Technical Digest Issue - 6

Article

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT - PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIES

S. M. Mendhekar and M. L. Chalakh
1.0. Introduction
1.1. India is one of the few countries in the world
endowed with abundant land and water resources. The
average rainfall in the country is estimated to be over
4000 cubic km spread over the geographical area of
328 m ha of which 185 m ha is culturable. Due to tropical
climate conditions, India experiences vast spatial and
temporary variation in the rainfall. About one third of
the countrys area is drought prone. The Southern and
Western parts of the country comprising States of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are drought
prone. On the other hand, the areas subjected to periodic
floods are mainly in the Northern and North Eastern
parts of the country comprising States of Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and the seven North
Eastern States.
1.2. There is wide variation in the average per capita
availability of water in the various river basins. It is as

1.3. Out of the ultimate irrigation potential of 139.9 m

ha, by 1996-97, 90.81 m ha is already created including
44.93 m ha from surface water and 45.88 m ha from
groundwater.
2.0.
Future Demands
2.1.
Drinking Water
United Nations has projected that by the year 2025 A D,
the population in India would be around 1394 million
adopting medium projections. As per National Water
Policy highest priority is accorded to drinking water
supply. Therefore, the likely need of the increased
population would have to be met in the long term
planning to ensure drinking water supply.
2.2.
Irrigation
It is estimated that by the year 2025 A D, the utilization
of the resources are likely to go up to 1050 cubic km
consisting of 700 cubic km from surface and 360 cubic
km from groundwater. Thus, almost the entire utilization
of water resources of the country would be required to
put to use by the year 2025 A D. However, even before
this there would be many regions which would be facing
serious shortage of water, especially Western Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Rayalseema in Andhra Pradesh, and most

high as 14000 cubic metre in Brahmaputra / Barak valley

to as low as 300 cubic metre in Sabarmati, whereas
some of the river basins like Mahi, Tapi and Pennar are
already water stressed. The availability of less than
1000 cubic metre per capita is considered as scarcity
as per International Standards and remedial measures,
as possible, need to be planned. Thus, scarcity
conditions already exists in some parts of the country
which needs to be mitigated.
Table : Water Resources of India
Geographical Area
328 m ha
Culturable Area
185 m ha
Rainfall
4000 cubic km
Utilisable Water
1122 cubic km (including
Resources
432 cubic km from
Groundwater)
Ultimate irrigation
139.9 m ha
potential

Technical Digest Issue - 6

parts of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat States. At the same
time, there would be regions which would continue to
remain surplus due to availability of large water
resources potentials but inadequate culturable lands.
2.3. Demand for Food Grains
At present, the average annual food grains production
during the last three years in the country is around 200
million tonnes, besides, sugar and edible oils etc. The
futuristic demand for food grains upto 2025 A D would
depend on population, per capita requirement and need
for exports. The food requirements by then would go
upto 400 million tonnes per year. Therefore, concerted
efforts would have to be made to step up the present
production through efficient management of both land
and water resources. However, the most crucial yet
determining factor would remain to be the availability of
dependable irrigation water.
3.0. Irrigation Potential
3.1. The assessment of ultimate irrigation potential of
the country made in 1972 has been revised, mainly on
account of reassessment of groundwater potential by
the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) from 40 m
ha to 64.05 m ha. The ultimate irrigation potential for
minor surface water schemes was also revised from 15
m ha to 17.38 m ha. Consequently, the ultimate irrigation
potential stands revised from 113.5 m ha to 139.9 m ha
as per the details furnished in table below:
Table : Irrigation Potential (million hectare)

Water Resources Council in its Fifth meeting on 1 April

2002 describes: Water is a prime natural resource, a
basic human need and a precious national asset - hence
planning, development and management of water
resources need to be governed by national perspective.
It emphasizes the need of well-developed information
system for water related data at national and state level
for resource planning through which water resource
available to the country should be brought within the
category of utilizable resources to the maximum possible
extent. It recommends, economic developments and
activities including agriculture, industrial and urban
development should be planned with due regards to the
constraint imposed by the configuration of water
availability. There should be water zoning of the country
and the economic activities should be guided and
regulated in accordance with such zoning. To implement
this broad principle, it is necessary to create awareness
about water as a scarce resource commodity and create
conservation consciousness amongst people through
regulations, incentives and dis-incentives.
4.2. Agriculture Sector, being the biggest consumer of
water, has to be sensitized to the need of respecting
water as a scarce resource, even where it is plenty, at
present. Efficient water use in crop production is indeed
an inter-disciplinary subject and requires inputs from
engineers, agriculture scientists, social scientists and
farmers.

Ultimate Irrigation Potential (m ha)

Sector
Existing Revised
i) Major & Medium Irrigation
58.46
58.46
ii) Minor Irrigation
a) Surface water
15.00
17.38
40.00
64.05
b) Grounded water
55.00
81.43
Total (i + ii)
113.46
139.89

Irrigation is playing an important role in generating

employment in rural areas. Since, employment and
income dynamics of irrigation extend far beyond farm
sector, irrigation expansion plays a vital role in regional
development. The additional employment generated
due to irrigation is estimated at 8.7 million person-years
(MPYs) including 2.6 MPYs in works and 6.1 MPYs in
farm and non-farm activities. It is also estimated that
irrigation helps to induce 5 per cent increase in additional
output in manufacturing and 14 per cent in the tertiary
service sector.

5.0. Employment and Income Impact

3.2.
If, one assumes a moderate growth in demand
coupled with the efficient irrigation practices leading to
higher per ha crop yield from existing 2.5 tonne to
achievable 3.5 tonne, the present irrigated potential
would be sufficient to meet the projected food
requirements. Shortages and large scale import of food
grains is likely to be socially unacceptable even in
globalized economy. This makes imperative to adopt
other non conventional methods of increasing irrigation
potentials. The non conventional methods thought of,
at present, are:
(1) Conservation of water use and optimization of water
use efficiency;
(2) Artificial groundwater recharge to further increase
groundwater potential;
(3) Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater; and
(4) Inter basin water transfer.

6.0. Problems of Irrigation Sector

Despite its remarkable agricultural and micro economic
contributions, the irrigation sector faces many problems
both from within and outside the sector. Problems now
faced are not only sectoral issues but economic within
their ramifications, as well. Solution to the irrigation
sector problems will have a strong bearing on agricultural
sustainability and economic stability.
6.1. Problems in Surface Irrigation
The surface irrigation projects would continue to play a
stronger role. The weak physical, financial and
institutional foundation on which the irrigation sector is
operating makes it doubtful whether the sector can
continue to deliver production, income, employment
benefits at the present level. Although, surface irrigation
projects have brought prosperity, the projects
themselves have tended to remain unviable with the
water rates covering less than 5 per cent of Operation

4.0. National Water Policy

4.1. The National Water Policy as adopted by National

Technical Digest Issue - 6

and Maintenance (O&M) costs. Water logging, salinity
and alkalinity is one fall out of poor management of the
system and the others being distressed tail ender
farmers. It is expected that the present surface irrigation
systems are woefully inefficient causing many
environmental and ecological problems. Nevertheless,
if these resources are well-managed, better-planned and
optimally- and efficiently-utilized, the potential presently
created would be adequate to meet the future demand
of irrigated agriculture without investing in new projects.
6.2. Problems in Groundwater
6.2.1 Although, the groundwater works, which are
individually owned, have better efficiency and
productivity, the main problem is of developing an
adequate and potent kit of policy instrument that can
enable policy makers to bring a modicum of order in its
present chaotic development under private initiatives.
6.2.2 Free or highly subsidized availability of power has
caused more damage to groundwater. The urgent need,
therefore, is to check pumping an overdraft of
groundwater keeping in view the groundwater dependent
agricultural economy. Besides, declining water levels,
groundwater is also confronted with the problem of
chemical quality. Capital intensive technology available
to elite and influential farmers has created iniquitous
development and emergence of informal water markets,
thus treating water as a tradable commodity in absence
of effective legislation.

1956) to 6.5 per cent in the Ninth Plan (1997-2002).

Irrigation contributes significantly to the revenue
deficits of the States.
8.0. Performance Improvements
In the context of present situation, it is not only
imperative but compulsive to improve the performance
of the irrigation sector. Unlike the expansion strategy
which faces formidable exogenous constraints, the major
problems for the performance improvement strategy
have to be manageable and largely endogenous to the
irrigation sector. The issues confronting the performance
improvement are many, varied and inter linked. These
could be classified as physical issues, economic &
financial issues and institutional issues described
hereunder:
8.1. Physical Issues
The physical conditions of irrigation system is in bad
shape limiting its capability and realibility. Inefficiency
pervades from catchment to the drainage network
leading to under utilization of the highly costly resources.
Physical deterioration leads to considerable water waste
due to which it is impossible to deliver water in the right
amount at right time and the ultimate result is reduction
in irrigated areas; and the ultimate toll is economic
performance.
8.2. Economic Issues
The economic and financial issues are intertwined and
have their origin in current related policies like water
pricing, cost recovery and expenditure prioritization.
Despite Government agreeing to revise water rates, the
uneconomic old water rates continue even at present.
As serious as the financial manifestations of current
investment and water pricing policies are their
deleterious economic consequences on the production
front. Subsidized water rates disenthuse farmers to opt
for the tenets of water use efficiency and conservation.
8.3. Institutional Issues
The fundamental cause of all critical issues is the weak
institutional foundation. The institutional issues include;
(1) Gaps and weaknesses in the organization base of
water distribution and management;
(2) The problems and limitations of existing plan and
administration; and
(3) Lack of organic linkages between water delivery
mechanism and agricultural inputs, credit and
extension services.

7.0. Challenges
7.1. The new economic policy which underlines financial
disciplines and market based approaches to economic
management and acceptance of WTO, which has
initiated global agricultural trade liberalization, has
placed Indian agriculture amidst a host of challenges
and opportunities. This necessitates stipulating a 4.5
per cent growth rate against all time 3 per cent. This is
possible, if there is a higher productivity and
diversification to high value farm production, which can
happen only through irrigation. The sector is posed with
two main formidable challenges, one, the green
revolution which having shown high agricultural growth
is now showing signs of lethargy due to progressive
exhaustion of technological potential and deterioration
in natural resources, and two, the land resource based
agriculture is gradually declining due to land degradation.
7.2. Besides this, the other challenges are:
(1) Limitations on physical expansion of irrigation
particularly in major river basins which is fast
approaching its ultimate potential;
(2) Competitive use of water from other sectors. The
share of irrigation in the total water use is expected
to decline from 83 per cent to 73 per cent during
next decade as a result of four fold growth in non
irrigational sectors;
(3) Fiscal constraint to expansion is also becoming
increasingly binding. For instance, the share of
irrigation in the total Plan expenditure has come
down from 22 per cent from the First Plan (1951-

9.0. Strategies and Perspectives

9.1. There is urgent need to reform the current irrigation
policy and strategy to further its contribution to
agriculture, generate employment, income and
economic growth. Such reforms shall gear up the
irrigation sector to effective distribution for production
optimization, accept challenges induced by economic
liberalization, grass root level demand for decentralized
policy and making management accountable. The
performance improvement strategy would provide an
opportunity for redressing the irrigation sector and thus
making it more responsive to current as well as future

Technical Digest Issue - 6

needs. The proposed strategy therefore involve a shift:
a) From the current emphasis on physical expansion
to performance improvement;
b) From the current focus on water supply with limited
goal of agricultural production to focus irrigation as
a critical tool for augmenting production and bring
efficiency in its use;
c) From Government control to client oriented focus;
d) From dependency on Government budget to
collection of commercial water charges;
e) From Government controlled institutions to
commercially oriented, effective and efficient
autonomous service institutions with minimum
overall costs; and
f) From Government ownership to privatization and
participatory management.
9.2. The above strategy calls for simultaneous
intervention in the institutional, financial, technological
and social areas. Irrigation agencies need to be
restructured, water users association (WUA) fostered
for operation and maintenance of irrigation works,
expenditure reprioritized and water rights introduced.
The action plan to effect these changes is suggested
below:
9.3. Restructuring of Irrigation Departments
9.3.1. The Irrigation Departments are required to be
reformed and restructured to accept new challenges for:
(1) Making them more autonomous, less construction
oriented and more client focussed;
(2) Improving their internal structure and making them
more decentralized;
(3) Enhancing their internal and external
communications and linkages; and
(4) Enhancing their skill and performance.
9.3.2. The specific modalities of restructuring would
differ from state to state and might be situation specific.
To make the Irrigation Departments more client
focussed, it is necessary to develop political and
administrative will, staff incentives and rewards systems,
internal communications and feedback mechanisms as
also skill updating. The financial self sufficiency by the
new institutions (e.g., WUAs, NGOs, Private Sector
Firms, Autonomous Service Institutions) could be
achieved through recovery of the recurrent cost by
revising the water rates, cutting down administrative cost
without compromising on quality and efficiency and
promoting irrigation management transfer.
9.4. Irrigation Management Transfer
9.4.1. The past two decades emphasized on
addressing the management dimensions of irrigation but
this management focus sought ways to improve the
performance of irrigation, managers did not address the
more fundamental issue of who those managers should
be. It was assumed that the management would
continue to be with the Government and that the role of
farmers would be only as a tertiary willing participants.
However, recently there has been an active thinking and
action on transfer of irrigation works to farmers or NGOs.
Recognizing the fact that irrigation management transfer

is an evolutionary process, Water Users Association

will have to be created in a phased manner. The Bharat
Chamber of Commerce and the participatory
management of the tubewell by the Panchayats in West
Bengal have proved successful. Promoting irrigation
management transfer involves legal, financial, social
changes. The State Government may have to play a
greater and intense role for such a transfer and NGOs
can play a catalyst role in organizing farmers to develop
and manage their water resources. The financial
institutions may have to provide funds to the WUAs for
their success.
9.4.2. Many of the tasks currently carried out by the
national and state governments can be performed by
the private sector firms who are becoming more and
more sophisticated and can provide a more focussed
approach for creation and effective management of the
resources.
10.0. Points Need Attention
10.1. The design and performance of public irrigation
system still follow some principles, which are not any
more in tune with the current and future needs of the
farmers and the country. Most schemes do not operate
as planned. It would be a mistake to rehabilitate existing
schemes or design new ones without using more
advanced design principles and co-managing these with
the private institutions and farmers. Many changes in
the present concepts of water supplies are overdue
particularly in regard to:
(a) Increasing irrigation intensity;
(b) Recycling surface irrigation water;
(c) Developing conjunctive use;
(d) Improving canal efficiency;
(e) Introducing dynamic regulations;
(f) Transfering completed works to farmers; and
(g) Improving water management at chak level and
ensuring simultaneous completion of on farm
development works.
10.2. To sum up, to fulfill the tasks ahead, would entail:
a) Reforming the State Irrigation Department by putting
them on a sound financial basis and improving their
linkages with the agricultural institutions;
b) Fastening the creation of Water Users Association
(WUA) and turn over of irrigation projects for
effective management, O & M care of the minor
and distribution canals;
c) Establishing the water rights; and
d) Rehabilitating and modernizing the irrigation
systems.
10.3. Improving irrigation-financing would entail upon
making the Irrigation Departments autonomous and selffinancing through increased water charges, improving
collection rates and developing instruments to capture
private sector investments in development and
management. The thrust of the new strategy would be
on integrated approach to irrigation performance and
agricultural growth, where reforming both the irrigation
system and the irrigated agriculture interface would be
the primary vehicle for sustainable agricultural growth.