress Axial Loads

2 Strain Axial Loads

6 Analysis of plane Stress

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

fig 1.11: axially loaded rod

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

The intensity of a normal force acting on a surface at a certain point is described as

amount of internal force

Considering a uniform distribution the normal stress is defined as:

example 1.1 - stress

At which position will the specimen break if the applied force F is

fig 1.12: specimen for tensile test subjected to axial load

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

1.2 Average Shearing Stress Transverse Loading

fig 1.22: bolt connection

fig 1.23: plane of cut

fig 1.24: shearing stress

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

1.3 Stress Analysis and Concept of Design

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

design load = existing load factor of safety

design average shear stress

material by Karsten Schlesier

example 1.2 - design of axially loaded members

load safety factor

fig 1.31: lattice girder

cutting plane - internal equilibrium at left part:

S 2,d = S 2 = 70.71kN 1.5 = 106.06kN

S 3,d = S 3 = 50kN 1.5 = 75kN

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

example 1.3 - design of a pin bolt connection

fig 1.32: bolt connection

average shear stress per shear plane in the bolt:

condition from design analysis:

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

example 1.4 - orthotropic properties, design of a timber connection

load safety factor

F,d = (cos 30 F) 1.5 = (0.87 500 N) 1.5 = 652.5 N

areas of bearing planes for respective force components:

A3 = 900 mm2 shear plane (F)

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

material by Karsten Schlesier

1.4 Transformation of Stress Oblique Plane under Axial Loading

fig 1.41: axially loaded member,

initial situation, normal stress

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

area of oblique plane

material by Karsten Schlesier

normal stress acting on oblique plane