The WeldNet

Introduction to
Welding Technology

CONSULTANT ENGINEERS - METALLURGY AND WELDING

1

Welding processes

Fusion welding
Involves

melting & solidification

Solid phase welding

Explosive

bonding
Diffusion welding
Friction welding

Fusion welding
Most commonly used processes
Heat source electric arc, gas flame, laser
Filler metal

From

electrode, rod, wires, powder, fluxes

Independently added filler
No filler (autogenous welding)

Weld

The AWS definition for a welding process is

A materials joining process which produces

coalescence of materials by heating them to
suitable temperatures with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of
pressure alone and with or without the use of filler
material".

Filler (if used) has a melting temperature

similar to the parts being joined

Weldability

The capacity of a material to be welded

under the imposed fabrication
conditions into a specific, suitably
designed structure and to perform
satisfactorily in intended service.

(ANSI / AWS A3.0)

Factors affecting weldability

Weldability

is often considered to be a
material property.

However the effect of other variables should not be

ignored.

Weldability

is also affected by:

Design of a weld
Service conditions
Choice of welding process

Design

Weld joint design and execution

Thickness,

location, access, environment

Restraint

Weldment size, assembly sequence

Service stresses
Safety

factor for welds

Physical properties
Melting

and vaporisation temperatures

Electrical and thermal properties

Conductivity, expansion coefficient, thermal

capacity, latent heat

Ionisation

potential of electrode
Magnetic susceptibility
Reflectivity

Solidification of weld metal

Dendritic or cellular growth
Segregation

Depends

on composition
Cooling rate
Can lead to solidification cracking

Dilution
Proportion

of weld metal that comes from the

base material
Must be considered for each weld run
Affects composition, properties, risk of defects
Greatest effect when filler composition is
different to either or both base metals
100% for autogenous welds

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Chemical properties
Affinity

of weld metal for O, N and H

Susceptibility to porosity, embrittlement

Presence

of a surface film on base metal

Oxide films
Paint or metallic surface coating

Fluxing

/ De-oxidising properties of a slag

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Contaminant gases
Nitrogen and oxygen from air
Hydrogen from

Moisture

in air
Moisture in consumables or surface
contaminants
Organic materials (grease, oil, paint etc)

12

Gas-metal reactions
Liquid

metal may react with air or other gases

Depends on
Liquid metal composition
Gas composition

Consequences

Porosity - gas released on solidification

Formation of compounds

Embrittlement

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Metallurgical properties
Strengthening

Weld versus base material strength

Freezing

mechanism of base material

range

Susceptibility to solidification cracking

Susceptibility

to detrimental phases forming

during welding

Embrittlement or corrosion

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Service environment
Extreme

environments

Corrosive
Low temperature (brittle failure)
High temperature (oxidation, creep, embrittlement)
Others (wear, fatigue, nuclear)

The

more extreme the environment

The more difficult it is to find suitable materials

The more restricted the welding procedure
becomes to avoid service failure (arc energy)

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Welding variables
Arc energy (heat input)
Preheat and interpass temperature
Filler metal composition

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Arc energy
IxE
Q 0.06
v
Low arc energy

Small weld pool size

Incomplete fusion
High cooling rate
Martensite and hydrogen cracking

Q = arc energy in kJ/mm

I = welding current
E = arc voltage
v = travel speed in mm/min

High arc energy

Large weld pool size

Low cooling rate
Increased solidification
cracking risk
Low ductility and strength
Precipitation of unwanted particles
(corrosion and ductility)

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Preheat and interpass

Preheat

is applied independently

Gas torches
Gas radiant heaters
Electric resistance heaters

Interpass

temperature

Temperature before next pass is added

Controlled by a cooling time, or air or water cooling

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Raising PH/IP temperature

Slows cooling rate

Reduces

HICC in steels
Can increase risk of solidification cracks
Can increase tendency to embrittlement

Improves fusion
Reduces temperature gradient

Minimises

distortion and residual stress

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Fusion weld structure

Composite Weld
metal

Partially
Melted
Zone

HAZ

Fusion Line

Unmixed fused
base metal

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Thermal gradients in HAZ

Fusion line
Fusion line + 2mm
Fusion line + 5 mm

Temperature

Time

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Thermal HAZ regions

22

HAZ Structure
Disturbed microstructure

Weld

Original base material

Coarse grain region

Grain refining

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Weld positions and

joints

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Welding positions - plate

Flat 1G

Horizontal
2G

Vertical
3G
Up or Down

Overhead
4G

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Welding positions - pipe

Axis vertical
2G

Axis horizontal
5G

Axis inclined 45
6G

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Weld joints

Butt

Tee

Lap

Corner
Cruciform

Weld Types

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Weld types
Butt

weld

Between mating members

Best quality
High weld preparation cost

Fillet

weld

Easy preparation
Asymmetric loads, lower design loads

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Butt welds

Joint types:
Double

welded butt
Permanent or temporary backing
Single welded butt

Lower stress concentration

Easier ultrasonic testing or radiography
Expensive preparation

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Butt weld types

Single vee
can be single
or double welded

Single bevel

Double vee

Backed butt (permanent or temporary)

Butt weld terms

Included angle
Fusion face

Bevel angle

Cap / Reinforcement
Root face
Root
gap
Root run

J Preparations
Single U preparation
Root radius
Land

Double U butt

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Fillet welds
Simple

to assemble and weld

Stress concentrations at toes and root
Notch at root (fatigue, toughness)
Critical dimension is throat thickness
Root gap affects throat thickness
Radiography and ultrasonic testing is of limited
use
Large fillets are uneconomic

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Fillet weld terms

Toe

Root

Throat
thickness

Weld face

Toe
Leg length

Gaps shall be taken into account for minimum leg length

Weld preparation dimensions

Standard preparations
AS/NZS1554,

AS/NZS:3992
AWS D1.1, ASME B31.3

Non Standard (Compromise at fabricators risk)

Weld

cross sectional area

Cost
Ease of welding (risk of defects)

36

Weld Defects and

Discontinuities

37

Welding discontinuities
Discontinuities are essentially defects that fall within the
limitations of the welding standard requirements

Cracks

Porosity

Most common complying weld defect

Incomplete fusion / Inclusions

Never a discontinuity !!

Some allowed by most welding standards

Defective profile
Under-weld, over-weld, lack of root bead, burn through, undercut,
spatter etc.
Most client specifications limit these types

38

Welding defects- Causes

Cracks

Porosity

HACC / HICC, solidification, liquation causes

Gas entrapment / ejection, poor shielding

Incomplete fusion
Sidewall, inter run, root pass, weld toes ( cold lap )
Electrode angle implicated or poor joint profile

Inclusions
Slag, oxide, tungsten
Usually operator induced

Defective weld profile / finish

Under-weld, over-weld, lack of root bead, burn through, undercut
Usually operator induced

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Some weld defects

Undercut

Coldlap

Incompletepenetration
Slaginclusion

Incompletesidewallfusion

Incompleterootfusion

Solidification cracking

Low melting point constituents

Sulphur, Phosphorus, Tin, Lead, Niobium
Undesirable eutectics

Grain boundary segregation

Segregation of sulphides etc.
Lowering ductility and raising crack sensitivity

Strains arising during solidification

Solidification range

Expansion coefficient

Differing between base material and weld material

Clad materials

Weld pool shape and size

Material types, contamination

Base material dilution, lowering weld strength

Depth-to-width ratio
Surface concavity
Arc energy

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Solidification cracks
Crater crack

Longitudinal crack

Centreline Crack

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Weldability of structural steel

Benchmark against which other materials
are judged
Risk of hydrogen induced cold cracking.

Only

occurs in ferritic, bainitic or martensitic

steel

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Hydrogen induced cold cracks

HACC Hydrogen assisted

Presence

of hydrogen
Susceptible microstructure
Tensile Stress
Temperature

Below ~ 100C

HICC Hydrogen induced

Hydrogen

embrittlement
Susceptible microstructure / stress not always
required

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Susceptible microstructure
Weld metal or HAZ
Martensite or upper bainite

Composition

Hardenability and hardness - carbon equivalent

TTT diagrams Cooling rates

Cooling

time between 500C and 300C

Section thickness
Preheat temperature

45

Sources of tensile stress

Residual stress
Restraint
Through thickness in thick sections

Applied stress
Excessive peening
Lifting
Presetting
Fairing and straightening operations

46

Hydrogen

From consumables

Moisture absorption

From joint contamination

Fabrication practices

Environment
Machinery

Temperature and time dependent

Potential hydrogen test

Basic consumables have lower potential hydrogen

> 150C lower risk diffusion of hydrogen

< 150C to ambient - if susceptible, cracking will occour

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Methods of control

Preheat
Slow

down cooling rate between 800C and

500C

Remove hydrogen before weld cools below

150C
Stress

relief immediately after welding

Low temp temperature heat treatment (150C to
250C, known as out-gassing)

48

HAZ Cracking

All these approaches are based on studies of the risk of

HAZ cracking.
Weld metal cracking is less understood.
Weld metal cracking is more likely in
Alloy steel weld metals of over 500 MPa yield strength
Submerged arc welds (Chevron cracks)

49

Lamellar tearing
Pull-out crack (obsolete)

50

Lamellar tearing
Separation or cracking along planes
parallel to the principal plane of
deformation.
Occurs in rolled sections mainly but can
also occur in extrusions and forgings.
Does not occur in castings
Not to be confused with plate lamination.

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Lamellar tearing

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Appearance
Woody looking or stepped crack
Parallel to rolling direction (in rolled
sections)
Sometimes associated with HACC / HICC
in the HAZ.

53

Factors affecting risk

Material
Through-thickness

Design
Through

properties

thickness strains and restraint

Fabricator
Over-welding

54

Design approach
Consider corner, tee and cruciform joints a
risk
Thicker members are at risk (more
restrained)
Consider joint details with lower risk
Specify material with adequate through
thickness ductility (tested Z grade)

55

Joint details with lower risk

Reduce weld size
Diffuse through thickness strains with joint
design
Minimise restraint
Balance weld detail
Avoid welds intersecting in a corner

56

Joint detail comparison

Poor details

Improved details

Fabrication practices
Carefully sequence fabrication to minimise
restraint
Choose rolling direction perpendicular to
weld axis
Test cold formed materials for tearing
Ultrasonically inspect weld areas for
laminations before fit-up

58

Welding practices
Do not over weld
Follow practices that minimise stress and
distortion
Buttering can be used to avoid lamellar
tearing but is expensive.

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Residual stress and

distortion

60

Residual stress sources

Uneven plastic deformation

Hot

or cold forming (rolling, pressing, bending, shot

blasting)
Cutting (machining, shearing)

Uneven heating and cooling

Welding,

flame cutting, flame straightening

Uneven solid phase change

Quenching

steel microstructure expansion

Heating a restrained bar

STRESS IN MIDDLE BAR MPa

200

150

Middle bar
is heated to
600C and
allowed to
cool

100
50

Tension

-50

-100
-150
-200

Compression

B
0

100
200
300
400
500
TEMPERATURE IN MIDDLE BAR Deg C

600

62

Residual stress in a butt weld

sy

sx

sx
Compression
y

Tension

Tension

X
Compression

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Possible consequences
Distortion
Weld cracking
Brittle failure
Fatigue
Stress corrosion cracking

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Distortion

Longitudinal

Transverse

Angular

Minimising distortion
Avoid

over-welding
Use a planned welding sequence
Restrain the weldment
Preset to allow for distortion
Welding techniques

Fast high power techniques, back-stepping,

preheat

Preheat

to maximise area of shrinkage

End of presentation

Questions ??

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