FORM FOURBIOLOGY

CHAPTER: CELL BIOLOGY

Cell Biology
Cell biology or cytology is the study of cellular structure and function.
Cell biology is a branch of biology which deals with the study of various functions of
organisms at its cellular level.
Cell biology (cytology) is a scientific discipline that studies the basic unit of life, cells in:
1. Their physiological properties
2. The organelles they contain
3. Interactions with their environment
4. Their life cycle, division (mitosis and meiosis) and cell death
5. Compares between both the great diversity of single celled organisms like
bacteria, as well as the many specialized ells in multi-cellular organisms such
as humans, plants.

Cell:
The term cell was first named and coined (invented) by the English scientist Robert
Hooke in 1665, in which he observed a thin piece of cork of Oak tree under his
microscope and saw little pores like boxes or small rooms-like structure.
The word cell comes from the Latin word cellula ; meaning small room.
In 1838, two German Biologist; contributed important scientific findings to the cell
biology:
1.
Mathias Jacobi Schleiden, a German Botanist, stated that cells are the
structural units of plants.
2.
Theodore Schwan, a German Zoologist, stated that cells are the basic
structural and functional units of the animals.
Mathias and Theodore later formulated that both plants and animals are made up of
cells.
In 1859, Rudolf Virchow, a German Biologist, physician, pathologist and
anthropologist; described that all cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division.
These above mentioned scientific contributions about the cell formed the basis of the
cell theory.
Cell theory:
The cell theory states that:
1. Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cell by cell-division
3. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
Organisms composed of one cell are called unicellular organisms
Organisms composed of more cells are called multi-cellular
organism
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What do cells look like?

Cells vary greatly in size, shape, content, and function,
o The biggest cell is ostrich egg cell while the biggest human cell is the
egg (ovum).
o Some of the smallest cells are unicellular bacteria
o The largest human is the nerve cell
o Cells also come in different shapes, for example, animal cells have
various sizes and tend to have irregular shapes while plant cells are
similar in size and are typically rectangular or cube shaped.

1.1. Microscope Parts and Functions:

A microscope is an instrument widely used to magnify and resolve the image of an
object that is otherwise invisible to naked eye.
For resolving the details of objects, which otherwise cannot be achieved by naked eye,
a microscope is used.
Microscope helps us to observe small organisms (micro-organisms) that are not visible
to the naked eye.
With the help of microscope, cells were first seen and
named in 1665 by Robert Hooke, and were studied in
more detail by Anton Van Leeuwehoek ,(1632-1723)
,using a primitive microscope.

Introduction to microscope parts and functions:

Depending upon the organism to be studied and their
characteristics, microscopes are classified as light or
optical microscope, electron microscope and other
types like scanning-tunnelling microscopes.

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The following are the parts of microscope:Eyepiece or ocular lens: Eyepiece is the lens, present at the top and is used to see
the objects under study. Eyepiece lens contains a magnification of (10X or 15X).
It magnifies image of the specimen.
Tube: Tube or the body tube, connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Resolving nosepiece: It is also known as the Turret. Resolving nosepiece has holders
for the different objective lenses. It allows the rotation of the lenses while viewing.
Objective lenses: Generally, three or four objective lenses are found on a microscope,
with ranges of (10X, 40X, 100X powers). Lenses are color coded, the shortest lens is of
the lowest power, and the longest lens is high power lenses. (Objective lenses magnify
the image of the specimen).
Diaphragm: Diaphragm helps in controlling the amount of light that is passing through
the opening of the stage. It is helpful in the adjustment of the control of light that enters.
(Diaphragm controls illumination)
Coarse adjustment knob: Used for focus on scanning. Usually the low power lens is
used enabling the movement of the tube.
Fine adjustment knob: It is used for focus on oil. It moves the body tube for focusing
the high power lens.
Arm: It supports the tube of the microscope and connects to the base of the
microscope.
Stage: The platform that is flat used for placing the slides under observation.
Stage clip: Stage clips hold the slides in proper place.
Condensor: The main function of condenser lens is focussing the light on the specimen
under observation. When very high powers of 400X are used, condenser lenses are
very important. Presence of condenser lens gives a sharper image as compared to the
microscope with no condenser lens.
Mirror: used to reflect light towards the objective lenses.
Base: Provides basal support for the microscope.
Power switch: The main power switch that turns the illumination on or off.
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How to use the microscope:

The following are steps in using a microscope:
1. Place the microscope in a well lit area
2. Use the low power objective lens above the stage hole
3. Adjust the mirror and the diaphragm to provide the best illumination for viewing
specimen.
4. Clip the slide on the stage
5. Turn the coarse focus knob to lower the objective lenses until almost touching the
slide white watching from the slide.
6. Look through the eyepiece. Turn the coarse focus knob counter-clockwise to
bring up the low power objective lens until a clear image is seen.
7. If necessary, change to a high power objective lens.
8. Adjust the fine focus knob to get a sharper image.

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CELL STRUCTURE:
Cell is the smallest unit of life which all living things are made up of.
Cells vary greatly in size, shape, content, and function.
What is Cell?

Cell is the basic building block of living things

Cell is the fundamental unit of life.

Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life.

Cell is the basic unit of living organisms that carries out the life
processes

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Cytoplasm:
The cytoplasm is the gel-like material in which organelles are suspendedit makes up
most of a cells volume. When viewed through a light microscope, cytoplasm usually
appears as a clear jelly with specks scattered throughout. However, an electron
microscope, which provides much greater magnification and the ability to distinguish
fine detail (resolution), reveals that the cytoplasm contains networks of membranes and
organelles suspended in the clear liquid cytosol, which constitutes about 55% of total
cell volume.
Cytosol is the fluid matrix in the cytoplasm, which consists of:
a. 75% to 90% water
b. Salts
c. Organic molecules
d. Many enzymes that catalyze reactions
e. Small molecules such as amino acids,
f. Ions
Importance of the Cytoplasm / Functions of the Cytoplasm:
1. It plays a mechanical role by moving around substances inside the
membrane
2. It pushes against the cell membrane, helping to maintain the shape and
consistency of the cell
3. It provides suspension to the organelles
4. It is a storage space for chemical substances
5. It also involves in vital metabolic reactions, e.g. protein synthesizes
Most cell activities occur in the cytoplasm, where nutrients are received, processed, and
used. The following organelles have specific functions in carrying out these activities:

Nucleus:
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Nucleus is a double-membrane bound cell organelle present in eukaryotic cells.

Nucleus is the most prominent organelle of the cell. Nucleus was the first cell organelle
to be discovered
The word nucleus is derived from a Latin word nucleus or nuculeus, which means
kernel.
The nucleus of the cell houses the genetic material (DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid), which
directs all cell activities and transmission of inheritance as it is known as the control
center of the cell.

Nucleus Structure:
The nucleus is the largest organelle of the cell.
The nucleus appears to be dense, spherical organelle enclosed in a double-layered
nuclear membrane.
It occupies about 10% of the total volume of the cell.
In animal cell, the nucleus is found at the center, except the
non-nucleated RBCs, while the nucleus is found peripheral in
plant cell.
The nucleus contains a semi-fluid, called nucleoplasm, in
which both genetic material and nucleolus are suspended in.
The nuclear envelope has protein-lined channels called
nuclear pores that allow certain molecules to exit the
nucleus. A nuclear pore is not just a hole, but a complex
opening formed from 100 or so types of proteins. A nuclear
pore is small enough to let out the
RNA molecules that carry genes messages, but not large
enough to let out the DNA itself, which must remain in the
nucleus to maintain the genetic instruction set.
Under the study of electron microscope, the nucleus contains the below structures:

1. Nuclear Envelope:
-

The nuclear envelope is also known as nuclear membrane.

The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus and separates the genetic
material of the cell from the cytoplasm of the cell.
The nuclear membrane also serves as a barrier to prevent passage of
macromolecules freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
Nuclear envelope is a double-layered structure, which consists of inner
and outer lipid-bilayer membranes.
The space between both outer and inner membrane of the nuclear
envelope is known as the perinuclear space.

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The outer membrane of the nucleus is attached with the membrane of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear envelope is perforated with
numerous pores called nuclear pores.

2. Nuclear Pores:
-

The nuclear envelope has protein-lined channels called nuclear pores that
allow certain molecules to exit the nucleus.
A nuclear pore is not just a hole, but a complex opening composed of
many proteins known as nucleoproteins.
The nuclear pores regulate the passage of the molecules between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.

3. Nucleolus (plural: Nucleoli):

- Nucleolus (little nucleus) is a non-membranous small, dense body
composed largely of RNA and proteins found in the nucleus.
- Nucleolus manufactures ribosomes, using
the information in its own DNA. Ribosomes
then migrate through nuclear pores to the
cytoplasm.
- During cell division, the nucleolus
disappears.

4. Chromatin:
-

The nucleus of the cell contains majority of

the cells genetic material in the form of
multiple linear DNA molecules.
Chromatin consists of loosely coiled fibers of DNA attached to proteins
called histones.
When the cell begins to divide, chromatin fibers coil tightly, and individual
chromosomes become visible when stained and viewed under a light
microscope.

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Functions of the Nucleus:

a. It is the control center of the cell.
b. It controls the heredity
characteristics of an organism.
c. It stores heredity material in the
form of deoxy-ribonucleic acid
(DNA) strands.
- It also stores proteins and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the
nucleolus.
d. It is responsible for cell division,
growth and differentiation.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of parallel flattened tubes with membrane
bounded.
It is present in almost all eukaryotic cells but absent in
prokaryotic cells and RBCs.
Some of the endoplasmic reticulum is found in the
cytoplasm while some of them are connected to the
nuclear membrane of the nucleus.
Under the examination of the electron microscope,
there are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough
endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER).
Both types are present in plant and animal cell.
The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is
attached with the protein manufacturing ribosome,
which gives it a rough appearance while smooth endoplasmic reticulum has more
tubular structures than the rough ER and has no ribosome on its outer surface.
The major functions of the endoplasmic reticulum:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keeps the cells shape

Synthesizes lipids
Transports materials to other organelles in the cell
Breaks down foreign chemical substances
Play an important role in the formation of the skeletal
framework
6. They provide the increased surface area for cellular
reactions
The structural and functional difference between Rough and Smooth ER
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Always attached on the nuclear membrane May attach or found in the cytoplasm
Mainly found in protein forming cells
Mainly found in lipid forming cells
Appears rough
Appears smooth
Ribosomes attach on it which makes rough
in appearance

Have no Ribosomes on it

Transport the synthesized proteins

Synthesize lipids and steroid hormones

7. They play a vital role in the synthesis of proteins, lipids and other steroid
hormone

Golgi Apparatus:
Golgi apparatus is also known as Golgi body; Golgi complex or Golgi.
Golgi apparatus was discovered in the year 1898 by an Italian biologist Camillo Golgi.
It was the first cellular organelles to be discovered and observed in detail due to its
large size. The term Golgi apparatus was used in 1910 and in 1913 it first appeared in
the scientific literature.
Under the electron microscope the Golgi
apparatus is seen to be composed of stacks of
flattened membrane bound sacs which contains
numerous spherical vesicles at their ends which
pinched off from them.
They are found in the cytoplasm of plant and
animal cells
The Golgi complex is composed of stacks of
membrane-bound structures; these structures are
known as the cisternae (stacks of flattened sacs).
The membranes of one end of the stack is known
as the cis-face, it is the receiving department of
the golgi body which is close to the endoplasmic

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reticulum; while the other end of the stack is called tran-face and is the shipping
department of the golgi body.
As the Golgi body receives materials, it modifies sorts and packages them into vesicles
(secretary vesicles) and the vesicles move in the cytoplasm to
either other parts inside the cell or through the cell membrane,
releasing their contents to the exterior of the cell by a process
known as exocytosis.

Functions of the Golgi body:

1. The major function of the Golgi body is to modify, sort and package the
macromolecules for secretion purposes or for the use within the cell e.g.
proteins
2. It is involved in the transport of lipid molecules around the cell.
3. It also stores the packed substances
4. It is the major site of carbohydrate synthesizes
5. It creates and produces lysosomes
6. Produces enzymes
7. Forms cell wall for plants.

Ribosomes:
Ribosomes are small granules, present in large numbers in all the living cells.
The word ribosome is derived from, 'ribo' from ribonucleic acid and 'somes' from the
Greek word 'soma' which means 'body'.

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Ribosomes are made in the nucleus by the nucleolus.

Ribosomes are made up of RNA and protein.
Ribosomes are found either attached on rough endoplasmic
reticulum or free in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes found in the cytoplasm are either found singly or
in groups called polyribosomes (polysomes).
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and later
transported by the vesicles that pinch of from the rough
endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi body for modification and
packaging.
The ribosomes contain two subunits - a small and a large subunit. The
small subunit reads the mRNA while the large subunit joins the amino
acids to form a chain of polypeptides. Ribosomal subunits are made
of one or more rRNA (ribosomal RNA) molecules and various
proteins.

Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are simple tiny spherical sac-like structures surrounded by a single
membrane which contains digestive enzymes. These enzymes are capable of digesting
or breaking down all organic materials such as fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
Lysosomes are also known as digestive bags or suicide sacs.

Functions of the Lysosomes:

1. They destroy any foreign materials which enter the cell such as bacteria.
2. Lysosomes also destroy worn out and poorly working cellular organelles by
digesting them to make way for their new replacements.
Since they remove cell debris, they are also known as scavengers, cellular
housekeepers
3. They break down unwanted substances in the cell.
4. During breakdown of cell structure, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes burst
and the enzymes eat up their own cells for self-digestion. So, lysosomes are also
known as suicide bags of a cell.

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5. Lysosomes may fuse with vesicles or vacuoles formed by endocytosis and

release their enzymes into it for digestion, (like amoeba)
6. In WBCs or leukocytes: Cells of leukocytes digest foreign particles such as
bacteria through the process of phagocytosis.
7. Removes waste materials from cell
8. In fertilization: The lysosomal enzymes present in the acrosome of the sperm
cells digest the limiting membrane of the ovum. Thus, the sperm is able to enter
the ovum and start fertilization.
9. Lysosomal enzymes digest macromolecules, e.g. proteins and carbohydrates.
10. During starvation, the lysosomes digest stored food contents such as proteins,
fats and carbohydrates in the cell and supply the necessary amount of energy to
the cell.

Mitochondria:
Mitochondria (sing.: mitochondrion) are a membrane bound cellular structure, found in
the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells.
The mitochondria range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer in diameter.
The term 'mitochondrion' is derived from a Greek word 'mitos' which means 'thread'
and 'chondrion' which means 'granule'.
These organelles generate most of the energy of the cell in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) and it is used a source of chemical energy.
Mitochondria are able to migrate through the cytoplasm of the cell, and are able to
divide independently to reproduce themselves.

Structure of Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are rod shaped structure found in both
animal and plant cells. It is a double membrane
bound organelle. It has the outer membrane and the
inner membrane. The membranes are made up of
phospholipids and proteins.
The components of mitochondria are as follows:
Outer membrane
It is smooth and is composed of equal
amounts of phospholipids and proteins. .

The outer membrane is freely permeable to

nutrient molecules, ions, energy molecules like
the ATP and ADP molecules.

Inner membrane
The inner membrane of mitochondria is more complex in structure.

It is folded into a number of folds many times and is known as the cristae.

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This folding help to increase the surface area inside the organelle.

The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aids in the production of ATP
molecules.

Various chemical reactions take place in the inner membrane of the

mitochondria.

Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane is strictly permeable, it is

permeable only to oxygen and ATP and it also helps in regulating transfer of
metabolites across the membrane.

Intermembrane space
It is the space between the outer and inner
membrane of the mitochondria, it has the
same composition as that of the cell's
cytoplasm.

There is a difference in the protein content

in the intermembrane space.

Matrix

The matrix of the mitochondria is a

complex mixture of proteins and enzymes.
These enzymes are important for the
synthesis of ATP molecules, mitochondrial
ribosomes and mitochondrial DNA.

Function of Mitochondria:
Functions of mitochondria depend on the cell type in which they are present.
1. The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy.
-

The simpler molecules of nutrition are sent to the mitochondria where they
combine with oxygen and produce ATP during cellular respiration.

Therefore, mitochondria are referred to as power house of the cell.

2. The liver cells mitochondria have enzymes that detoxify ammonia.

3. Serves as powerhouse for cell--releases body heat and energy
4. Produces ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) in which energy for cell activities is
stored.

Cytoskeleton:
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The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
in the cytoplasm.
Cytoskeleton (also known as CSK) is an intracellular network of protein filaments;
involved in determining cells shape, cell movement and intracellular transport of
substances within the cell.
Eukaryotic cells contain three main kinds of cytoskeletal filaments or cytoskeletal protein
fibers (also known as protein element of cytoskeleton):
1. Microfilaments (actin microfilament):
- Microfilaments are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton
- Microfilaments are thin thread-like strands in the cytoplasm.
- Microfilaments are composed tiny rods of proteins actin and myosin and
are most prevalent at the edge of a cell.
- Microfilaments provide much of the mechanical support that is responsible
for the basic strength and shapes of cells. They anchor the cytoskeleton to
integral proteins in the plasma membrane.
- They form meshwork or bundles, and provide cell motility (movement).
- In muscle cells, for example, microfilaments combine to form myofibrils,
which help these cells contract.
- Microfilaments also provide mechanical support for cell extensions called
microvilli (singular: microvillus), non-motile, microscopic fingerlike
projections of the plasma membrane. They greatly increase the surface
area of the cell; microvilli are abundant on cells involved in absorption, such
as the epithelial cells that line the small intestine.
2. Microtubules (tubulin):
- Microtubules are long, slender tubes with diameters two or three times
those of microfilaments.
- Microtubules are composed of molecules of a globular protein called
tubulin, attached in a spiral to form a long tube.
- They are important in cell division.
- They form cilia and flagella, which are considered part of the cytoskeleton.
- They also play key roles in cellular intracellular transport, e.g. organelles
and vesicles.
3. Intermediate filament
- Intermediate filaments lie between microfilaments and microtubules in
diameter.
- They are abundant in skin cells and neurons, but scarce in other cell types.
- Intermediate filaments are made up of different proteins in different cell
types. Different intermediate filaments are:
a. Made of keratin. Keratin is present in general in epithelial cells, e.g.
skin
b. Neurofilaments of neural cells.
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c. Made of lamin, giving structural support to the nuclear envelope.

General functions of cytoskeleton:
1. It plays an important role in intracellular transport, e.g. the movement of vesicles.
2. It maintains the shape of the cell.
3. It involves the movement of the cell in its environment.
4. It plays an important role of cell division.
5. It anchors the cellular organelles in position
6. It forms structures such as flagella and cilia
7. It assists the contraction of muscle cells.
8. It supports the cell.

Centrioles:
All animal cells have
two small organelles known as centrioles.
Centrioles are small, dark-staining organelles lying near the nucleus in the cytoplasm of
animal cells.
The centrioles help the cell to divide.
Centrioles are seen the process of mitosis and meiosis.
The centrioles together are typically located near the nucleus
in
the
centrosome.
Centrosome is a small body located near the nucleus.
Centrioles are made in the centrosomes.
The centrosome structure is made of lipids and proteins.
However, it also contains carbohydrates and nucleic acids
too.
Centrioles are rod shaped structure, made of nine bundles of
microtubules, which are arranged in a ring.
Each of the centrioles is made up of nine microtubules
arranged in ring form known as triplets.
In animal cells the centrioles play a major role in cell division but the plant cells have the
ability to reproduce even without the centrioles.
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During cell division, centrioles form spindle fibers.

The spindle fibers are responsible for the segregation of chromosomes into the
daughter cells by moving the chromosomes towards the opposite poles of the cell
during cell division.
At end of each cell cycle, the cell has two centrioles - one the mother centriole and the
other newly formed centriole which is the daughter
centriole.
After segregation, the centrioles determine the position of
the nucleus and also
influence the cellular organization in the new formed
daughter cells.
The centrioles may produce flagella or cilia.
The fiber of the tail of sperms also arises from the
centriole.
The dysfunctioning of the centrosome is also responsible for
the development of certain cancers.

Peroxisomes:
Peroxisomes are membranous sacs are abundant in liver and kidney cells. They house
enzymes that catalyze (speed) a variety of biochemical reactions, including breakdown
of hydrogen peroxide (a by-product of metabolism) and fatty acids; and detoxification of
alcohol.

Cell Wall:
Cell wall is a tough, rigid layer that surrounds and acts as a protective coat in plant cells.
It is made up of cellulose, a polysaccharide organic compound that makes plant cell wall
tough and allows water and solutes to pass through.
It is located outside the cell membrane.
In woody trees the cell walls are very thick providing strength and supportive function
with the help of the deposition of complex chemical substance called lignin.
Plant cells have microscopic channels called Plasmodesmata, which pass through the
cell walls of plant cells and enables transport and communication between them.
Below are the functions of cell wall:
1. Gives the cell a definite shape and structure.
2. Provides structural support.
3. It prevents the cell from rupturing due to tugor pressure.
4. Protects against infection and pathogens.
5. Separates interior of the cell from the outer environment.
6. The physiological and biochemical activity of the cell wall helps in cell-cell
communication.
7. Aids in diffusion of gases and osmosis of water in and out of the cell.

Vacuole:
Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm of a plant cell.
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In mature plant cells, vacuoles tend to be very large, enclosed by a membrane called
tonoplast (vacuolar membrane).
The vacuole is filled with a fluid called cell sap which contains water, sugar, ions and
waste products.
Vacuoles are extremely important in providing structural support, as well as serving
functions such as storage, waste disposal, protection and maintain the cells volume.

Plastids:
Plastids are organelles that occur mostly in plant cells, but not present in animal cells.
Plastids are mainly of two types:
1. Leucoplasts and
2. Chromoplasts.
Leucoplasts:
Leucoplasts are colorless plastids.
They do not enclose any coloring pigment.
They occur in cells in those regions of a plant that are not exposed to sunlight, e.g.
roots.
They are mainly involved in storage.
Chromoplasts:
Chromoplasts are plastids that contain various coloring pigments.
They occur in cells in those regions that are exposed to sunlight.
Some of the chromoplastids contain fat-soluble pigments that are yellow, red and
orange in color. The chief pigments are carotenoids.
Chromoplasts pass on bright colors to the flowers for pollination, and fruits e.g.
tomatoes.
Some of the Chromoplasts fully contain a green colored pigment called chlorophyll.
Such plastids are called chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts represent the most common type of plastids. They occur in varying shapes
oval or spherical or disc shaped
They are found in very large numbers in cells that are actively taking part in
photosynthesis.

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Chloroplasts:
It is found in cells of leaves and green parts of the stem.
They contain green pigment called chlorophyll which makes
photosynthetic cells to appear green.
They are surrounded by outer and inner membranes.
The inner membrane encloses a matrix called stroma.
It contains proteins, lipids, sugars, ribosomes, RNA, few
circular DNA molecules, pigment enzymes and metallic ions.
The stroma also has a number of piles like coins called grana. Each granum is
composed of many disc shaped structures called thylakoids placed one above the
other.
The grana are connected to one another through membranous
structures called intergrana lamellae (lamella) or Fret membranes.
The thylakoid membrane contains photosynthetic pigments as
well as the enzymes required for the photosynthesis by
trapping solar energy and converts it into chemical energy.
Mainly two types of chlorophyll, (chlorophyll-a) and
(chlorophyll-b) and two types of photosystems (Photo-systemI) and (Photo-system-II) are involved in the process of
photosynthesis.

Animal Tissue:
In multi-cellular organisms, a group of similar cells, working together, doing same
function is called tissue.

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The study of tissue is known as histology.

The study of tissues in connection with
diseases of tissues is known as
histopathology.
The word tissue is derived from a Latin word
which means 'weave'.
In animal organs are made up of four
basic types of tissues:
o Epithelial tissue,
o Connective tissue,
o Muscle tissue and
o Nerve tissue (Neural tissue)
These tissues have distinctive features and specific functions which combine to form
functioning organs.
Epithelial Tissue:
Epithelial tissue is commonly referred to as epithelium.
The epithelial tissue forms the outer covering or lining for
some part of the body.

It is composed of closely packed cells, arranged in flat

sheets.

Epithelial tissues form the surface of the skin, lines many

cavities of the body and cover the internal organs.
There are two types of epithelial tissues:
a. Simple Epithelium and
b. Compound Epithelium.

Simple epithelium is composed of single layer of cells. It functions

as a lining of cavities of body, ducts and tubes.

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Compound epithelium or stratified epithelium is made of two or more cell layers.

It functions as a protective covering, like it does in our skin.

Modifications of Simple Epithelium

o On the basis of structural modification the simple epithelium is divided into three
types:
a.

Squamous,

b.

Cuboidal,

c.

Columnar cells.

The squamous epithelium is made of a single layer of irregular, thin, flattened cells
with irregular boundaries. They are found in the walls of blood vessels and in air
sacs of lungs. They are involved in functions like forming a diffusion boundary.

o The cuboidal epithelium is made of a single layer of

cube-like cells. They are commonly found in ducts of
glands and tubules of nephrons. Its main functions are
secretion and absorption.

Columnar epithelium is composed of single layer of tall

and slender cells. The free surface of these cells may
have microvilli. They are found in lining of stomach and
intestine. It helps in secretion and absorption.

If the columnar epithelium bears cilia on their free surface they are called
ciliated epithelium. They help to move particles or mucus in a specific direction.
They are present in the inner surface of bronchioles and fallopian tubes.

Compound Epithelium:

It is made up of more than one layer of cells and has a limited role in secretion
and absorption.

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FORM FOURBIOLOGY
CHAPTER: CELL BIOLOGY

They main function is to provide protection against stress. They cover dry surface
of skin, moist surface of mouth cavity, pharynx and inner lining of salivary glands.

Connective Tissue:
Connective tissues are the most abundant tissues of complex animals.
They link and support other tissues/organs of the body. The connective tissues
include cartilage, bone, adipose, and blood.
All connective tissues except, blood, secrete structural proteins called collagen or
elastin.

Connective tissues are classified into three types :

Loose Connective tissue,

Dense Connective tissue, and

Specialized Connective tissue.

Loose Connective tissue - These tissues have cells and fibers that are
loosely
arranged
in
a
semi-fluid
ground
substance.
Adipose tissue - This type of tissues is specialized to store fats.

Dense Connective tissue - Fibers and fibroblasts are

packed compactly in dense connective tissue. Tendons
are dense regular tissues that attach skeletal muscle to
bones and ligaments attach bone to another bone.
Collagen is the dense irregular tissue present in the skin.
Specialized Connective tissue - Cartilage, bones and blood are types of
specialized
connective
tissue.
Cartilage - Cartilage is solid, pliable tissue. The cells of this tissue are
chondrocytes. Cartilage is present in the tip of the nose, outer ear joints,
between
bones
of
vertebral
column.
Bones is a mineralized connective tissue.

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FORM FOURBIOLOGY
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They are hard and non-pliable, rich in calcium salts and

collagen fibers. It provides structural frame. The bone
cells are osteocytes. Ions of calcium, magnesium and
phosphate combine into a hard material within the
matrix.
The bone marrow in some bones is the site of
production of blood cells.
Blood - It is a fluid connective tissue. It contains a liquid extracellular
matrix called plasma, which consists of water, salts and dissolved
proteins. The blood cells; RBCs, WBCs and platelets are suspended in the
plasma.

Muscle Tissue:
Muscle tissues are made of long cylindrical fibers, arranged in parallel arrays. These
fibers are composed of fine fibrils known as myofibrils. The contraction and relaxation
of moves the body to adjust to the changes in the environment.
Muscles are of three types skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
Skeletal Muscle - Skeletal muscle is also known as striated
muscle. It is closely attached to the bones, example biceps.
Muscle tissue contains filaments containing proteins actin and
myosin.
Smooth Muscle - Smooth muscle fibers do not have striated.
The wall of internal organs contains smooth muscles.
Smooth muscle lack striations perform involuntary functions.
Cardiac Muscle - Cardiac muscle tissue is a tissue present only in
the heart. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac cells.
Communication junctions allow the cells to contract as a unit.
Cardiac muscle is striated. It is has fibers that interconnect via
intercalated disks. Cells are uninuclear.

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FORM FOURBIOLOGY
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Neural Tissue:
Neural tissues control the body's responses to the changing conditions. Nervous tissues
are made of neurons and glial cells.
Neurons are the units of neural system, they are excitable cells. The glial cells forms
the rest of the neural system, they protect and support neurons. Their main functions
are to receive, processing and transferring information.

Kinds of the Cells:

Classification of organisms into five kingdoms is mainly based on characteristic kind of
their own cell, which divided into two main types of cells:

1. Eukaryotic cells
-

Eukaryotic cells contain cellular organelles that are membrane bounded,

e.g. nucleus.
(Eu = true; karyon = nucleus)

2. Prokaryotic cells
-

Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane bound cellular organelles, (lack

membrane-bound organelles).
(Pro = before; karyon = nucleus)

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FORM FOURBIOLOGY
CHAPTER: CELL BIOLOGY

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FORM FOURBIOLOGY
CHAPTER: CELL BIOLOGY

Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
Cell type is usually unicellular
Usually multi-cellular cells
Nucleus is not enveloped by a nuclear Nucleus is surrounded by a double
membrane
DNA is circular, without proteins

membrane layer
DNA is linear and associated with

proteins to form chromatin

Nucleolus is absent
Nucleolus is present
ribosomes are small
ribosomes are large
Multiplication of cell is by fission or Cell division by mitosis or meiosis
budding
Cell size is 1-10m
Cell size 10 - 100m.
Cell walls present, which are chemically Cell walls are seen in only plant cells,
complex
Cell walls present
reproduction is always asexual
Example: Bacteria, archaea

which are chemically simpler

cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
Reproduction may be asexual or sexual
Example: animal cells and plant cells.

Differences between Plants and Animals Cells:

Plants
Cellulose cell wall surrounds the
cell membrane
Plastids are present especially a
green pigment called chlorophyll
Large vacuoles containing cell sap
are present in plant cell
Most plants do not exhibit
movement of locomotion
Keep growing throughout their life
and are localized in the apical
meristem
Manufacture their own food by
photosynthesis
Sense organs and nervous system
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Animals
Cell wall is absent in animal cells
Chlorophyll is absent in animal cells
Vacuoles are usually absent
Most animals exhibit movement of locomotion
Growth stops after maturation but body cells
are replaced periodically. Growth is uniform
and proportionate
Cannot make their own food. They depend
directly or indirectly on plants for their food
Well - developed nervous system
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FORM FOURBIOLOGY
CHAPTER: CELL BIOLOGY

absent

Cell Wall
Plastids
Chloroplasts
Vacuoles

Plant Cell
Cell wall made of cellulose is
present in almost all cells.
Plastids like leucoplasts,
chloroplast and chromoplasts are
present.
Plants cells have chloroplasts to
prepare their own food.
Cell sap containing vacuoles are
present.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes not evident.

Nucleus

Due to the presence of the

vacoule at the centre of the cell,
nucleus may be located at the
edge of the cell.
Plant cells have many simpler
units of golgi complex, called
dictyosomes.
Present

Golgi bodies
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Centrioles
Microtubules/
microfilaments
Flagella

Present
Present
Present only in lower plant forms.
Present
May be found in some cells.

Cilia
Nutrition

Very rare
Can prepare own food through
photosynthesis.

Locomotion

Most plants do not exhibit

movement.

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Animal Cell
Cell wall is absent.
No plastids found.
Chloroplasts completely
absent.
Vacuoles are usually
absent or one or more
small vacuoles are seen.
Lysosomes occur in
cytoplasm.
Nucleus is usually located
centrally.
Animal cells have a single
highly elaborate golgi
complex.
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
May be found in some
cells.
Present
Cannot make their own
food. They depend directly
or indirectly on plants for
their food.
Most animals exhibit
locomotion

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CHAPTER: CELL BIOLOGY

Growth and
development
Cell shape and
structure
Starch grains

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Keep growing throughout their

life and are localized in the apical
meristem.
Rigid, fixes rectangular shape.
Present

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Growth stops after

maturation, but body cells
are replaced periodically.
Lack rigidity, are round and
irregular shape.
Are not present.