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CAPE Photosynthesis
CAPE Photosynthesis
An overview of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis happens in several different
kinds of organisms, not only plants. There are
many kinds of bacteria that can photosynthesise.
Photosynthesis also takes place in phytoplankton,
tiny organisms that float in the upper layers of the
sea and lakes. Here, though, we will concentrate
on photosynthesis in green plants, which takes
place in the chloroplasts of several plant tissues,
especially the palisade mesophyll and spongy
mesophyll tissues of leaves (Figure 1.1). This
photosynthesis is the ultimate source of almost all
of our food.
The overall equation for photosynthesis is:
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
midrib
vascular bundle
upper epidermis
xylem
palisade
mesophyll
spongy
mesophyll
lamina
phloem
cuticle
upper
epidermis
stoma
palisade
mesophyll
lower
epidermis
veins
spongy
mesophyll
lower
epidermis
guard cell
Figure 1.1
chloroplast
air space
stoma
b
cuticle
upper
epidermis
palisade
mesophyll
cytoplasm
vascular
bundle
(vein)
vacuole
nucleus
mesophyll
cell
chloropast
spongy
mesophyll
air space
lower
epidermis
Figure 1.2
guard
cell
stoma
stoma
open
stoma
closed
chloroplasts
guard
cells
thick
cell wall
thin
cell wall
upper epidermis
palisade cell
chloroplasts
nucleus
vacuole
Figure 1.4
(600).
light
plant cell
chloroplast
H2O
CO2
light-dependent stage
light-independent stage
C6H12O6
Figure 1.5
O2
starch grain
ribosome
stroma
granum
lamella
lipid droplet
chloroplast
envelope
(20000)
Diagram of a chloroplast
outer membrane
ribosomes
inner membrane
starch
grain
chloroplast
envelope
lipid
droplet
lamella
stroma
thylakoid
granum
granum
stroma
thylakoid
ribosome
Photosynthetic pigments
lipid
droplet
(36500)
CH3 in chlorophyll a
CHO in chlorophyll b
SAQ
2 a Use Figure 1.8 to explain why chlorophyll
looks green.
b What colour are carotenoids?
Photosystems
These are the primary pigments.. Both types of
chlorophyll absorb similar wavelengths of light, but
chlorophyll a absorbs slightly longer wavelengths
than chlorophyll b. This can be shown in a graph
called an absorption spectrum (Figure 1.8).
chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b
carotene
light
energy
Light absorbed
Key
400
500
600
Wavelength of light / nm
700
Chlorophyll
emits a
high-energy
electron.
The energy is
passed from
one molecule
to another.
e
H2O
thylakoid
membrane
O2
A low-energy electron
replaces the highenergy electron that
was passed on.
a photosystem
including hundreds of
molecules of chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll b and
carotenoids
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Photophosphorylation
Photophosphorylation means phosphorylation
using light. It refers to the production of ATP, by
combining a phosphate group with ADP, using
energy that originally came from light:
ADP + phosphate
ATP
Photophosphorylation happens when an electron
is passed along a series of electron carriers,
forming an electron transport chain in the thylakoid
membranes. The electron starts off with a lot of
energy, and it gradually loses some of it as it moves
from one carrier to the next. The energy is used to
cause a phosphate group to react with ADP.
Cyclic photophosphorylation
This process involves only PSI, not PSII. It results
in the formation of ATP, but not reduced NADP
(Figure 1.10).
Light is absorbed by PSI and the energy passed
on to electrons in the chlorophyll a molecules at
the reaction centre. In each chlorophyll a molecule,
one of the electrons becomes so energetic that it
high-energy electron
e
ADP + Pi
The Z-scheme
photosystem I
energy level
ATP
electron carriers
light
absorbed
e
Key
change in energy
of electrons
Figure 1.10
movement of electrons
between electron carriers
Cyclic photophosphorylation.
high-energy
electron
photosystem II
ATP
H2O
chain of
electron
carriers
chain of
electron
carriers
light
absorbed
O2
Figure 1.11
Key
change in energy
of electrons
movement of electrons
between electron carriers
Is PSI involved?
Is PSII involved?
Where does PSI obtain replacement electrons from?
Where does PSII obtain replacement electrons from?
Is ATP made?
Is reduced NADP made?
8
oxidised NADP + H+
reduced NADP
light
absorbed
+
high-energy
electron
ADP + Pi
photosystem I
energy level
Non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
carbon dioxide
(1C)
carboxylation of RuBP
(carbon fixation)
rubisco
ADP
ribulose
bisphosphate,
RuBP (5C)
regeneration
of RuBP by
phosphorylation
ATP
This is used to
make glucose,
sucrose and other
carbohydrates.
intermediate
(6C)
Calvin cycle
glycerate
3-phosphate,
GP (3C)
triose phosphate
(3C)
triose
phosphate
reduction
of GP
reduced NADP
ATP
SAQ
4 Suggest what happens to the ADP, inorganic
phosphate and NADP that are formed during
the Calvin cycle.
Light intensity
Light provides the energy that drives the lightdependent reactions, so it is obvious that when
there is no light, there is no photosynthesis. If
we provide a plant with more light, then it will
photosynthesise faster.
However, this can only happen up to a point.
We would eventually reach a light intensity
where, if we give the plant more light, its rate
9
Rate of photosynthesis
Light is not a
limiting factor.
Light intensity
Rate of photosynthesis
Rate of photosynthesis
Temperature
Temperature affects the kinetic energy of
molecules. The higher the temperature, the faster
molecules move, and the more frequently they
collide with one another. They also collide with
more energy. The greater frequency and energy of
collisions means that the reaction rate increases.
In photosynthesis, though, this effect is only
seen in the light-independent reactions. The rate
of the light-dependent reactions is not directly
affected by temperature, because the energy that
drives them comes from light, not the kinetic
energy of molecules.
In living organisms, most reactions are catalysed
by enzymes, so we also need to consider the effect
of temperature on them. Just like any molecules,
their kinetic energy increases as temperature
increases. However, as you will remember, beyond
a certain temperature (different for different
enzymes) they begin to lose their shape, and
therefore their catalytic properties. Plant enzymes
often have lower optimum temperatures than
enzymes found in mammals, because they have
evolved to work in the environmental temperatures
in which the plant normally lives.
Things are complicated, however, by a peculiar
property of the enzyme rubisco. Rubisco has
an unfortunate tendency to stop doing what it
is supposed to do catalyse the combination
of carbon dioxide with RuBP and start doing
something else when temperature rises. It switches
to catalysing a reaction in which oxygen is
Amount of substance
light
dark
light
GP
TP
4
Time / minutes
Figure 1.16 The effect of light and dark on the relative levels of TP and GP in a chloroplast.
11
Biofuels
The ability of plants to transfer light energy into
chemical energy means that they can be used
to provide fuels for us to use for example, for
generating electricity or in vehicle engines. As
stocks of fossil fuels run down, and as carbon
dioxide levels in the atmosphere continue to
increase, there has been a sharp increase in the use
of crop plants to produce fuels rather than food.
For example, rape seed is being used to produce
biodiesel, rather than food for animals or humans.
At first sight, this would appear to be very
good for the environment. Using plants to provide
fuels is theoretically carbon-neutral. The carbon
dioxide that is given out when the fuels are
burnt is matched by the carbon dioxide that the
plants take in as they photosynthesise and grow.
However, if we take into account the energy that
is used in harvesting the plants, converting the
biomass to a useful form of fuel and transporting
12
Summary
uses light energy to cause carbon dioxide and water to react to produce carbohydrates
Photosynthesis
and oxygen. The light energy is transformed to chemical energy in the carbohydrates.
Most photosynthesis takes place inside chloroplasts in palisade cells in leaves.
structure helps to ensure good supplies of raw materials for photosynthesis. Most leaves have
Leaf
a thin, broad lamina to maximise the amount of light that can be absorbed. Their thinness also
minimises the diffusion pathway for carbon dioxide. Stomata and air spaces allow carbon dioxide to
diffuse easily to photosynthesising cells. Xylem vessels bring water.
cells contain large numbers of chloroplasts. They are tall and thin, so light does not have to
Palisade
pass through too many cell walls before reaching a chloroplast. The chloroplasts are arranged in the
cytoplasm around the outer edge of the cell, and can be moved to maximise light absorption.
are surrounded by an envelope enclosing the stroma. Inside the chloroplast, membranes
Chloroplasts
form fluid-filled sacs called thylakoids, which in turn form stacks called grana. Chlorophyll molecules
are embedded in the membranes. The chlorophyll molecules are found within photosystems I and II.
light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place in the thylakoids. Light energy raises
The
the energy level of an electron in a chlorophyll molecule. The electron is passed down a series of
carriers, generating ATP by photophosphorylation. If only PSI is involved, the electron is returned
to PSI and this is called cyclic photophosphorylation. If the electron is passed to PSII, then reduced
NADP is also produced, using hydrogen ions from the splitting of water. This is called non-cyclic
photophosphorylation.
light-independent stage of photosynthesis is also known as the Calvin cycle, and takes place in
The
the stroma. The enzyme rubisco catalyses the reaction of carbon dioxide with ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP) to form two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP). This reacts with reduced NADP and
ATP to produce triose phosphate (TP). Most TP is reconverted to RuBP, but one sixth is used to
make carbohydrates such as glucose, sucrose or starch.
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature all affect the rate at which
Light
photosynthesis can take place. The factor that is in the shortest supply at any one time is known as
the limiting factor. If crops are grown in glasshouses, these factors can be adjusted to increase the
rate of photosynthesis and therefore the productivity of the crop.
13
Questions
Multiple choice questions
1 The micrograph represents a cross-section of a dicotyledonous leaf. Which region is the main site
of light absorption?
I
II
III
IV
A I
B II
C III
D IV
The main photosynthetic pigments found in the reaction centre of photosystem II is or are:
A carotenoids.
B xanthophylls.
C chlorophyll a.
D chlorophyll b.
continued ...
14
5 What are the steps numbered 14 in the diagram of the Calvin cycle shown below?
carbon dioxide
rubisco
ribulose
step 1
bisphosphate
intermediate
ADP
Calvin cycle
step 3
ATP
glucose,
step 4
sucrose
and other
carbohydrates
glycerate
3-phosphate
triose phosphate
triose
phosphate
step 2
reduced NADP
ATP
oxidised NADP ADP + P
i
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
oxidation
carboxylation
product synthesis
regeneration of RuBP
carboxylation
oxidation
product synthesis
carboxylation
reduction
carboxylation
6 The electrons lost from chlorophyll a in the reaction centre in photosystem II are replaced by
electrons from:
A reduced NADP.
B photosystem I.
C hydroxyl ions from water.
D hydrogen ions from water.
7 The products of non-cyclic photophosphorylation during the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis are:
A glucose, reduced NADP and ATP.
B ATP, oxygen and reduced NADP.
C ADP, carbon dioxide and RuBP.
D hydrogen ions, oxygen and ATP.
continued ...
15
8 The graph below illustrates the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis of a
suspension of Chlorella at 150C and 0.4% carbon dioxide. Which of the following is the most
likely explanation for the plateau labelled Y?
Rate of photosynthesis
0
0
Light intensity
10 The chloroplasts of some guard cells possess photosystem I only. Which of the following can be
produced by these chloroplasts?
A ATP only
B sugars only
C sugars, ATP and NADP
D ATP, O2 and reduced NADP
continued ...
16
Structured questions
11 a
b
[2 marks]
[2 marks]
5cm3 syringe
thermometer
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
air bubbles
80
90
100
scale (mm)
shoot of Elodea
pond water
beaker of water
i
ii
Describe how the apparatus shown in this diagram can be used to investigate the
effect of different concentrations of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis. [4 marks]
Describe two precautions which should be taken in setting up and conducting the
experiment to ensure that the results obtained are valid measures of the rate of
photosynthesis under the given conditions.
[2 marks]
continued ...
17
c The graph below shows how the rate of photosynthesis varies with light intensity at
different concentrations of carbon dioxide.
0.14% CO2 at 30C
280
240
B
200
160
A
120
80
40
0
0
i
ii
2
3
4
5
6
Light intensity / arbitrary units
[3 marks]
[2 marks]
12 The thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast are where the light-dependent stage
of photosynthesis takes place. The diagram below summarises the light-dependent stage
of photosynthesis.
H+
1
reduced
NADP
NADP
light
H+
A
thylakoid
membrane
light
ADP
ATP
2e
2e
C
4
H+
H2O
2H + /2O2
+
H+
continued ...
18
a
b
c
d
e
f
Copy the diagram. Write the labels stroma and thylakoid lumen in the
appropriate boxes labelled 1 and 2 in the diagram. In each case, give a reason
for your answer.
[4 marks]
A and B represent photosystems.
i What do you understand by the term photosystem?
ii Write PSI and PSII in the appropriate boxes labelled 3 and 4.
iii Make a labelled drawing to show the generalised structure of a photosystem.
[5 marks]
Describe the photoactivation of chlorophyll.
[3 marks]
What type of molecule is represented by label C?
[1 mark]
Explain the function of the proton (hydrogen ion) gradient which is produced across the
thylakoid membrane.
[3 marks]
Identify the type of photophosphorylation shown on the diagram. Give a reason
for your answer.
[2 marks]
triose
phosphate
Calvin cycle
glycerate
3-phosphate
triose phosphate
step 2
oxidised NADP
ADP + Pi
reduced NADP
ATP
[1 mark]
[4 marks]
[1 mark]
[2 marks]
[3 marks]
[4 marks]
continued ...
19
Essay questions
14 a
b
15 a Describe how light energy is converted into chemical energy in the light-dependent
stage of photosynthesis.
b Explain the main stages of the Calvin cycle.
16 a i Define the term photosynthesis.
ii Photosynthesis is represented by the following equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Give four reasons why this equation does not fully represent photosynthesis.
b Discuss the roles of the following in photosynthesis:
i light
ii water
iii photosystems
20
[3 marks]
[3 marks]
[5 marks]
[4 marks]
[7 marks]
[8 marks]
[2 marks]
[4 marks]
[9 marks]