Human Biology 17th Edition

(International edition) Sylvia S. Mader

Dr.
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 This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.

HUMAN
BIOLOGY
SEVENTEENTH EDITION

SYLVIA S. MADER
MICHAEL WINDELSPECHT
ISTUDY
 HUMAN
BIOLOGY
SEVENTEENTH EDITION

SYLVIA S. MADER
MICHAEL WINDELSPECHT

ISTUDY
 HUMAN BIOLOGY

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ISTUDY
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Sylvia S. Mader
Sylvia S. Mader has authored several nationally recognized biology texts published by McGraw Hill. Educated at
Bryn Mawr College, Harvard University, Tufts University, and Nova Southeastern University, she holds degrees in
both biology and education. Over the years, she has taught at University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Massachusetts
Bay Community College; Suffolk University; and Nathan Mayhew Seminars. Her ability to reach out to science-shy
students led to the writing of her first text, Inquiry into Life. Highly acclaimed for her crisp and entertaining writing
style, her books have become models for others who write in the field of biology.
Courtesy of Sylvia S.
Mader

Michael Windelspecht
As an educator, Dr. Windelspecht has taught introductory biology, genetics, and human genetics in the online,
­traditional, and hybrid environments at community colleges, comprehensive universities, and military institutions.
For over a decade he served as the introductory biology coordinator at Appalachian State University, where he
directed a program that enrolled over 4,500 students annually.
He received degrees from Michigan State University (BS, zoology–genetics) and the University of South ­Florida
(PhD, evolutionary genetics), and has published papers in areas as diverse as science education, water q­ uality, and the
Ricochet Creative
evolution of insecticide resistance. His current interests are in the analysis of data from digital ­learning platforms for
Productions, LLC
the development of personalized microlearning assets and next-generation publication ­platforms. He is currently a
member of the National Association of Science Writers and several science education associations. He has served as the keynote speaker
on the development of multimedia resources for online and hybrid science classrooms. In 2015, he won the DevLearn HyperDrive
­competition for a strategy to integrate student data into the textbook revision process.
As an author and editor, Dr. Windelspecht has over 30 reference textbooks and multiple print and online lab manuals to his credit.
He has founded several science communication companies, including Ricochet Creative Productions, which actively develops and
­assesses new technologies for the science classroom, and Inspire-EdVentures, which provides experiential learning opportunities online
and in Belize. You can learn more about Dr. Windelspecht by visiting his website at www.windelspectrum.com.

Contributor
Dave Cox serves as professor of biology at Lincoln Land Community College, in Springfield, Illinois. He was
­educated at Illinois College and Western Illinois University. As an educator, Professor Cox teaches introductory
­biology for nonmajors in the traditional classroom format, as well as in a hybrid format. He also teaches biology
for majors, and marine biology and biological field studies as study-abroad courses in Belize. He is the co-owner of
Howler Publications, a company that specializes in scientific study abroad courses. Professor Cox has served as a
contributor to multiple McGraw Hill titles over the past 12 years. He also develops educational resources for the
Courtesy of Dave Cox ­ecotourism industry in Belize.

ISTUDY
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ISTUDY
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ISTUDY
 PREFACE

Goals of the Seventeenth Edition

Humans are a naturally inquisitive species. As children, we become fascinated with our bodies, and life in general, at a very
early age. We want to know how our bodies work, why there are differences, and similarities, between ourselves and the
other children around us. In other words, at a very early age we are all biologists.
In many ways, today’s students in the science classroom face some of the same challenges their parents did decades ago.
The abundance of new terms often overwhelms even the best-prepared student, and the study of biological processes and
methods of scientific thinking may convince some students that “science isn’t their thing.” The study of human biology creates
an opportunity for teachers to instruct their students using the ultimate model organism—their own bodies. Whether this is
their last science class or the first in a long career in allied health, the study of human biology is pertinent to everyone.
Students in today’s world are being exposed, almost on a daily basis, to exciting new discoveries and insights that, in
many cases, were beyond our predictions even a few short years ago—from revolutionary new techniques to develop vaccines
to stop pandemics, to the impacts of climate change on their local environments and advances in medical techniques to fight
diseases such as cancer. Therefore, it is important that we know not only why we are different, but how we are the same as
the species we share the planet with. It is our task, as instructors, not only to make these findings available to our students
but to enlighten students as to why these discoveries are important to their lives and society. At the same time, we must
provide students with a firm foundation in those core principles on which biology is founded, and in doing so, provide them
with the background to better understand the many discoveries still to come.
As educators, the authors of this text understand the needs of our colleagues in developing curricula that increasingly
focus on relevancy and delivery in the online environment. McGraw Hill Education has long been an innovator in the
­development of educational resources, and the Human Biology text is at the forefront in integrating these resources and
­digital technologies into the science classroom. In this edition, that involved the following:
∙ Making the content more relevant to the current generation of students by updating chapter openers and themed readings
to focus on issues and topics important to the discussions that students are hearing in the world around them.
∙ Integrating relevancy modules to supplement the format of a traditional textbook and provide another avenue for students
to engage with the content.
∙ Redesigning the artwork to ensure it transitions to the digital world of mobile devices.
∙ Developing a new Featured Reading Series, The Diversity of Science, to emphasize the contributions of unrecognized
­scientists to our understanding of biology.

Virtual Labs and Lab Simulations

While the biological sciences are hands-on disciplines, instructors today are often asked to deliver some of their lab content
online, as full online replacements, supplements to prepare for in-person labs, or make-up labs. These simulations help each

vi

ISTUDY
 Preface vii

student learn the practical and conceptual skills needed, and then let them check their understanding of the lessons by providing
feedback. With adaptive pre-lab and post-lab assessments available, instructors can customize each assignment.
From the instructor’s perspective, these simulations may be used in the lecture environment to help students visualize complex
scientific processes, such as DNA technology or Gram staining, while at the same time providing a valuable ­connection between the
lecture and lab environments.

Relevancy
The use of real-world examples to demonstrate the importance of biology in the lives of students is widely recognized as an effective
teaching strategy for the introductory biology classroom. Students want to learn about the topics they are interested in. The develop-
ment of relevancy-based resources is a major focus for the authors of the Mader series of texts. Some examples of how we have
increased the relevancy content of this edition are explained in the following paragraphs.

Relevancy Modules
A series of relevancy modules have been designed to accompany each unit in Human Biology. These modules demonstrate the
­connections between biological content and topics that are of interest to society as a whole. Each module consists of an introductory
video, an overview of basic scientific concepts, and then a closer look at the application of these concepts to the topic. An
­infographic at the end of each module may be easily used in the lecture environment to initiate discussion of the topic. Discussion
and assessment questions, specific to the modules, are available at the end of the module, and for automatic assessment in the
­Connect platform. Below is a list of our current relevancy modules.
These modules are available as a supplementary eBook to the existing text within Connect, and may be assigned by the instructor
for use in a variety of ways in the classroom.

♦ Scientific Thinking in Everyday

Life ♦ Fermentation ♦ The Biology
of Chocolate ♦ Cancer ♦ Your
Home's Hidden Diversity
♦ Evolution of a Weed ♦ Antibiotic
Resistance ♦ Mega Crops
♦ COVID-19: The Rise of a Global
Pandemic
♦ Vaccines: Your Best Defense
♦ Our Animal Ancestors ♦ The
Biology of Weight Gain ♦ The
Biology of Running a Marathon
♦ Organic Food: What's the
Difference? ♦ Climate Change
♦ Toxic Algae Blooms

Slavica/E+/Getty Images

ISTUDY
 viii Preface

BioNOW Videos
The BioNOW series of videos, narrated and produced by educator Jason Carlson, provide a relevant, applied approach that allows
your students to feel they can actually learn biology on their own. While tying directly to the content of your course, the videos help
students relate their daily lives to the biology you teach, and lets them connect what they learn back to their lives.
Each video provides an engaging and entertaining story about applying the science of biology to a real situation or problem.
Attention is taken to use tools and techniques that the average person would have access to, so your students see the science as
something they could do and understand.

Photos: McGraw Hill

Ricochet Science Website

The website https://ricochetscience.com, managed by Michael Windelspecht, provides updates on news and stories that are interesting
to science and nonscience majors alike. The PopScience articles on this site provide an excellent focus for classroom discussions on
topics that are currently being debated in society. The site also features videos and tutorial animations to assist the students in
­recognizing the relevance of what they are learning in the classroom.

ISTUDY

Dr. Sylvia Mader is one of the icons of science education. Her
dedication to her students, coupled with her clear, concise writing
style, has benefited the education of thousands of students over the
past four decades. As an educator, it is an honor to continue her
legacy and to bring her message to the next generation of students.
As always, I had the privilege to work with a phenomenal
group of people on this edition. I would especially like to thank you,
the numerous instructors who have shared emails with me or have
invited me into your classrooms, both physically and virtually, to
discuss your needs as instructors and the needs of your students.
You are all dedicated and talented teachers, and your energy and
devotion to quality teaching is what drives a textbook revision.
Many dedicated and talented individuals assisted in the devel-
opment of this edition of Human Biology. I am very grateful for the
help of so many professionals at McGraw Hill who were involved
in bringing this book to fruition. Therefore, I would like to thank
the following:
∙ My product developer, Anne Winch, for her incredible ability to
manage all aspects of this project simultaneously.
∙ Portfolio director Michelle Vogler and portfolio manager Lora
Neyens, for their guidance and for reminding me why what we
do is important.
∙ My marketing manager, Erin Martin, for placing me in contact
with great instructors, on campus and virtually, throughout this
process.
∙ My content project manager, Jessica Portz, and lead content
project manager, Kelly Hart, for guiding this project throughout
the publication process.
ISTUDY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
∙ Content licensing specialist, Lori Hancock, and photo specialist,
David Tietz, for the photos within this text. Biology is a visual
science, and their contributions are evident on every page.
∙ Michael McGee and Sharon O’Donnell, who acted as my copy-
editor and proofreader, respectively, for this edition.
∙ Jane Peden, for her behind-the-scenes work that keeps us all
functioning.
As both an educator and an author, communicating the impor-
tance of science represents one of my greatest passions. Our modern
society is based largely on advances in science and technology
over the past few decades. As I present in this text, there are many
challenges facing humans, and an understanding of how science
can help analyze, and offer solutions to, these problems is critical to
our species’ health and survival. The only solution to these problems
is an increase in scientific literacy, and more importantly, a greater
appreciation for the roles of scientists in society. It is my hope that
this text helps with that process.
I also want to acknowledge my family and friends for all of
their support. My family team of Sandy, Devin, and Kayla have
­always been my motivation and encouragement. And for my dearest
friends, who have never wavered in their support, thank you for
believing.
Michael Windelspecht, PhD
Blowing Rock, NC
 BRIEF CONTENTS

1. Exploring Life and Science 1

Unit 5 Reproduction in Humans
Unit 1 Human Organization 17. Reproductive System 333
18. Development and Aging 358
2. Chemistry of Life 19
3. Cell Structure and Function 43
4. Tissues, Organ Systems, and Homeostasis 65 Unit 6 Human Genetics
19. Cell Division 381
Unit 2 Maintenance of the 20. Cancer 403
Human Body 21. Genetic Inheritance 421
22. DNA Biology and Technology 443
5. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood
Vessels 86
6. Cardiovascular System: Blood 106 Unit 7 Human Evolution and
7. The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 121 Ecology
8. Biology of Infectious Diseases 141
23. Human Evolution 470
9. Digestive System and Nutrition 159
24. Ecology and the Nature of Ecosystems 494
10. Respiratory System 185
25. Human Interactions with the Biosphere 513
11. Urinary System 205

Unit 3 Movement and Support

in Humans
12. Skeletal System 223
13. Muscular System 242

Unit 4 Integration and Coordination

in Humans
14. Nervous System 262
15. Senses 289
16. Endocrine System 309

ISTUDY
 CONTENTS

Chapter
1 Chapter
4
Exploring Life and Science 1 Tissues, Organ Systems, and Homeostasis 65
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2 4.1 Types of Tissues 66
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals 7 4.2 Connective Tissue Connects and Supports 66
1.3 Science as a Process 9 4.3 Muscular Tissue Moves the Body 69
1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing Society 15 4.4 Nervous Tissue Communicates 70
4.5 Epithelial Tissue Protects 71
4.6 Organ Systems, Body Cavities, and Body
Unit 1 Human Organization Membranes 74
4.7 Integumentary System 77

Chapter
2 4.8 Homeostasis 81

Chemistry of Life 19
2.1 From Atoms to Molecules 20
Unit 2 Maintenance of the
2.2 Water and Life 25
Human Body
2.3 Molecules of Life 29
2.4 Carbohydrates
2.5 Lipids 32
30 Chapter
5
2.6 Proteins 36 Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood
Vessels 86
2.7 Nucleic Acids 38
5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System 87

Chapter
3 5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels 88
5.3 The Heart Is a Double Pump 89
Cell Structure and Function 43 5.4 Blood Pressure 94
3.1 What Is a Cell? 44 5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways 96
3.2 How Cells Are Organized 46 5.6 Exchange at the Capillaries 98
3.3 The Plasma Membrane and How Substances 5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders 99
Cross It 48
3.4 The Nucleus and Endomembrane System 52
3.5 The Cytoskeleton, Cell Movement, and Cell
Chapter
6
Junctions 55 Cardiovascular System: Blood 106
3.6 Metabolism and the Energy Reactions 57 6.1 Blood: An Overview 107
6.2 Red Blood Cells and the Transport of Gases 109
6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against
Disease 111
6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting 113
6.5 Human Blood Types 115
6.6 Homeostasis 118

ISTUDY
 xii Contents

7
11.3 Urine Formation 211
Chapter
11.4 Kidneys and Homeostasis 215
The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 121 11.5 Urinary System Disorders 219
7.1 The Lymphatic System 122
7.2 Innate Immune Defenses 124
Unit 3 M
 ovement and Support
7.3 Adaptive Immune Defenses 127
in Humans
7.4 Acquired Immunity 132
7.5 Disorders of the Immune System 135

Chapter
8
Chapter
12
Skeletal System 223
Biology of Infectious Diseases 141 12.1 Overview of the Skeletal System 224
8.1 Bacteria and Viruses 142 12.2 Bones of the Axial Skeleton 226
8.2 Infectious Diseases and Human Health 146 12.3 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton 230
8.3 Emerging Diseases and COVID-19 153 12.4 Articulations 233
8.4 Antibiotic Resistance 155 12.5 Bone Growth and Homeostasis 235

Chapter
9 Chapter
13
Digestive System and Nutrition 159 Muscular System 242
9.1 Overview of Digestion 160 13.1 Overview of the Muscular System 243
9.2 The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus 162 13.2 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction 246
9.3 The Stomach and Small Intestine 164 13.3 Whole Muscle Contraction 252
9.4 The Accessory Organs and Regulation of 13.4 Muscular Disorders 256
Secretions 169
13.5 Homeostasis 258
9.5 The Large Intestine and Defecation 171
9.6 Nutrition and Weight Control 173
Unit 4 Integration and Coordination
Chapter
10 in Humans
Respiratory System 185
10.1 The Respiratory System 186
10.2 The Upper Respiratory Tract 187
Chapter
14
Nervous System 262
10.3 The Lower Respiratory Tract 189
14.1 Overview of the Nervous System 263
10.4 Mechanism of Breathing 191
14.2 The Central Nervous System 270
10.5 Control of Ventilation 194
14.3 The Limbic System and Higher Mental
10.6 Gas Exchange in the Body 196
Functions 276
10.7 Disorders of the Respiratory System 197
14.4 The Peripheral Nervous System 278

11
14.5 Drug Therapy and Substance Use Disorders 282
Chapter

Urinary System 205

11.1 The Urinary System 206
11.2 Kidney Structure 209

ISTUDY
 Contents xiii

Chapter
15 Unit 6 Human Genetics
Senses 289
15.1 Overview of Sensory Receptors and
Sensations 290
Chapter
19
15.2 Somatic Senses 291 Cell Division 381
15.3 Senses of Taste and Smell 293 19.1 Chromosomes 382
15.4 Sense of Vision 295 19.2 The Cell Cycle 383
15.5 Sense of Hearing 301 19.3 Mitosis 385
15.6 Sense of Equilibrium 305 19.4 Meiosis 387
19.5 Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis 393
Chapter
16 19.6 Chromosome Inheritance 395

Endocrine System 309

16.1 Endocrine Glands 310
Chapter
20
16.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 314 Cancer 403
16.3 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 318 20.1 Overview of Cancer 404
16.4 Adrenal Glands 320 20.2 Causes and Prevention of Cancer 409
16.5 Pancreas 324 20.3 Diagnosis of Cancer 413
16.6 Other Endocrine Glands 327 20.4 Treatment of Cancer 416
16.7 Hormones and Homeostasis 329
Chapter
21
Unit 5 Reproduction in Humans Genetic Inheritance 421
21.1 Genotype and Phenotype 422

17
21.2 One- and Two-Trait Inheritance 423
Chapter
21.3 Inheritance of Genetic Disorders 429
Reproductive System 333 21.4 Beyond Simple Inheritance Patterns 432
17.1 Human Life Cycle 334 21.5 Sex-Linked Inheritance 436
17.2 Male Reproductive System 335
17.3 Female Reproductive System 339
17.4 The Ovarian Cycle 341
Chapter
22
DNA Biology and Technology 443
17.5 Control of Reproduction 345
22.1 DNA and RNA Structure and Function 444
17.6 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 350
22.2 Gene Expression 448

18
22.3 DNA Technology 455
Chapter
22.4 Genomics and Gene Therapy 464
Development and Aging 358
18.1 Fertilization 359
18.2 Embryonic Development 361
18.3 Fetal Development 366
18.4 Pregnancy and Birth 372
18.5 Aging 375

ISTUDY
 xiv Contents

Unit 7 H
 uman Evolution
and Ecology
Chapter
25
Human Interactions with the Biosphere 513
25.1 Human Population Growth 514

Chapter
23 25.2 Human Use of Resources and Pollution
25.3 Biodiversity 525
516

Human Evolution 470 25.4 Working Toward a Sustainable Society 532

23.1 Origin of Life 471
23.2 Biological Evolution 473 Appendix  eriodic Table of the Elements
P A-1
23.3 Classification of Humans 479 Metric System A-2
23.4 Evolution of Hominins 482
23.5 Evolution of Humans 485 Glossary G-1
Index I

Chapter
24
Ecology and the Nature of Ecosystems 494
24.1 The Nature of Ecosystems 495
24.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 498
24.3 Global Biogeochemical Cycles 502

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B I O L O G Y T O D AY ► Diversity in Science
The Legacy of Marie Curie 22
Should Infertility Be Treated? 349
Understanding Fertilization 360
B I O L O G Y T O D AY ► Health
Fiber in the Diet 32
The Omega-3 Fatty Acids 34
Good and Bad Cholesterol 35
The Metabolic Fate of Pizza 61
UV Radiation and Skin Cancer 79
Recent Findings in Preventing Heart
Disease 100
Aspirin and Heart Disease 115
Adult Vaccinations 134
Opportunistic Infections and HIV 136
Heartburn (GERD) 167
B I O L O G Y T O D AY ► Science
Adapting to Life at High Elevations 6
Discovering the Cause of Ulcers 14
The Challenges of Developing an AIDS
Vaccine 150
The Biology of SARS-CoV-2 154
Artificial Lungs 191
Lab-Grown Bladders 208
Identifying Skeletal Remains 232
Osteoarthritis and the History of Joint
Replacement Surgery 234
Botox and Wrinkles 251
Rigor Mortis 254
ISTUDY
Nettie Stevens and the Discovery of the
Sex Chromosomes 438
Protein and Vegetarians 176
The Rise and Fall of Artificial Trans Fatty
Acids 178
New Dietary Guidelines 182
Are E-cigs Safe? 200
Questions About Smoking, Tobacco, and
Health 201
Urinalysis 214
Urinary Difficulties Due to an Enlarged
Prostate 220
Avoiding Osteoporosis 239
Nerve Regeneration and Stem
Cells 265
Identifying Insulin as a Chemical
Messenger 327
Inactivating X Chromosomes 397
The Immortal Henrietta Lacks 407
Genetics of Eye Color 434
Hemophilia: The Royal Disease 440
Discovering the Structure of DNA 445
Reproductive and Therapeutic
Cloning 459
Testing for Genetic Disorders 467
READINGS
CRISPR Pioneers 460
The Importance of Exercise 257
Caffeine: Good or Bad for You? 284
Correcting Vision Problems 300
Noise Pollution 304
Preventing Transmission of STDs 353
Preventing and Testing for Birth
Defects 368
Prevention of Cancer 412
Cancer Self-Examinations 414
The Complexity of Our Evolutionary
Past 488
The Effects of Biocultural Evolution on
Population Growth 491
How Much Plastic Are You Eating? 500
The Wildfires of California 504
Climate Change and Carbon Dioxide
Emissions 507
Bees Now Officially Listed as an
Endangered Species 530
Using Science to Save Jaguars 531
ISTUDY
 C H A P T E R

1
Exploring Life
and Science
(top left): Daniel Allan/Image Source; (top right): Ariel Skelley/Getty Images; (bottom left): Luis Alvarez/Digital
Vision/Getty Images; (bottom right): Tatomm/iStock/Getty Images

Diversity in Science CHAPTER OUTLINE

1.1 The Characteristics of Life
Our planet is home to a staggering diversity of life. Our species,
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals
Homo sapiens, is just one of the estimated 8.7 million different species
(not counting bacteria) that inhabit the globe. Life may be found every- 1.3 Science as a Process
where, from the deepest ocean trenches to the tops of the highest 1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing
mountains. Biology is the area of scientific study that focuses on under- Society
standing all aspects of living organisms. Human biology focuses not
only on the biology of our species but also its interactions with other
species on the planet. This diversity of life is important to humans, be-
cause it provides us with food, medicines, and the raw materials needed
to manufacture the millions of items that make our way of life possible.
Equally as important as our planet’s biodiversity is the diversity of
the people who study biology. Scientists rely upon their own experi-
ences to ask questions, develop hypotheses, and design experiments
or models to explain natural phenomena. Therefore, in order for the
scientific community to ably address the challenges facing human
society, from climate change to emerging diseases, we need a diverse
population of individuals, with unique experiences and viewpoints, to
contribute their ideas and opinions. As we will see throughout this text,
there are many ways to study our world, and our diversity is a major
strength in developing solutions.
As you read through the chapter, think about the following questions:
1. What are some of the many ways a scientist can study biology?
2. Why would diversity in the scientific community play an important
role in addressing how science can address the needs of society?

ISTUDY
 2 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

structural and functional unit of an organism. Some organisms,

1.1 The Characteristics of Life
LE AR N I N G OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Explain the basic characteristics common to all living
organisms.
2. Describe the levels of organization of life.
3. Explain why the study of evolution is important in
understanding life.
The science of biology is the study of living organisms and the
environments they live in. All living organisms (Fig. 1.1) share
several basic characteristics. They (1) are organized, (2) acquire
materials and energy, (3) are homeostatic, (4) respond to stimuli,
(5) reproduce and have the potential for growth, and (6) have an
evolutionary history.
Life Is Organized
Life can be organized in a hierarchy of levels (Fig. 1.2). Note that,
at the very base of this organization, atoms join together to form
the molecules, which in turn make up a cell. A cell is the smallest
such as bacteria, are single-celled organisms. Humans are multi-
cellular, because they are composed of many different types of
cells. For example, the structure of nerve cells in the human body
allows these cells to conduct nerve impulses.
A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a particu-
lar function. Nervous tissue is composed of millions of nerve
cells that transmit signals to all parts of the body. An organ is
made up of several types of tissues, and each organ belongs to
an organ system. The organs of an organ system work together
to accomplish a common purpose. The brain works with the
spinal cord to send commands to body parts by way of nerves.
Organisms, such as trees and humans, are a collection of
organ systems.
The levels of biological organization extend beyond the
individual. All the members of one species (a group of inter-
breeding organisms) in a particular area belong to a population.
A tropical grassland may have a population of zebras, acacia
trees, and humans, for example. The interacting populations of
the grasslands make up a community. The community of popula-
tions interacts with the physical environment to form an ecosystem.
Finally, all the Earth’s ecosystems collectively make up the
biosphere (Fig. 1.2, top).

mushrooms sunflower bacteria

ape
9,560×
diverse humans
Giardia

Figure 1.1 All life shares common characteristics.

From the simplest one-celled organisms to complex plants and animals, all life shares several basic characteristics.
(student group): FatCamera/E+/Getty Images; (mushrooms): IT Stock/age fotostock; (bacteria): Paul Gunning/Science Photo Library/Getty Images; (gorilla): Mike Price/
Shutterstock; (sunflower): MedioImages/PunchStock/Getty Images; (Giardia): Dr. Stan Erlandsen/CDC

ISTUDY
 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 3

Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s
crust, waters, and
atmosphere inhabited
by living organisms

Ecosystem
A community plus the
physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in
a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Species
A group of similar,
interbreeding organisms

Organism human tree

An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ
the brain leaves
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue
nerve cell plant cell
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms
of the same or different elements

Atom oxygen
Smallest unit of an element;
composed of electrons,
protons, and neutrons

Figure 1.2 Levels of biological organization.

Life is connected from the atomic level to the biosphere. The cell is the basic unit of life, and it comprises molecules and atoms. The sum of all life
on the planet is called the biosphere.

ISTUDY
 4 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
B I O LO GY I N YO U R LI F E
How many cells are in your body?
The number of cells in a human body varies depending on the
size of the person and whether cells have been damaged or
lost. However, most estimates suggest there are well over
30 trillion cells in a human body. To put this into perspective,
there are only an estimated 3 trillion trees on Earth.
Life Requires Materials and Energy
Humans, like all living organisms, cannot maintain their organization
or carry on life’s activities without an outside source of materials and
energy. Energy is the capacity to do work. Like other animals,
humans acquire materials and energy by eating food (Fig. 1.3).
Food provides nutrient molecules, which are used as building
blocks or for energy. It takes energy to maintain the organization of
the cell and the organism itself. Some nutrient molecules are bro-
ken down completely to provide the energy necessary to convert
other nutrient molecules into the parts and products of cells. The
breakdown of food is a component of our metabolism, or the sum
of all the chemical reactions that occur within a cell or organism.
a.
b.
Figure 1.3 Humans and other animals must acquire energy.
All life, including humans (a) and other animals, such as this eagle
(b), must acquire energy to survive. The method by which organisms
acquire energy is dependent on the species.
(a): Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images; (b): Brian E Kushner/Shutterstock
ISTUDY
The ultimate source of energy for the majority of life on Earth
is the sun. Plants, algae, and some bacteria are able to harvest the
energy of the sun and convert it to chemical energy by a process
called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces organic mole-
cules, such as sugars, that serve as the basis of the food chain for
many other organisms, including humans and all other animals.
Living Organisms Maintain an Internal
Environment
For the metabolic pathways within a cell to function correctly, the en-
vironmental conditions of the cell must be kept within strict operating
limits. Many of the metabolic activities of a cell, or organism, function
in maintaining homeostasis—a constant internal environment.
In humans, many of our organ systems work to maintain
homeostasis. For example, human body temperature normally fluc-
tuates slightly between 36.5 and 37.5°C (97.7 and 99.5°F) during
the day. In general, the lowest temperature usually occurs between
2 a.m. and 4 a.m., and the highest usually occurs between 6 p.m. and
10 p.m. However, activity can cause the body temperature to rise,
and inactivity can cause it to decline. The metabolic activities
of our cells, tissues, and organs are dependent on maintaining a
relatively constant body temperature. Therefore, a number of body
systems, including the cardiovascular system and the nervous sys-
tem, work together to maintain a constant temperature. The body’s
ability to maintain a normal temperature is also somewhat depen-
dent on the external temperature. Even though we can shiver when
we are cold and perspire when we are hot, we will die if the external
temperature becomes overly cold or hot.
This text emphasizes how all the systems of the human body
help maintain homeostasis. For example, the digestive system
takes in nutrients, and the respiratory system exchanges gas with
the environment. The cardiovascular system distributes nutrients
and oxygen to the cells and picks up their wastes. The metabolic
waste products of cells are excreted by the urinary system. The
work of the nervous and endocrine systems is critical, because
these systems coordinate the functions of the other systems.
Living Organisms Respond
It would be impossible to maintain homeostasis without the body’s
ability to respond to stimuli, both from the internal and external
environments. Response to external stimuli is more apparent to us,
because it involves movement, as when we quickly remove a hand
from a hot stove. Certain sensory receptors also detect a change
in the internal environment, and then the central nervous system
brings about an appropriate response. When you are startled by a
loud noise, your heartbeat increases, which causes your blood
pressure to increase. If blood pressure rises too high, the brain directs
blood vessels to dilate, helping restore normal blood pressure.
All life responds to external stimuli, often by moving toward
or away from a stimulus, such as the sight of food. Organisms may
use a variety of mechanisms to move, but movement in humans
and other animals is dependent on their nervous and musculoskeletal
systems. The leaves of plants track the passage of the sun during
the day; when a houseplant is placed near a window, its stems bend
to face the sun. The movement of an animal, whether self-directed

a.
Figure 1.4 Growth and development define life.
a. A small acorn becomes a tree, and (b) following fertilization an embryo becomes a fetus by the process of growth and development.
(a) (seedling): bogdan ionescu/Shutterstock; (a) (tree): Frank Krahmer/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images; (b) (sperm/egg): David M. Phillips/Science Source;
(b) (fetus): Steve Allen/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images
or in response to a stimulus, constitutes a large part of its behavior.
Some behaviors help us acquire food and reproduce.
Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop
Reproduction is a fundamental characteristic of life. Cells come into
being only from preexisting cells, and all living organisms have
parents. When organisms reproduce, they pass on their genetic
information to the next generation. Following the fertilization of an
egg by a sperm cell, the resulting zygote undergoes a rapid period of
growth and development. This is common in most forms of life.
Figure 1.4a illustrates that an acorn progresses to a seedling before it
becomes an adult oak tree. In humans, growth occurs as the fertilized
egg develops into a fetus (Fig. 1.4b). Growth, recognized by an in-
crease in size and often in the number of cells, is a part of development.
In multicellular organisms, such as humans, the term development
is used to indicate all the changes that occur from the time the egg is
fertilized until death. Therefore, it includes all the changes that occur
during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Development also
includes the repair that takes place following an injury.
The genetic information of all life is DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). DNA contains the hereditary information that directs not
only the structure of each cell but also its function. The information
in DNA is contained within genes, short sequences of hereditary
material that specify the instructions for a specific trait. Before
reproduction occurs, DNA is replicated so an exact copy of each
gene may be passed on to the offspring. When humans reproduce,
a sperm carries genes contributed by a male into the egg, which
ISTUDY
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 5
480×
b.
contains genes contributed by a female. The genes direct both
growth and development so that the organism will eventually
resemble the parents. Sometimes mutations, minor variations in
these genes, can cause an organism to be better suited for its environ-
ment. These mutations are the basis of evolutionary change.
Organisms Have an Evolutionary History
Evolution is the process by which a population changes over time.
The mechanism by which evolution occurs is natural selection
(see Section 23.2). When a new variation arises that allows certain
members of a population to capture more resources, these members
tend to survive and have more offspring than the other, unchanged
members. Therefore, each successive generation will include more
members with the new variation, which represents an adaptation
to the environment. Consider, for example, populations of humans
who live at high altitudes, such as the cultures living at elevations of
over 4,000 meters (m) (14,000 ft) in the Tibetan Plateau. This envi-
ronment is very low in oxygen. As the Science feature “Adapting
to Life at High Elevations” investigates, these populations have
evolved an adaptation that reduces the amount of hemoglobin, the
oxygen-carrying pigment in the blood. As the feature explains, this
adaptation makes life at these altitudes possible.
Evolution, which has been going on since the origin of life and
will continue as long as life exists, explains both the unity and
diversity of life. All organisms share the same characteristics of life
because their ancestry can be traced to the first cell or cells. Organ-
isms are diverse because they are adapted to different ways of life.
 6 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
B I O L O G Y T O D AY ► Science
Adapting to Life at High Elevations
Humans, like all other organisms, have an evolutionary history.
This not only means we share common ancestors with other
animals, but over time we demonstrate adaptations to changing
environmental conditions. One study of populations living in the
high-elevation mountains of Tibet (Fig. 1A) demonstrates how
the processes of evolution and adaptation influence humans.
Normally, when a person moves to a higher altitude, the body
may respond by making more hemoglobin, the component of blood
that carries oxygen, which in turn thickens the consistency of the
blood. For minor elevation changes, this does not present much of a
problem. But for people who live at extreme elevations (some
people in the Himalayas can live at elevations of over 13,000 ft, or
close to 4,000 m), excess hemoglobin can present a number of health
problems, including chronic mountain sickness, a disease that
affects people who live at high altitudes for extended periods of time.
The problem is that, as the amount of hemoglobin increases, the
blood thickens and becomes more viscous. This can cause elevated
blood pressure, or hypertension, and an increase in the formation
of blood clots, both of which have negative physiological effects.
Figure 1A High-elevation adaptations.
Individuals living at high elevations, such as Tibetans, have become
adapted to their high-elevation environment.
Michael Freeman/Corbis
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.1
1. List the basic characteristics of life.
2. Summarize the levels of biological organization.
3. Explain the relationship between adaptations and
evolutionary change.
ISTUDY
Because high hemoglobin levels would be a detriment to
people at high elevations, it makes sense that natural selection would
favor individuals who produce less hemoglobin at high elevations.
Such is the case with the Tibetans in this study. Researchers have
identified an allele of a gene that reduces hemoglobin production at
high elevations. Comparisons between Tibetans at both high and
low elevations strongly suggest that selection has played a role in
the prevalence of the high-elevation allele.
The gene is EPSA1, located on chromosome 2 of humans.
EPSA1 produces a transcription factor that basically regulates
which genes are turned on and off in the body, a process called gene
expression. The transcription factor produced by EPSA1 has a num-
ber of functions in the body. For example, in addition to controlling
the amount of hemoglobin in the blood, this transcription factor also
regulates other genes that direct how the body uses oxygen.
When the researchers examined the variations in EPSA1 in the
Tibetan population, they discovered that the Tibetan version greatly
reduces the production of hemoglobin. Therefore, the Tibetan popula-
tion has lower hemoglobin levels than people living at lower altitudes,
allowing these individuals to escape the consequences of thick blood.
How long did it take for the original population to adapt to
living at higher elevations? Initially, the comparison of variations
in these genes between high-elevation and low-elevation Tibetan
populations suggested that the event may have occurred over a
3,000-year period. But researchers were skeptical of those data
because they suggested a relatively rapid rate of evolutionary
change. Additional studies of genetic databases yielded an interest-
ing finding—the EPSA1 gene in Tibetans was identical to a similar
gene found in an ancient group of humans called the Denisovans
(see Section 23.5). Scientists now believe that the EPSA1 gene en-
tered the Tibetan population around 40,000 years ago, either through
interbreeding between early Tibetans and Denisovans, or from one of
the immediate ancestors of this now-lost group of early humans.
Questions to Consider
1. What other environments do you think could be studied to
look for examples of human adaptation?
2. In addition to hemoglobin levels, do you think people at high
elevations may exhibit other adaptations?
C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S
Both homeostasis and evolution are central themes in the study
of biology. For more examples of homeostasis and evolution,
refer to the following discussions:
Section 4.8 explains how body temperature is regulated.
Section 11.4 explores the role of the kidneys in fluid and salt
homeostasis.
Section 23.3 examines the evolutionary history of humans.
 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 7

that possess a nucleus. Some of these organisms are single-celled;

1.2 Humans Are Related
to Other Animals
LE AR N I N G OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Summarize the place of humans in the overall
classification of living organisms.
2. Understand that humans have a cultural heritage.
3. Describe the relationship between humans and the
biosphere.
Biologists classify all life as belonging to one of three domains.
The evolutionary relationships of these domains are presented in
Figure 1.5.
Two of these domains, domain Bacteria and domain Archaea,
contain prokaryotes, single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus
(Fig. 1.6). Organisms in the third domain, Eukarya, all contain cells
others are multicellular. Humans are an example of multicelled
Eukarya.
Historically, domain Eukarya was divided into one of four
kingdoms (Fig. 1.6). However, the development of improved
techniques in analyzing the DNA of organisms suggests that not
all of the Protistas (the earliest eukaryotes) share the same
evolutionary lineage, meaning that the evolution of the eukary-
otes has occurred along several paths. A new taxonomic group,
called a supergroup, was developed to explain these evolution-
ary relationships. There are currently six supergroups for
domain Eukarya. Over the past several years, changes have been
made to the supergroup classification as new research unveils
relationships between these organisms. While these relation-
ships are still being studied and analyzed, current thinking
places the animals in the same supergroup (the Opisthikonts) as
the fungi.
The traditional kingdom level of classification within domain
Eukarya is still widely used, and is often placed beneath the

BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)

Protists

Plants

EUKARYA
Fungi

domains
kingdoms
Animals
common ancestor

4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

Billions of Years Ago (BYA)

Figure 1.5 The evolutionary relationships of the three domains of life.

Living organisms are classified into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The Eukarya are further divided into kingdoms (see Fig. 1.6).

ISTUDY
 8 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

Domain Archaea Domain Bacteria

• Prokaryotic cells • Prokaryotic cells

of various shapes of various shapes
• Adaptations to • Adaptations to
extreme environments all environments
• Absorb or • Absorb, photosynthesize,
chemosynthesize food or chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical • Unique chemical
characteristics characteristics
33,200×
6,600×
Sulfolobus, an archaean
Escherichia coli, a bacterium

Domain Eukarya; Kingdom Protista Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae

• Algae, protozoans, • Certain algae, mosses, ferns,

slime molds, and conifers, and flowering plants
water molds • Multicellular, usually with
• Complex single cell specialized tissues,
(sometimes filaments, containing complex cells
colonies, or even • Photosynthesize food
multicellular)
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
160× or ingest food
Ophrys apifera, bee orchid
Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan

Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia

• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts, • Sponges, worms, insects,

and ringworms fishes, frogs, turtles,
• Mostly multicellular filaments birds, and mammals
with specialized, complex cells • Multicellular with
• Absorb food specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• Ingest food

Buteo jamaicensis, red-tailed hawk

Amanita muscaria, a mushroom

Figure 1.6 The classification of life.

This figure offers some characteristics of organisms in each of the major domains and kingdoms of life. Humans belong to the domain Eukarya and
kingdom Animalia.
(archaea): Eye of Science/Science Source; (bacteria): A. Barry Dowsett/Science Source; (paramecium): M.I. Walker/Science Source; (orchids): CreativeNature_nl/iStock/Getty Images;
(mushrooms): Ingram Publishing/Getty Images; (hawk): Keneva Photography/Shutterstock

supergroup classification. The four kingdoms are shown in
Figure 1.6 and include the following:
∙ Kingdom Protista. Commonly called the protists, this is a
very diverse group of eukaryotic organisms, ranging from
single-celled forms to a few multicellular organisms. Some
protists use photosynthesis to manufacture food, and some
must acquire their own food. As we mentioned, the diverse
nature of these organisms indicates they have multiple evolu-
tionary origins, and thus belong to different supergroups.
∙ Kingdom Plantae. The plants are multicellular, photosyn-
thetic organisms.
∙ Kingdom Fungi. Fungi are the familiar molds and mush-
rooms that help decompose dead organisms. Some fungi are
parasites of plants and animals.
∙ Kingdom Animalia. Animals are multicellular organisms that
must ingest and process their food. They are capable of motion
at some point in their life cycle.
Among the animals are the invertebrates, which lack an inter-
nal skeletal support structure, called vertebrae. Most animals are
invertebrates. Examples include earthworms, insects, and mollusks.
Vertebrates are animals that have a nerve cord protected by a verte-
bral column, which gives them their name. Fish, reptiles, amphibi-
ans, and birds are all examples of vertebrates. Vertebrates with hair
or fur and mammary glands are classified as mammals. Humans,
raccoons, seals, and meerkats are examples of mammals.
Humans are primate mammals and are most closely related to
apes. We are distinguished from apes by our (1) highly developed
brains, (2) completely upright stance, (3) creative language, and

ISTUDY

(4) ability to use a wide variety of tools. Humans did not evolve
from apes; apes and humans share a common, apelike ancestor.
Today’s apes are our evolutionary cousins. Our relationship to
apes is analogous to you and your first cousin being descended
from your grandparents. We could not have evolved directly from
our cousins, because we are contemporaries—living on Earth at
the same time.
Humans Have a Cultural Heritage
Humans have a cultural heritage in addition to a biological heri-
tage. Culture encompasses human activities and products passed
on from one generation to the next outside of direct biological
inheritance. Among animals, only humans have a language that al-
lows us to communicate information and experiences symbolically.
We are born without knowledge of an accepted way to behave, but
we gradually acquire this knowledge by adult instruction and the
imitation of role models. Members of the previous generation pass
on their beliefs, values, and skills to the next generation. Many of
the skills involve tool use, which can vary from how to hunt in the
wild to how to use a computer. Human skills have also produced a
rich heritage in the arts and sciences. However, a society highly
dependent on science and technology has its drawbacks as well.
Unfortunately, this cultural development may mislead us into be-
lieving that humans are somehow not part of the natural world
surrounding us.
Humans Are Members of the Biosphere
All life on Earth is part of the biosphere, the living network that
spans the surface of the Earth into the atmosphere and down into
the soil and seas. Although humans can raise animals and crops for
food, we depend on the environment for many services. Without
microorganisms that decompose, the waste we create would soon
cover the Earth’s surface. Some species of bacteria help us by
cleaning up pollutants like heavy metals and pesticides.
Freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers and lakes, provide fish
to eat, water to drink, and water to irrigate crops. Many of our
crops and prescription drugs were originally derived from plants
that grew naturally in an ecosystem. Some human populations
around the globe still depend on wild animals as a food source. The
water-holding capacity of forests prevents flooding, and the ability
of forests and other ecosystems to retain soil prevents soil erosion.
For many people, these forests provide a place for recreational
activities like hiking and camping.
B I O LO GY I N YO U R LI F E
How many humans are there?
In 2021, it was estimated there were over 7.9 billion humans on
the planet. Each human needs food, shelter, clean water and air,
and materials to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Our species adds
an additional 83 million people per year—that is like adding the
population of ten New York Cities annually! This makes human
population growth one of the greatest threats to the biosphere.
ISTUDY
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 9
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.2
1. Define the term biosphere.
2. Define culture.
3. Explain why humans belong to the domain Eukarya and
kingdom Animalia.
C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S
To learn more about the preceding material, refer to the following
discussions:
Chapter 23 examines recent developments in the study of
human evolution.
Chapter 24 provides a more detailed look at ecosystems.
Chapter 25 explores how humans interact with the biosphere.
1.3 Science as a Process
LE A R N I N G OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Describe the general process of the scientific method.
2. Distinguish between a control group and an experimental
group in a scientific test.
3. Recognize the importance of scientific journals in the
reporting of scientific information.
4. Recognize the importance of statistical analysis to the
study of science.
Science is a way of knowing about the natural world. When scien-
tists study the natural world, they aim to be objective, rather than
subjective. Objective observations are supported by factual informa-
tion, whereas subjective observations involve personal judgment.
For example, the fat content of a particular food would be an
objective observation of a nutritional study. Reporting about the
good or bad taste of the food would be a subjective observation.
It is difficult to make objective observations and conclusions,
because we are often influenced by our prejudices. Scientists must
keep in mind that scientific conclusions can change because of
new findings. New findings are often made because of recent
advances in techniques or equipment.
Religion, aesthetics, ethics, and science are all ways in which
humans seek order in the natural world. The nature of scientific
inquiry differs from these other ways of knowing and learning,
because the scientific process employs the scientific method, a
standard series of steps used in gaining new knowledge that is
widely accepted among scientists. The scientific method (Fig. 1.7)
acts as a guideline for scientific studies.
The approach of individual scientists to their work is as varied
as the scientists. However, much of the scientific process is de-
scriptive. For example, an observation of a new disease may lead a
scientist to describe all the aspects of the disease, such as the envi-
ronment, the age of onset, and the characteristics of the disease.
Some areas of biology, such as the study of biodiversity in the
 10 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

Observation

Hypothesis 1
Potential Hypothesis 2
hypotheses Reject
Hypothesis 3 Prediction Experiment hypothesis 1

Remaining Reject
possible Hypothesis 2 Prediction Experiment
Hypothesis 3 hypothesis 2
hypotheses

Last remaining Figure 1.7 The scientific method.

possible Hypothesis 3 On the basis of new and/or previous observations,
hypothesis Modify hypothesis a scientist formulates a hypothesis. The hypothesis
is used to develop predictions to be tested by
Predictions
further experiments and/or observations, and new
data either support or do not support the
hypothesis. Following an experiment, a scientist
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4 often chooses to retest the same hypothesis or to
test a related hypothesis. Conclusions from many
different but related experiments may lead to the
development of a scientific theory. For example,
Predictions studies pertaining to development, anatomy, and
Conclusion
confirmed
fossil remains all support the theory of evolution.

ecological sciences (see Section 1.4), lend themselves more to this
descriptive approach. Regardless of their area of study, most scien-
tists spend a considerable amount of time performing a descriptive
analysis of their observation before proceeding into the steps of the
scientific method. Scientists often modify or adapt the process to
suit their particular field of study, but for the sake of discussion, it
is useful to think of the scientific method as consisting of certain
logical steps.
Start with an Observation
Scientists believe that nature is orderly and measurable—that natu-
ral laws, such as the law of gravity, do not change with time—and
that a natural event, or phenomenon, can be understood more fully
through observation—a formal way of watching the natural world.
Observations may be made with the senses, such as sight and
smell, or with instruments; for example, a microscope enables us to
see objects that could never be seen by the naked eye. Scientists may
expand their understanding even further by taking advantage of the
knowledge and experiences of other scientists. For instance, they
may look up past studies on the Internet or at the library, or they may
write or speak to others who are researching similar topics.
examining a petri dish of bacteria that had accidentally become
contaminated with the mold Penicillium, Alexander Fleming ob-
served an area around the mold that was free of bacteria. Fleming
had long been interested in finding cures for human diseases
caused by bacteria, and he was very knowledgeable about antibac-
terial substances. So when Fleming saw the dramatic effect of
Penicillium mold on bacteria, he reasoned that the mold might be
producing an antibacterial substance.
We call such a possible explanation for a natural event a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, so it is
much more informed than a mere guess. Fleming’s hypothesis was
supported by further study, but sometimes a hypothesis is not sup-
ported and must be either modified and subjected to additional
study or rejected. When thinking about how to test the hypothesis,
the scientist may make a prediction, or an expected outcome,
based on knowledge of the factors involved in the observation.
All of a scientist’s past experiences, no matter what they might
be, may influence the formation of a hypothesis. But a scientist
considers only hypotheses that can be tested by experiments or
further observations. Moral and religious beliefs, although very
important to our lives, differ among cultures and through time and
are not always testable.

Develop a Hypothesis Test the Hypothesis

After making observations and gathering knowledge about a
phenomenon, a scientist uses inductive reasoning. Inductive
reasoning occurs whenever a person uses creative thinking to
combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole. Chance alone can
help a scientist arrive at an idea. The most famous case pertains to
the antibiotic penicillin, which was discovered in 1928. While
Scientists often perform an experiment, which is a series of proce-
dures, to test a hypothesis. To determine how to test a hypothesis,
a scientist uses deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning
involves “if . . . then” logic.
The manner in which a scientist intends to conduct an experi-
ment is called the experimental design. A good experimental design

ISTUDY

64×
Drosophila melanogaster Caenorhabditis elegans
Arabidopsis thaliana Mus musculus
Figure 1.8 Model organisms used in scientific studies.
Drosophila melanogaster is used as a model organism in the study
of genetics. Mus musculus is used in the study of medicine.
Caenorhabditis elegans is used by developmental biologists, and
Arabidopsis thaliana is used by botanists to understand plant genetics.
(Drosophila): janeff/iStockphoto/Getty Images; (C. elegans): Sinclair Stammers/
Science Source; (Arabidopsis): Wildlife GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo; (M. musculus):
Redmond Durrell/Alamy Stock Photo
ensures that scientists are examining the contribution of a specific
variable, called the experimental variable, to the observation. The
result is termed the responding variable, or dependent variable,
because it is due to the experimental variable.
To ensure the results will be meaningful, an experiment con-
tains both test groups and a control group. A test group is exposed
to the experimental variable, but the control group is not. If the
control group and test groups show the same results, the experi-
menter knows that the hypothesis predicting a difference between
them is not supported.
Scientists often use model organisms and model
systems to test a hypothesis. Some common model organ-
isms are shown in Figure 1.8. Model organisms are chosen y-axis
because they allow the researcher to control aspects of
the experiment, such as age and genetic background. Cell
biologists may use mice for modeling the effects of a new drug.
Like model organisms, model systems allow the scientist to con-
trol specific variables and environmental conditions in a way that
may not be possible in the natural environment. For example,
ecologists may use computer programs to model how human
activities will affect the climate of a specific ecosystem. While
models provide useful information, they do not always answer the
original question completely. For example, medicine that is effec-
tive in mice ideally should be tested in humans, and ecological
experiments conducted using computer simulations need to be
verified by actual field experiments.
ISTUDY
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 11
Collect and Analyze the Data
The data, or results, from scientific experiments may be pre-
sented in a variety of formats, including tables and graphs. A
graph shows the relationship between two quantities. In many
graphs, the experimental variable is plotted on the x-axis (hori-
zontal), and the result is plotted along the y-axis (vertical).
Graphs are useful tools to summarize data in a clear and simpli-
fied manner. For example, the line graph in Figure 1.9 shows the
variation in the concentration of blood cholesterol over a 4-week
study. The bar above and below each data point represents the
variation, or standard error, in the results. The title and labels
can assist you in reading a graph; therefore, when looking at a
graph, first check the two axes to determine what the graph per-
tains to. By looking at this graph, we know the blood cholesterol
levels were highest during week 2, and we can see to what
degree the values varied over the course of the study.
Statistical Data
Most scientists who publish research articles use statistics to help
them evaluate their experimental data. In statistics, the standard
error, or standard deviation, tells us how uncertain a particular
value is. Suppose you predict how many hurricanes Florida will
have next year by calculating the average number during the past
10 years. If the number of hurricanes per year varies widely, your
standard error will be larger than if the number per year is usually
about the same. In other words, the standard error tells you how far
off the average could be. If the average number of hurricanes is
four and the standard error is ±2, then your prediction of four
hurricanes is between two and six hurricanes. In Figure 1.9, the
standard error is represented by the bars above and below each data
point. This provides a visual indication of the statistical analysis of
the data.
Variation in Blood Cholesterol Levels
225
Blood Cholesterol (mg/dl)
standard error
200
Data
175
150
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
x-axis
Figure 1.9 The presentation of scientific data.
This line graph shows the variation in the concentration of blood
cholesterol over a 4-week study. The bars above and below the data
points represent the variation, or standard error, in the results.
 12 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
Statistical Significance
When scientists conduct an experiment, there is always the possibil-
ity that the results are due to chance or to some factor other than the
experimental variable. Investigators take into account several factors
when they calculate the probability value (p) that their results were
due to chance alone. If the probability value is low, researchers
describe the results as statistically significant. A probability value of
less than 5% (usually written as p < 0.05) is acceptable; even so,
keep in mind that the lower the p value, the less likely it is that the
results are due to chance. Therefore, the lower the p value, the greater
the confidence the investigators and you can have in the results.
Depending on the type of study, most scientists like to have a p value
of < 0.05, but p values of < 0.001 are common in many studies.
Scientific Publications
Scientific studies are customarily published in scientific journals,
such as Science or Nature, so that all aspects of a study are avail-
able to the scientific community. Before information is published
in scientific journals, it is typically reviewed by experts, who
ensure that the research is credible, accurate, unbiased, and well
executed. Another scientist should be able to read about an experi-
ment in a scientific journal, repeat the experiment in a different
location, and get the same (or very similar) results. Some articles
are rejected for publication by reviewers when they believe there is
something questionable about the design of an experiment or the
manner in which it was conducted. This process of rejection is
important in science because it causes researchers to critically
review their hypotheses, predictions, and experimental designs, so
that their next attempt will more adequately address their hypoth-
esis. Often, it takes several rounds of revision before research is
accepted for publication in a scientific journal.
People should be especially careful about scientific information
available on the Internet, which is not well regulated. Reliable, cred-
ible scientific information can often be found at websites with URLs
containing .edu (for educational institution), .gov (for government
sites such as the National Institutes of Health or the Centers for Dis-
ease Control and Prevention), and .org (for nonprofit organizations,
such as the American Lung Association or the National Multiple
Sclerosis Society). Unfortunately, quite a bit of scientific informa-
tion on the Internet is intended to entice people into purchasing
some sort of product for weight loss, prevention of hair loss, or simi-
lar maladies. These websites usually have URLs ending with .com
or .net. It pays to question and verify the information from these
websites with another source (a primary source, if possible).
Develop a Conclusion
Scientists must analyze the data in order to reach a conclusion
about whether a hypothesis is supported or not. Because science
progresses, the conclusion of one experiment can lead to the hy-
pothesis for another experiment (see Fig. 1.9). In other words,
results that do not support one hypothesis can often help a scientist
formulate another hypothesis to be tested. Scientists report their
findings in scientific journals, so that their methodology and data
are available to other scientists.
ISTUDY
Scientific Theory
The ultimate goal of science is to understand the natural world in
terms of scientific theories, which are accepted explanations for
how the world works. Some of the basic theories of biology are
the cell theory, which says that all organisms are composed of
cells; the gene theory, which says that inherited information in a
gene contributes to the form, function, and behavior of organisms;
and the theory of evolution, which says that all organisms have a
common ancestor and that each organism is adapted to a particu-
lar way of life.
The theory of evolution is considered the unifying concept
of biology, because it pertains to many different aspects of or-
ganisms. For example, the theory of evolution enables scientists
to understand the history of life, the variety of organisms, and
the anatomy, physiology, and development of organisms. The
theory of evolution has been a very fruitful scientific theory,
meaning it has helped scientists generate new testable hypotheses.
Because this theory has been supported by so many observations
and experiments for over 100 years, some biologists refer to
the theory of evolution as the principle of evolution, a term
sometimes used for theories that are generally accepted by an
overwhelming number of scientists. Others prefer the term law
instead of principle.
An Example of a Controlled Study
As presented in the Science feature "Discovering the Cause of
Ulcers," we now know that most stomach and intestinal ulcers
(open sores) are caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Experimental Design
Let’s say investigators want to determine which of two antibiotics
is best for the treatment of an ulcer. When clinicians do an experi-
ment, they try to vary just the experimental variables—in this case,
the medications being tested. Each antibiotic is administered to an
independent test group. The control group is not given an antibi-
otic. If by chance the control group shows the same results as one
of the test groups, the investigators may conclude that the anti-
biotic in that test group is ineffective, because it does not show a
result that is significantly different from that of the control group.
The study depicted in Figure 1.10a shows how investigators may
study this hypothesis:
Hypothesis: Newly discovered antibiotic B is a better treatment
for ulcers than antibiotic A, which is in current use.
In any experiment, it is important to reduce the number of
possible variables (differences). In this experiment, those variables
may include factors such as differences in the subjects’ sex, weight,
and previous illnesses. Therefore, the investigators randomly di-
vide a large group of volunteers equally into experimental groups.
The hope is that any differences will be distributed evenly among
the three groups. The larger the number of volunteers (the sample
size), the greater the chance of reducing the influence of external
variables. This is why many medical studies involve thousands
of individuals.
 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 13

State Hypothesis:
Antibiotic B is a better treatment for
ulcers than antibiotic A.
After the investigators have determined that all volunteers do
have ulcers, they will want the subjects to think they are all receiv-
ing the same treatment. This is an additional way to protect the
results from any influence other than the medication. To achieve
this end, the subjects in the control group can receive a placebo, a
treatment that appears to be the same as that administered to the
other two groups but that actually contains no medication. In this
study, the use of a placebo would help ensure that all subjects are
equally dedicated to the study.

The Results and Conclusion

After 2 weeks of administering the same amount of medication (or
placebo) in the same way, researchers examine the stomach and
Perform Experiment: intestinal linings of each subject to determine if ulcers are still
Groups were treated the same
except as noted. present. Endoscopy is one way to examine a patient for the pres-
ence of ulcers. This procedure, which is performed under sedation,
involves inserting an endoscope—a small, flexible tube with a tiny
camera on the end—down the throat and into the stomach and the
upper part of the intestine. Then, the doctor can see the lining of
these organs and can check for ulcers. Tests performed during an
endoscopy can also determine if Helicobacter pylori is present.
Control group: Test group 1: Test group 2: Because endoscopy is somewhat subjective, it is probably best
received received received if the examiner is not aware of which group the subject is in; oth-
placebo antibiotic A antibiotic B erwise, examiner prejudice may influence the examination. When
neither the patient nor the technician is aware of the specific treat-
Analyze the Data: ment, it is called a double-blind study.
Graph the data to analyze for
statistical differences.
In this study, the investigators may decide to determine the
effectiveness of the medication by the percentage of people who
a. Experimental design no longer have ulcers. So, if 20 people out of 100 still have ulcers,
Effectiveness of Treatment
the medication is 80% effective. The difference in effectiveness is
100 easily read in the graph portion of Figure 1.10b.
80 Conclusion: On the basis of their data, the investigators conclude
that their hypothesis has been supported.
% Treated

60

40 80
60
20 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.3
10
0 1. Describe each step of the scientific method.
Control Test Test 2. Explain why a controlled study is an important part of the
Group Group 1 Group 2
experimental design.
b. Experimental data
3. List a few pros and cons of using a scientific journal
Figure 1.10 Example of a controlled study. versus other sources of information.
a. The experimental design of the controlled study. b. The experimental 4. Summarize how the use of graphs and statistics aids in
data displayed as a graph showing that medication B was a more data analysis.
effective treatment than medication A for the treatment of ulcers.
(students, all photos): René Mansi/E+/Getty Images

C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S

In this experiment, the researchers divide the individuals into
three groups:
Control group: Subjects with ulcers are not treated with either
antibiotic.
Test group 1: Subjects with ulcers are treated with antibiotic A.
Test group 2: Subjects with ulcers are treated with antibiotic B.
For more information on the topics presented in this section, refer
to the following discussions:
Section 8.4 discusses how resistance to antibiotics occurs.
Section 9.3 provides more information on ulcers.
Figure 14.4 shows the relationship between an action
potential and voltage across a plasma membrane.

ISTUDY
 14 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

B I O L O G Y T O D AY ► Science
Discovering the Cause of Ulcers
In 1974, Barry James Marshall (Fig. 1B) was a young resident
physician at Queen Elizabeth II Medical Center in Perth, Australia.
There he saw many patients who had bleeding stomach ulcers. A
pathologist at the hospital, Dr. J. Robin Warren, told him about
finding a particular bacterium, now called Helicobacter pylori,
near the site of peptic ulcers. Marshall compiled data showing a
possible correlation between the presence of H. pylori and the
occurrence of both gastritis (inflammation of the stomach) and
stomach ulcers. On the basis of these data, Marshall formulated a 16,000×
hypothesis: H. pylori is the cause of gastritis and ulcers.
Marshall decided to make use of Koch’s postulates, the stan- Helicobacter pylori
dard criteria that must be fulfilled to show that a pathogen (bacte-
rium or virus) causes a disease:
Figure 1B The cause of stomach ulcers.
Research by Dr. Barry Marshall showed that stomach ulcers (left) are
∙ The suspected pathogen (virus or bacterium) must be present often caused by Helicobacter pylori (right).
in every case of the disease. (ulcer): Dr. E. Walker/Science Source; (H. pylori): Heather Davies/Science Photo
Library/Science Source
∙ The pathogen must be isolated from the host and grown in a
lab dish.
∙ The disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of the
pathogen is inoculated into a healthy susceptible host.
∙ The same pathogen must be recovered again from the experi- symptoms abated without need for medication, and they never
mentally infected host. developed an ulcer. Marshall challenged the scientific community
to refute his hypothesis. Many tried, but ultimately the investigators
By 1983, Marshall had fulfilled the first and second of Koch’s cri-
supported his findings.
teria. He was able to isolate H. pylori from patients with ulcers and
In science, many experiments, often involving a considerable
grow it in the laboratory. Despite Marshall’s presentation of these
number of subjects, are required before a conclusion can be
findings to the scientific community, most physicians continued to
reached. By the early 1990s, at least three independent studies in-
believe that stomach acidity and stress were the causes of stomach
volving hundreds of patients had been published showing that anti-
ulcers. In those days, patients were usually advised to make drastic
biotic therapy can eliminate H. pylori from the intestinal tract and
changes in their lifestyle to cure their ulcers. Many scientists
cure patients of ulcers wherever they occurred in the tract.
believed that no bacterium would be able to survive the normal
Dr. Marshall and Dr. Warren received a Nobel Prize in
acidity of the stomach.
Physiology or Medicine in 2005. The Nobel committee reportedly
Marshall had a problem in fulfilling the third and fourth of
thanked Marshall and Warren for their “pioneering discovery,”
Koch’s criteria. He had been unable to infect guinea pigs and rats
stating that peptic ulcer disease now could be cured with antibiot-
with the bacteria, because the bacteria did not flourish in the intes-
ics and acid-secretion inhibitors rather than becoming a “chronic,
tinal tracts of those animals. Marshall was not able to use human
frequently disabling condition.”
subjects because of ethical reasons. Marshall was so determined to
support his hypothesis that in 1985 he decided to perform the ex-
periment on himself! To the disbelief of those in the lab that day,
he and another volunteer swallowed a foul-smelling, foul-tasting Questions to Consider
solution of H. pylori. Within the week, they felt lousy and were 1. Explain how Marshall’s approach was similar to, and different
vomiting up their stomach contents. Examination by endoscopy from, the scientific method shown in Figure 1.7.
showed that their stomachs were now inflamed, and biopsies of the 2. How could Marshall have done this experiment if he had an
stomach lining contained the suspected bacterium (Fig. 1B). Their animal model to work with?

ISTUDY

1.4 Science and the Challenges
Facing Society
LE AR N I N G OUTCO M E S
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Distinguish between science and technology.
2. Summarize some of the major challenges facing science.
As we have learned in this chapter, science is a systematic way of
acquiring knowledge about the natural world. Science is a slightly
different endeavor than technology. Technology is the application
of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans. Scientific
investigations are the basis for the majority of our technological
advances. As is often the case, a new technology, such as your cell
phone or a new drug, is based on years of scientific investigations.
In this section, we are going to explore some of the challenges
facing science, technology, and society.
Climate Change
The overwhelming consensus within the scientific community
is that the single greatest challenge facing science and society,
and the greatest threat to both humans and the environment, is
climate change. The term climate change refers to changes in
the normal cycles of the Earth’s climate that may be attributed
to human activity. Climate change is primarily due to an imbal-
ance in the chemical cycling of the element carbon. Normally,
carbon is cycled within an ecosystem (see Section 24.3). How-
ever, due to human activities, more carbon dioxide is being
released into the atmosphere than is being removed. In 1850,
atmospheric CO2 was at about 280 parts per million (ppm).
Today, it is over 415 ppm (Fig. 1.11). This increase is largely
due to the burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of forests
to make way for farmland and pastures. The amount of carbon
dioxide released into the atmosphere today is about twice the
415
410
CO2 (parts per million)
405
400
395
390
385
380
2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Year
Figure 1.11 Increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.
The global average carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration now exceeds 415 ppm and is
the major contributing factor to climate change and global warming.
NOAA, “Global Climate Change: Facts.” http://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/carbon-dioxide/.
ISTUDY
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 15
amount that remains in the atmosphere. It is believed that most
of this dissolves in the oceans, which are increasing in acidity.
The increased amount of carbon dioxide (and other gases) in the
atmosphere is causing a rise in temperature called global warming.
These gases allow the sun’s rays to pass through them, but they
then absorb and radiate heat back to Earth, a phenomenon called
the greenhouse effect.
There is a consensus among scientists from around the globe
that climate change and global warming are causing significant
changes in many of the Earth’s ecosystems and represent one of
the greatest challenges of our time. Throughout this text, we will
return to see how climate change is impacting humans, from the
loss of biodiversity to increases in the rates of certain types of
human disease. We will examine climate change in more detail in
Chapters 24 and 25.
Biodiversity and Habitat Loss
The term biodiversity represents the total number and relative
abundance of species, the variability of their genes, and the dif-
ferent ecosystems in which they live. The biodiversity of our
planet has been estimated to be around 8.7 million species (not
counting bacteria), and so far, approximately 2.3 million have
been identified and named. Extinction is the death of a species
or larger classification category. It is estimated that presently we
are losing hundreds of species every year due to human activities
and that as much as 27% of all identified species, including most
primates, birds, and amphibians, may be in danger of extinction
before the end of the century. In many cases, these extinctions are
accelerated by a combination of habitat loss and climate change
(Fig. 1.12). Many biologists are alarmed about the present rate of
extinction and hypothesize it may eventually rival the rates of the
five mass extinctions that occurred during our planet’s history.
The last mass extinction, about 65 million years ago, caused
many plant and animal species, including the dinosaurs, to
become extinct.
The two most biologically diverse ecosystems—
tropical rain forests and coral reefs—are home to
many organisms. These ecosystems are also threat-
ened by human activities. The canopy of the tropical
rain forest alone supports a variety of organisms, in-
cluding orchids, insects, and monkeys. Coral reefs,
which are found just offshore of the continents and
islands near the equator, are built up from calcium
carbonate skeletons of sea animals called corals.
Reefs provide a habitat for many animals, including
jellyfish, sponges, snails, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles,
moray eels, and some of the world’s most colorful
fishes. Like tropical rain forests, coral reefs are se-
2018 2020 verely threatened as the human population increases
in size. Some reefs are 50 million years old, yet in just
a few decades, human activities have destroyed an es-
timated 25% of all coral reefs and seriously degraded
another 30%. At this rate, nearly three-quarters could
be destroyed within 40 years. Similar statistics are
available for tropical rain forests.
 16 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science
Figure 1.12 Loss of Biodiversity.
Of the 111 known species of lemurs, all of which are found on the
island of Madagascar, 105 are classified as endangered or threatened
by extinction.
Gudkov Andrey/Shutterstock
The destruction of healthy ecosystems has many unintended
effects. For example, we depend on them for food, medicines, and
various raw materials. Draining of the natural wetlands of the
Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and the construction of levees have
worsened flooding problems, making once-fertile farmland unde-
sirable. The destruction of South American rain forests has killed
many species that may have yielded the next miracle drug and has
decreased the availability of many types of lumber. We are only
now beginning to realize that we depend on ecosystems even more
for the services they provide. Just as chemical cycling occurs
within a single ecosystem, so all ecosystems keep chemicals
cycling throughout the biosphere. The workings of ecosystems
ensure that the environmental conditions of the biosphere are suit-
able for the continued existence of humans. In fact, several studies
show that ecosystems cannot function properly unless they remain
biologically diverse. We will explore the concept of biodiversity in
greater detail in later chapters of this text.
Emerging and Reemerging Diseases
Over the past decade, avian influenza (H5N1 and H7N9), swine
flu (H1N1), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle
East respiratory syndrome (MERS) have been in the news.
In 2020, a global pandemic called COVID-19 was caused by a
new form of SARS virus named SARS-CoV-2. These are called
emerging diseases because they are relatively new to humans.
ISTUDY
Where do emerging diseases come from? Some of them may
result from new and/or increased exposure to animals or insect
populations that act as vectors for disease. Changes in human be-
havior and use of technology can also result in new diseases. For
example, Legionnaires’ disease emerged in 1976 due to bacterial
contamination of a large air-conditioning system in a hotel. The
bacteria thrived in the cooling tower used as the water source for
the air-conditioning system. SARS is thought to have arisen in
Guandong, China, due to the consumption of civets, a type of ex-
otic cat considered a delicacy. The civets were possibly infected
by exposure to horseshoe bats sold in open markets. While the
source of SARS-CoV-2 is still being investigated, it is also thought
to have resulted from human contact with, or consumption of,
horseshoe bats.
In addition, globalization results in the transport all over the
world of diseases previously restricted to isolated communities.
The first SARS-CoV-2 cases were reported in Wuhan, China,
in November 2019. By the end of March 2020, SARS-CoV-2, and
the respiratory illness it caused, COVID-19, had spread globally
and was found in every country and continent, except Antarctica,
on the globe. As of this writing in 2021, COVID-19 had infected
over 210 million people worldwide and resulted in over 4.4 million
deaths.
Some pathogens mutate and change hosts, jumping from birds
to humans, for example. Before 1997, avian flu was thought to
affect only birds. A mutated strain jumped to humans in the 1997
outbreak. To control that epidemic, officials killed 1.5 million
chickens to remove the source of the virus. New forms of avian
influenza (bird flu) are being discovered every few years. As
mentioned, the SARS-CoV-2 virus is believed to have jumped to
humans from horseshoe bats, but other species, such as pangolins,
may have been involved.
Reemerging diseases are also a concern. Unlike an emerg-
ing disease, a reemerging disease has been known to cause dis-
ease in humans for some time, but generally has not been
considered a health risk due to a relatively low level of inci-
dence in human populations. Even so, reemerging diseases can
cause problems. One example is the Ebola outbreak in West
Africa of 2014–2015. Ebola outbreaks have been known since
1976, but have generally affected only small groups of humans.
The 2014–2015 outbreak was a much larger event. Although the
exact numbers may never be known, it is estimated that over
28,000 people were infected, with over 11,000 fatalities.
Smaller outbreaks occurred in Africa in 2016 and 2018. These
outbreaks have the potential to disrupt the societies of several
West African nations.
As we are learning from COVID-19, both emerging and
reemerging diseases have the potential to cause global health prob-
lems for humans, as well as disrupt economies and the structure of
human societies. Scientists investigate not only the causes of these
diseases (for example, the viruses) but also their effects on our
bodies and the mechanisms by which they are transmitted. We will
take a closer look at pathogens, such as viruses, in Section 8.1, and
emerging diseases in Section 8.2.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.4
1. Explain how a new technology differs from a scientific
discovery.
2. Explain why the conservation of biodiversity is important
to human society.
3. Summarize how emerging diseases and climate change
have the potential to influence the entire human population.
C O N C L U S I O N
I n the beginning of this chapter, we introduced the importance of
diversity to science. Throughout this chapter, you have explored
some of the basic characteristics of life as we currently under-
stand it, the processes by which science is performed, and the
SUMMARIZE
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
Biology is the study of life. All living organisms share common
characteristics:
∙ They have levels of organization—atoms, molecules, cells, tissues,
organs, organ systems, organisms, species, populations,
community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
∙ They acquire materials and energy from the environment. Metabolism
is the sum of the reactions involved in these processes. Photosynthesis,
which occurs in organisms such as plants, is responsible for producing
the organic molecules that serve as food for most organisms.
∙ They reproduce and experience growth, and in many cases
development. The instructions for these processes are contained
within the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and are organized as
genes. Mutations cause variations of those instructions.
∙ They maintain an internal environment, called homeostasis, that
operates within a narrow range of environmental factors.
∙ They respond to stimuli.
∙ As species, they are influenced by natural selection as the process that
results in evolution and adaptation to their environment over time.
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals
The classification of living organisms mirrors their evolutionary relation-
ships. Humans are animals that belong to the animal kingdom of the
domain Eukarya. Other kingdoms include the plants, protists, and
fungi. A new classification, called a supergroup, is being developed to
describe evolutionary relationships based on DNA analyses.
In addition to their evolutionary history, humans have a cultural
heritage in which language, tool use, values, and information are passed
on from one generation to the next.
Like all life, humans are members of the biosphere. Humans depend
on the biosphere for its many services, such as absorption of pollutants,
sources of water and food, prevention of soil erosion, and natural beauty.
ISTUDY
Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science 17
C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S
For more information on these challenges facing human society,
refer to the following discussions:
Section 8.3 provides additional information on emerging and
reemerging diseases.
Section 24.3 examines the impact of climate change and
global warming on ecosystems.
Section 25.3 explores the importance of preserving
biodiversity.
importance of science in addressing the needs of society. The
diversity of backgrounds, opinions, and ideas that comes from a di-
verse scientific community will play an important role in making the
study of biology relevant, and important, to all of human society.
1.3 Science as a Process
When studying the natural world, scientists use a process called the
scientific method.
∙ Observations, along with previous data, are used to formulate a
hypothesis. Inductive reasoning allows a scientist to combine
facts into a hypothesis.
∙ New observations and/or experiments are carried out in order to test
the hypothesis. Through deductive reasoning, scientists can develop
a prediction of what may occur as a result of the experiment. A
good experimental design includes an experimental variable and a
control group. Scientists may use models and model organisms in
their experimental design.
∙ The data from the experimental and observational results are analyzed,
often using statistical methods. The results are often presented in tables
or graphs for ease of interpretation.
∙ A conclusion is made as to whether the results support the hypothesis
or do not support the hypothesis.
∙ The results may be submitted to a scientific publication for review
by the scientific community.
∙ Over time, multiple conclusions in a particular area may allow
scientists to arrive at a theory (or principle or law), such as the cell
theory or the theory of evolution. The theory of evolution is a
unifying concept of biology.
1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing Society
While science investigates the principles of the natural world, technology
applies this knowledge to the needs of society. Some challenges that
scientists are investigating include:
∙ The impact of climate change and global warming.
∙ The loss of biodiversity and habitats such as coral reefs and rain
forests. This often results in the extinction of species.
∙ Emerging diseases, such as avian influenza and SARS, and
reemerging diseases, such as Ebola.
 18 Chapter 1 Exploring Life and Science

ENGAGE THINKING CRITICALLY

1. Explain how climate change and loss of biodiversity may produce
BioNOW health threats for humans. Give an example of how scientists have
already documented instances where this is occurring.
Want to know how this science is relevant to your life? Check out the
2. You are a scientist working at a pharmaceutical company and have
BioNOW video below:
developed a new cancer medication that has the potential for use in
∙ Characteristics of Life humans. Outline a series of experiments, including the use of a
model, to test whether the cancer medication works.
3. Scientists have been exploring the possibility of life on other planets
and moons of our solar system. If life is found to exist outside of
Earth, will that change our definition of the basic characteristics
of life? Will it change our definition of a biosphere?

McGraw Hill
Which step of the scientific method was represented in this video?
How was it accomplished and which steps would follow?
MAKING IT RELEVANT
1. Why is it important for the scientific community to be diverse to
address the needs facing society due to climate change?
2. How might a diverse scientific community be able to better address
the loss of biodiversity at a local level?
3. Emerging diseases often occur in rural areas of the globe, where
scientific education is minimal. What are some ways a diverse and
global community of scientists can help reduce the risk of these
diseases becoming a problem?
Find answers to all of the chapter questions at connect.mheducation.com

ISTUDY
 UNIT 1 Human Organization

C H A P T E R

2
Chemistry of Life
Jeff Mondragon/Alamy Stock Photo

Ocean Acidification CHAPTER OUTLINE

2.1 From Atoms to Molecules
If you take a look at our planet from space, you will quickly notice we
2.2 Water and Life
live on a water planet. In fact, not only is 71% of our planet’s surface
covered by water, but the physiology of every organism on the planet is 2.3 Molecules of Life
based on water. While we historically have taken water for granted, the 2.4 Carbohydrates
impact of climate change is beginning to increase our awareness of the 2.5 Lipids
importance of this resource on the health of many species, including 2.6 Proteins
our own. 2.7 Nucleic Acids
The primary cause of climate change is the release of carbon
dioxide (CO2) gas into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil
fuels by humans. Not only does that CO2 contribute to global warming, BEFORE YOU BEGIN
it also dissolves very easily in water, forming carbonic acid. In the Before beginning this chapter, take a few moments
oceans of the world, the presence of carbonic acid increases the acidity to review the following discussions:
of the aquatic environment. Section 1.1 What are the basic characteristics of all
So why is this important? The increase in acidity decreases the living organisms?
amount of another compound, called carbonate, in the oceans. Figure 1.2 What is the difference between an
Carbonate plays an important role in the formation of shells of organ- atom and a molecule?
isms, such as crabs, lobsters, and clams. As the ocean acidifies, these
organisms have a harder time forming shells and other hard structures.
Marine biologists have already noticed a decline not only in the amount
of carbonate in shellfish, but also their overall abundance in the ocean’s
ecosystem. Because these organisms are an important part of the food
chain, the loss of carbonate has a ripple effect that ultimately affects
humans.
In this chapter, we will explore the importance of water to life as we
know it, as well as the atoms responsible for making up the compounds
of life.
As you read through the chapter, think about the following questions:
1. What elements are common in all living organisms?
2. Why is water so important to life?
3. What is the difference between an acid and a base?

ISTUDY
 20 Unit 1 Human Organization

2.1 From Atoms to Molecules I

1 atomic number
VIII
2
1 H atomic symbol atomic mass He
LE AR N I N G OUTCO M E S
1.008 II III IV V VI VII 4.003
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Distinguish between atoms and elements. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Describe the structure of an atom. 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

Periods
3. Define isotope and summarize its application in both 6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
medicine and biology.
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
4. Distinguish between ionic and covalent bonds.
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter can
exist in a number of forms, including as a solid, gas, liquid, or 19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
plasma. Not only are humans composed of matter, but so is the 4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
food we eat, the water we drink, and the air we breathe. 39.10 40.08 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.60

Elements Groups

An element is one of the basic building blocks of matter, and can-
not be broken down by chemical means. Considering the variety of
living and nonliving organisms in the world, it’s remarkable there
are only 98 naturally occurring elements, although some of these
exist in only very small quantities. It is even more surprising that
over 90% of the human body is composed of just 4 elements:
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. Even so, other elements,
such as iron, are important to our health. If our diet is deficient in
iron, then our bodies cannot manufacture a protein called hemo-
globin, which serves as an important molecule in the transporta-
tion of oxygen (another element) to our cells.
Each element has a name and a symbol. For example, carbon
has been assigned the atomic symbol C, and iron has been assigned
the symbol Fe. Some of the symbols we use for elements are
derived from Latin. For example, the symbol for sodium is Na
because natrium, in Latin, means “sodium.” Likewise, the symbol
for iron is Fe because ferrum means “iron.”
Chemists arrange the elements in a periodic table, so named
because all the elements in a column show periodicity, meaning
that all the elements in each column behave similarly during
chemical reactions (Fig. 2.1). For example, all the elements in
B I O LO GY I N YO U R LI F E
You are made of old stars
We are all familiar with elements. Iron, sodium, oxygen, and
carbon are all common terms in our lives, but where do
elements originate from?
Normal chemical reactions do not produce elements. The
majority of the heavier elements, such as iron, are produced
only by the intense chemical reactions within stars. When these
stars reach the end of their lives, they explode, producing su-
pernovas. Supernovas scatter the heavier elements into space,
where they are eventually involved in the formation of planets.
The iron within your blood was formed by the explosions of
stars. The astronomer Neil deGrasse Tyson once stated, “After
all, what nobler thought can one cherish than that the universe
lives within us all?”
Figure 2.1 A portion of the periodic table of elements.
The number on the top of each square is the atomic number, which
increases from left to right. The letter symbols represent the elements;
some are abbreviations of Greek or Latin names. Below the symbol is
the value for the atomic mass. A complete periodic table can be found
in Appendix.
column VII (7) undergo the same types of chemical reactions, for
reasons we will soon explore. A portion of the periodic table is
shown in Figure 2.1. A complete table is available in Appendix.
Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains the
chemical and physical properties of the element. The same name is
given to the element and the atoms of the element. Though it is pos-
sible to split an atom, it is the smallest unit to enter into chemical
reactions. Physicists have identified a number of subatomic particles
that make up atoms. The three best-known subatomic particles are
positively charged protons, uncharged neutrons, and negatively
charged electrons. Protons and neutrons are located within the nu-
cleus of an atom, and electrons move about the nucleus. Figure 2.2
shows the arrangement of the subatomic particles of some common
elements. In Figure 2.2, the circle around the nucleus of the atom
represents an electron shell, which represents the average location
of electrons. Notice that most of an atom is empty space. If we could
draw an atom the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be
like a gumball in the center of the field, and the electrons would be
tiny specks whirling about in the upper stands.
The Periodic Table
Atoms have not only an atomic symbol but also an atomic number
and mass number. The atomic number represents the number of
protons in the nucleus of an element. All atoms of an element have
the same number of protons housed in the nucleus.
Each atom also has its own mass number, dependent on the
number of subatomic particles in that atom. Protons and neutrons
are assigned one atomic mass unit (AMU) each. Electrons are

ISTUDY
 Chapter 2 Chemistry of Life 21

various types of energy in the form of rays and subatomic parti-

Subatomic Particles
cles; therefore, it is a radioisotope.
Atomic Mass Unit Our understanding of radioactivity largely stems from the
1p Particle Charge (AMU)
work of Marie Curie, who not only coined the term, but also con-
Proton +1 1 tributed much to its study (see the Diversity in Science feature
hydrogen
Neutron 0 1
“The Legacy of Marie Curie”). Today, biologists use radiation to
H date objects from our distant past, create images, treat diseases,
Electron –1 0 and trace the movement of substances in the body. As we will see
next, the radiation given off by radioisotopes can be detected in
various ways.

6p 7p 8p
6n 7n 8n Low Levels of Radiation
The importance of chemistry to biology and medicine is nowhere
more evident than in the many uses of radioisotopes. A radioisotope
carbon nitrogen oxygen behaves the same chemically as the stable isotopes of an element.
C N O This means you can put a small amount of radioisotope in a sample
Figure 2.2 The atomic structure of select elements. and it becomes a tracer by which to detect molecular changes.
Notice that the protons (p) and neutrons (n) are located in the nucleus, Specific tracers are used in imaging the body’s organs and
while the electrons (blue dots) are found in shells around the nucleus. tissues and can be used to diagnose the presence of tumors. For
example, after a solution containing a minute amount of iodine 131
(Fig. 2.2). Therefore, the mass number of an atom represents the is swallowed by a patient, it becomes concentrated in the thyroid,
sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. which uses iodine to make the hormone thyroxine. After the thy-
By convention, when an atom stands alone (and not in the roid has had some time to accumulate the iodine 131, an image may
periodic table, discussed next), the atomic number is written as a indicate whether it is healthy in structure and function (Fig. 2.3a).
subscript to the lower left of the atomic symbol. The mass number
is written as a superscript to the upper left of the atomic symbol.
Regardless of position, the smaller number is always the atomic
number, as shown here for carbon:

12
6C
mass number
atomic symbol missing
atomic number portion
of organ larynx

The atoms shown in the periodic table (see Fig. 2.1) are as-
thyroid gland
sumed to be electrically neutral. Therefore, the atomic number
tells you not only the number of protons but also the number of trachea
electrons. The atomic mass (the number below the atomic symbol a.
on the periodic table) is the average of the AMU for all the isotopes
(discussed next) of that atom. To determine the number of neu-
trons, subtract the number of protons from the atomic mass, and
take the closest whole number.

6 atomic number
C atomic symbol
12.01 atomic mass

Isotopes
Isotopes of an atom have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. Therefore, they have the same atomic number
but their mass numbers are different. For example, the element
carbon 12 (12C) has six neutrons, carbon 13 (13C) has seven neutrons,
and carbon 14 (14C) has eight neutrons, but all three have six protons.
You can determine the number of neutrons for an isotope by sub-
tracting the atomic number (see Fig. 2.1) from the mass number.
Unlike the other two isotopes of carbon, carbon 14 is unstable
and breaks down over time. As carbon 14 decays, it releases
b.
Figure 2.3 Medical uses for low-level radiation.
a. The missing area (indicated by the circle) in this thyroid scan
indicates the presence of a tumor that does not take up radioactive
iodine. b. A PET (positron-emission tomography) scan reveals which
portions of the brain are most active (red surrounded by light green).
(photos) (a): Southern Illinois University/Science Source; (b, PET scan): Photo
Researchers/Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo; (b, patient): Courtesy of
National Institutes of Health

ISTUDY
 22 Unit 1 Human Organization
B I O L O G Y T O D AY ► Diversity in Science
The Legacy of Marie Curie
Like many people, you may not have a favorable view of the word
radioactivity. Yet, modern society relies heavily on the concept of
radioactivity to provide us with electricity, safe food supplies, and
the benefits of modern medicine. Our comprehension of biology is
also dependent on the use of radioactivity to understand the inner
workings of a cell, variations in genes, and how organisms and
ecosystems process nutrients and energy.
Our understanding of radioactivity is largely based on the
work of Marie Curie, a Polish scientist of the late nineteenth and
early twentieth century (Fig. 2A). Yet her story, like the story of so
many female scientists, was also one defined by overcoming barri-
ers to her sex. Her life and research not only turned science on its
head, but proved to those of her era that a woman could be just as
brilliant and accomplished—if not more so—than her male peers,
at a time when many women were not even permitted to study at a
university.
Early in her career, the discovery
of radioactivity by French scientist
Henri Becquerel inspired Curie and
her husband to study the phenomenon
of radiation in their own lab. Working
in cramped and often poorly ventilated
conditions, they discovered that cer-
tain minerals containing uranium
were, in fact, emitting far more radia-
tion than they should have been. The
two believed that this hinted at a new
element, which Curie named polo-
nium after her home country of
Poland. Not five months later, Curie
found an even more radioactive ele-
ment than polonium, which she called
radium.
Curie’s research did more than
discover new elements, she also pro-
posed a new theory of radiation: that
the “rays” emitted by elements such as Figure 2A Marie Curie.
uranium and polonium were the prod- Marie Curie was one of the early pioneers in the
uct of interactions within the atom it- discovery of radioactivity.
self. This challenged the then-widely Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo
Another example is in the use of positron-emission tomography
(PET) to determine the comparative activity of tissues. Radioac-
tively labeled glucose, which emits a subatomic particle known as
a positron, can be injected into the body. The radiation given off is
detected by sensors and analyzed by a computer. The result is a
color image that shows which tissues took up glucose and are meta-
bolically active (red areas in Fig. 2.3b). A PET scan of the brain can
help diagnose a brain tumor, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy and
can determine whether a stroke has occurred.
ISTUDY
accepted belief in the atom as the smallest particle in physics,
opening the door to future atomic research. She even coined a
name for these elements: “radio-active.”
Curie’s research on radiation was immediately recognized as
one of the greatest discoveries of its time. But when Curie was sug-
gested for the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, her name was nearly
passed over in favor of her husband. Because he was a man, some
members of the committee attributed Curie’s work to her husband
instead, given that a woman had never been granted a Nobel Prize
before. In the end—and in part due to intensive lobbying on her
behalf by her husband—Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics, alongside her husband and Henri Becquerel in 1903,
becoming the first woman in history to achieve the Nobel Prize.
Not ten years later, in 1911, she received a second Nobel, this
time in chemistry and wholly in her own name, making her the first
person, or any gender, to win two
Nobel Prizes.
Curie’s research into radiation
would go on to have several real-world
applications still employed today. The
use of radiation for medicine would go
on to save lives in WW1, when “petit
Curies”—mobile X-ray carriages—
treated Allied soldiers on the Western
Front. Today, modern medical radio-
therapy used to combat cancer and
tumors, originates from Curie’s
research, while her theories that chal-
lenged the indivisible nature of the
atom would inspire future atomic sci-
entists, giving way to nuclear power,
as well as, less benevolently, the atomic
bomb.
As we remember Curie’s contribu-
tions, we must also recognize that her
accomplishments were made in spite
of the gender barriers placed against
her—barriers still faced by women and
underrepresented populations in the
sciences, over 110 years later.
High Levels of Radiation
Radioactive substances in the environment can harm cells, damage
DNA, and cause cancer. The release of radioactive particles fol-
lowing a nuclear power plant accident, such as occurred at the
Japanese Fukushima nuclear plant in 2011, can have far-reaching
and long-lasting effects on human health.
However, the effects of radiation can also be put to good use.
Radiation from radioisotopes has been used for many years to kill
 Chapter 2 Chemistry of Life 23

Increasingly, the technology is being used to increase the safety of

our food supply. By using specific types of radiation, food can be
sterilized without irradiating or damaging the food. Radiation can
be used to ensure public safety against bacterial infection. It is used
to sterilize the U.S. mail and other packages to free them of possi-
ble pathogens, such as anthrax spores.
The ability of radiation to kill cells is often applied to cancer
cells. Radioisotopes can be introduced into the body in a way that
allows radiation to destroy only cancer cells, with little risk to the
rest of the body (Fig. 2.4). Another form of high-energy radiation,
X-rays, can be used for medical diagnosis and cancer therapy.

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms often bond with one another to form a chemical unit called
a molecule. A molecule can contain atoms of the same type, as
when an oxygen atom joins with another oxygen atom to form oxy-
gen gas. Or the atoms can be different, as when an oxygen atom
joins with two hydrogen atoms to form water. When the atoms are
different, a compound is formed. Two types of bonds join atoms:
ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
Ionic Bonding
Atoms with more than one shell are most stable when the outer
shell, also called the valence shell, contains eight electrons.
Figure 2.4 Using radiation to treat cancer.
Physicians can use radiation therapy to kill cancer cells.
Mark Kostich/E+/Getty Images
During an ionic reaction, atoms give up or take on an electron or
electrons to achieve a stable valence shell.
Figure 2.5 depicts a reaction between a sodium (Na) atom and
a chlorine (Cl) atom. Sodium, with one electron in the valence
shell, reacts with a single chlorine atom. Why? Once the reaction

Na Cl

sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl)

+ – Na+ Cl–

Na Cl

sodium ion (Na+) chloride ion (Cl– )

sodium chloride (NaCl)

a. b.

Figure 2.5 Formation of an ionic bond.

a. During the formation of sodium chloride, an electron is transferred from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom. At the completion of the reaction,
each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, but each also carries a charge as shown. b. In a sodium chloride crystal, ionic bonding between
Na+ and Cl− causes the ions to form a three-dimensional lattice configuration, in which each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each
chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions.
(photos) (b, salt crystals): Evelyn Jo Johnson/McGraw Hill; (b, salt shaker): PM Images/Photodisc/Getty Images

ISTUDY
 24 Unit 1 Human Organization

1p 1p

8p
8n +
8p 1p
8n
1p

oxygen 2 hydrogen water

O 2H H2O
a. When an oxygen and two hydrogen atoms covalently bond, water results.
Figure 2.6 Covalent bonds.
Covalent bonds allow atoms to fill their valence
shells by sharing electrons. Because the electrons
8p 8p 8p 8p are being shared, it is necessary to count the
8n + 8n 8n 8n electrons in the outer shell as belonging to both
bonded atoms. Hydrogen is most stable with two
electrons in the valence shell; oxygen is most
oxygen oxygen oxygen gas stable with eight electrons in the valence shell.
O O O2 Therefore, the molecular formula for water is
b. When two oxygen atoms covalently bond, oxygen gas results. (a) H2O, and for oxygen gas it is (b) O2.

is finished and sodium loses one electron to chlorine, sodium’s
valence shell will have eight electrons. Similarly, a chlorine atom,
which has seven electrons already, needs to acquire only one more
electron to have a stable valence shell.
Ions are particles that carry either a positive (+) or a negative
(−) charge. For example, when the reaction between sodium and
chlorine is complete, the sodium ion carries a positive charge be-
cause it now has one less electron than protons, and the chloride
ion carries a negative charge because it now has one more electron
than protons:
Sodium Ion (Na+) Chloride Ion (Cl−)
11 protons (+) 17 protons (+)
10 electrons (−) 18 electrons (−)
One (+) charge One (−) charge
The attraction between oppositely charged sodium ions and
chloride ions forms an ionic bond. Sodium is a soft metal that re-
acts violently when placed in water, and chlorine is a toxic gas.
However, the resulting compound, sodium chloride (NaCl), com-
monly known as table salt, has neither of these properties and is
used to enhance the taste of our food. As you can see, the transfer
of a single electron had a tremendous influence on the chemical
properties of these elements.
In contrast to sodium, why would calcium, with two electrons
in the outer shell, react with two chlorine atoms? Whereas calcium
needs to lose two electrons, each chlorine, with seven electrons
already, requires only one more electron to have a stable valence
shell. The resulting salt (CaCl2) is called calcium chloride. If you
live in a northern climate, you are familiar with the use of calcium
chloride as a de-icer.
The balance of various ions in the body is important to our
health. Too much sodium in the blood can contribute to high blood
pressure. Calcium deficiency leads to rickets (a bowing of the legs)
in children. Too much or too little potassium results in heartbeat
irregularities and can be fatal. Bicarbonate, hydrogen, and hydrox-
ide ions are all involved in maintaining the acid-base balance of the
body (see Section 2.2).
Covalent Bonding
Atoms share electrons in covalent bonds. The overlapping,
outermost shells in Figure 2.6 indicate that the atoms are sharing
electrons. Just as two hands participate in a handshake, each atom
contributes one electron to the shared pair. These electrons spend
part of their time in the valence shell of each atom; therefore, they
are counted as belonging to both bonded atoms.
Double and Triple Bonds Besides a single bond, in which
atoms share only a pair of electrons, a double or a triple bond can
form. In a double bond, atoms share two pairs of electrons; in a
triple bond, atoms share three pairs of electrons. For example, in
Figure 2.6b, each oxygen atom (O) requires two more electrons to
achieve a total of eight electrons in the valence shell. Four elec-
trons are placed in the outer, overlapping shells in the diagram.
Structural and Molecular Formulas Covalent bonds can be
represented in a number of ways. In contrast to the diagrams in
Figure 2.6, structural formulas use straight lines to show the cova-
lent bonds between the atoms. Each line represents a pair of shared
electrons. Molecular formulas indicate only the number of each type
of atom making up a molecule. Here are some examples of each:
Structural formula: H—O—H, O O
Molecular formula: H2O, O2

ISTUDY
 Chapter 2 Chemistry of Life 25

What are the structural and molecular formulas for carbon

dioxide? Carbon, with four electrons in the valence shell, requires Electron Model Space-Filling Model
four more electrons to complete its outer shell. Each oxygen, with
six electrons in the valence shell, needs only two electrons to Oxygen attracts the shared
electrons and is partially negative.
complete its outer shell. Therefore, carbon shares two pairs of
δ–
electrons with each oxygen atom, and the formulas are as follows:
O
O

Structural formula: O C O H H
H H δ+ δ+
Molecular formula: CO2
Hydrogens are partially positive.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.1 a. Water (H2O)

1. List the number of electrons, neutrons, and protons in an

atom of magnesium (Mg; see Fig. 2.1).
2. Determine the number of neutrons found in the isotopes
of oxygen 16O and 18O (see Fig. 2.1).
3. Explain the beneficial uses of radioisotopes.
δ+
4. Summarize the differences between ionic and covalent H
bonds, and give an example of each. H
O δ+
δ–
C O N N E C TI N G TH E C O N C E P T S hydrogen
bond
The study of biology has a firm foundation in chemistry. To
see this relationship in more detail, refer to the following
discussions:
Section 3.3 describes how cells move ions across plasma
membranes.
Section 11.3 explains how our urinary system uses ions to b. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules
maintain homeostasis.
Figure 2.7 Hydrogen bonds and water molecules.
a. Two models for the structure of water. The diagram on the left shows
the sharing of electrons between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The
2.2 Water and Life diagram on the right illustrates that water is a polar molecule because
electrons are not equally shared. Electrons move closer to oxygen,
LE AR N I N G OUTCO M E S creating a partial negative charge δ–, whereas hydrogen has a partial
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to positive charge δ+. b. The partial charges allow hydrogen bonds
(dotted lines) to form temporarily between water molecules.
1. Describe the properties of water.
2. Explain the role of hydrogen bonds in the properties of water.
3. Summarize the structure of the pH scale and the
importance of buffers to biological systems.
Hydrogen Bonds
A hydrogen bond is the attraction of a slightly positive, covalently
bonded hydrogen to a slightly negative atom in the vicinity. These
Water is the most abundant molecule in living organisms, usually
usually occur between a hydrogen and either an oxygen or a nitro-
making up about 60–70% of the total body weight. Furthermore,
gen atom. A hydrogen bond is represented by a dotted line because
the physical and chemical properties of water make life as we
it is relatively weak and can be broken rather easily.
know it possible.
In Figure 2.7b, you can see that each hydrogen atom, being
In water molecules, the electrons spend more time circling the
slightly positive, bonds to the slightly negative oxygen atom of
oxygen (O) atom than the hydrogens, because oxygen has a greater
another water molecule.
ability to attract electrons than do the hydrogen (H) atoms. The
negatively charged electrons are closer to the oxygen atom, so the
oxygen atom becomes slightly negative. In turn, the hydrogens are Properties of Water
slightly positive. Therefore, water is a polar molecule; the oxygen The first cell(s) evolved in water, and all living organisms are
end of the molecule has a slight negative charge (δ−), while the 70–90% water. Because of hydrogen bonding, water molecules
hydrogen end has a slight positive charge (δ+). The structure of a cling together, and this association gives water its unique chemi-
water molecule is shown in Figure 2.7a. cal properties. Without hydrogen bonding between molecules,

ISTUDY
 26 Unit 1 Human Organization

water would freeze at −100°C and boil at −91°C, making most of
the water on Earth steam and life unlikely. Hydrogen bonding is
responsible for water being a liquid at temperatures typically
found on the Earth’s surface. It freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C
(see Appendix). These and other unique properties of water
make it essential to the existence of life as we know it. When sci-
entists examine other planets with the hope of finding life, they
often first look for signs of water.
Water Has a High Heat Capacity A calorie is the amount of
heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of water
1°C. In comparison, other covalently bonded liquids require input
of only about half this amount of energy to rise 1°C in temperature.
The many hydrogen bonds that link water molecules together help
water absorb heat without a great change in temperature. Convert-
ing 1 g of the coldest liquid water to ice requires the loss of
80 calories of heat energy (Fig. 2.8a). Water holds on to its heat,
and its temperature falls more slowly than that of other liquids.
Because the temperature of water rises and falls slowly, we are
better able to maintain our normal internal temperature and are
protected from rapid temperature changes.
Water Has a High Heat of Evaporation When water boils, it
evaporates—that is, it vaporizes into the environment. Converting
1 g of the hottest water to a gas requires an input of 540 calories
of energy. Water has a high heat of evaporation, because hydrogen
bonds must be broken before water boils. Water’s high heat of
vaporization gives our bodies an efficient way to release excess
body heat in a hot environment. When we sweat or get splashed
with water, body heat is used to vaporize the water, thus cooling
us (Fig. 2.8b). Because of water’s high heat of vaporization and
its ability to hold on to its heat, temperatures along the coasts are
moderate. During the summer, the ocean absorbs and stores solar
heat, and during the winter, the ocean releases it slowly. In con-
trast, the interior regions of continents experience abrupt changes
in temperatures.
Water Is a Solvent Due to its polarity, water facilitates chemi-
cal reactions, both outside and within living systems. As a solvent,
it dissolves a great number of substances, especially those that, like
water, are polar. A solution contains dissolved substances, which
are then called solutes. When ionic compounds—for example,
sodium chloride (NaCl)—are put into water, the negative ends
of the water molecules are attracted to the sodium ions, and the
positive ends of the water molecules are attracted to the chloride
ions. This attraction causes the sodium ions and the chloride ions
to separate, or dissociate, in water.

800
Gas

600
Calories of Heat Energy/g

540
calories
400

200
Liquid

80
Solid calories
0

freezing occurs evaporation occurs

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C)

a. Calories lost when 1 g of liquid water freezes, and calories required when b. Water’s high heat of evaporation is useful for
1 g of liquid water evaporates. cooling the body.

Figure 2.8 Temperature and water.

a. The high heat capacity of water resists a change from a liquid to a gaseous state. If water were a gas at a lower temperature, life could not exist.
b. Body heat vaporizes sweat. In this way, bodies cool when the temperature rises.
(b): Clerkenwell/Getty Images

ISTUDY

δ–
O
δ+ H H δ+
H H
O
δ– δ+
The salt NaCl
dissolves in water.
Na+ Cl–
H H H H
O O
O H
H H
Molecules that can attract water are said to be hydrophilic.
When ions and molecules disperse in water, they move about and
collide, allowing reactions to occur. Molecules that cannot attract
water are said to be hydrophobic. Hydrophilic molecules tend to
attract other polar molecules. Similarly, hydrophobic substances
usually associate with other nonpolar molecules. As we will see
in Section 2.3, many oils, such as vegetable oils, are nonpolar,
and therefore hydrophobic. This is why oil does not mix well
with water.
Water Molecules Are Cohesive and Adhesive Cohesion
refers to the ability of water molecules to cling to each other. This
is due to the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. At any mo-
ment in time, a water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with at
most four other water molecules. Because of cohesion, water exists
as a liquid under the conditions of temperature and pressure pres-
ent at the Earth’s surface. The strong cohesion of water molecules
is apparent, because water flows freely, yet water molecules do not
separate from each other.
B I O LO GY I N YO U R LI F E
The cohesion of water allows you to breathe
Every time you take a breath, you are experiencing the cohesive
property of water. How? Because in your chest (thoracic) cavity,
a thin film of water coats both the surface of the lungs and the
inner chest wall. As our rib cage expands during inhalation,
cohesion allows the lungs to stick to the chest wall, allowing
them to open so we can breathe.
Adhesion refers to the ability of water molecules to cling to a
surface. Because water is polar, it is attracted to other polar sur-
faces. Many animals, including humans, contain internal vessels in
which water assists in the transport of nutrients and wastes, be-
cause the cohesion and adhesion of water allows blood to fill the
tubular vessels of the cardiovascular system. For example, the liq-
uid portion of our blood, which transports dissolved and suspended
substances about the body, is 92% water. The water in our blood
assists in the transport of nutrients and oxygen to our cells and in
the removal of waste material from the cells.
Frozen Water Is Less Dense than Liquid Water As liquid
water cools, the molecules come closer together. Water is most dense
at 4°C, but the water molecules are still moving about (Fig. 2.9). At
temperatures below 4°C, only vibrational movement occurs, and
ISTUDY
Chapter 2 Chemistry of Life 27
ice lattice
δ+
liquid water
1.0
Density (g/cm3)
H O
0.9
0 4 100
Temperature (°C)
Figure 2.9 Frozen water is less dense than liquid water.
Ice is less dense than water because the hydrogen bonds in ice are
farther apart than the hydrogen bonds of liquid water.
hydrogen bonding becomes more rigid but also more open. This
means that water expands as it reaches 0°C and freezes, which is
why cans of soda burst when placed in a freezer and why frost heaves
make northern roads bumpy in the winter. It also means that ice is
less dense than liquid water, and therefore ice floats on liquid water.
This property of water plays an important role in many aquatic
ecosystems. If ice did not float on water, it would sink to the bot-
tom, and ponds, lakes, and perhaps even the ocean would freeze
solid, making life impossible in the water, as well as on land.
Instead, bodies of water always freeze from the top down. When a
body of water freezes on the surface, the ice acts as an insulator
to prevent the water below it from freezing. This allows aquatic
organisms to survive the winter. As ice melts in the spring, it draws
heat from the environment, helping prevent a sudden change in
temperature that might be harmful to life.
Acids and Bases
When water molecules dissociate (break up), they release an equal
number of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−):
H O H H+ + OH–
water hydrogen hydroxide
ion ion
Only a few water molecules at a time dissociate, and the actual
number of H+ or OH− is 10−7 moles/liter. A mole is a unit of sci-
entific measurement for atoms, ions, and molecules.
Acidic Solutions (High H + Concentrations)
Lemon juice, vinegar, tomatoes, and coffee are all acidic solutions.
What do they have in common? Acids are substances that dissociate
in water, releasing hydrogen ions (H+). The acidity of a substance
 28 Unit 1 Human Organization

depends on how fully it dissociates in water. For example, an impor-

tant inorganic acid is hydrochloric acid (HCl), which dissociates in H + Ion
the following manner: Concentration pH Value Examples
10 0 0 hydrochloric acid
+ − 10 –1 1
HCl ⟶ H + Cl
10 –2 2 stomach acid, lemon juice

acidic
10 –3 3 vinegar, cola, beer
If hydrochloric acid is added to a beaker of water, the number of 10 –4 4 tomatoes
hydrogen ions (H+) increases greatly. In our bodies, hydrochloric 10 –5 5 black coffee
acid is produced by the stomach and aids in food digestion. 10 –6 6 urine
10 –7 7 pure water
Basic Solutions (Low H + Concentrations) 10 –8 8 seawater
10 –9 9 baking soda
Milk of magnesia and ammonia are commonly known basic sub-
10 –10 10 Great Salt Lake
stances. Bases are substances that either take up hydrogen ions

basic
10 –11 11 household ammonia
(H+) or release hydroxide ions (OH−). For example, an important
10 –12 12
base is sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which dissociates almost household bleach
10 –13 13
completely in the following manner: 10 –14 14 sodium hydroxide

NaOH ⟶ Na+ + OH−

If sodium hydroxide is added to a beaker of water, the number of
hydroxide ions increases. Sodium hydroxide (also called lye) is
contained in many drain-cleaning products.
Some acids and bases are strong, meaning they donate a large
number of H+ or OH− ions. You should not taste strong acids or
bases, because they are destructive to cells. Many household
cleansers, such as ammonia or bleach, have poison symbols and
carry an important warning not to ingest the product.
pH Scale
The pH scale is used to indicate the acidity or basicity (alkalin-
ity) of a solution. The pH scale (Fig. 2.10) ranges from 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 represents a neutral state in which the hydrogen ion
and hydroxide ion concentrations are equal. A pH below 7 is an
acidic solution, because the hydrogen ion concentration is greater
than the hydroxide concentration. A pH above 7 is basic, because
the [OH−] is greater than the [H+]. Further, as we move down the
pH scale from pH 14 to pH 0, each unit is 10 times more acidic
than the previous unit.1 As we move up the scale from 0 to 14,
each unit is 10 times more basic than the previous unit. There-
fore, pH 5 is 100 times more acidic than pH 7 and 100 times
more basic than pH 3.
The pH scale was devised to eliminate the use of cumbersome
numbers. For example, the possible hydrogen ion concentrations
of a solution are on the left of this listing and the pH is on the
right:
Figure 2.10 The pH scale.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic and
14 being the most basic. A solution at pH 7 (neutral pH) has equal
amounts of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−). An acidic pH
has more H+ than OH− and a basic pH has more OH− than H+. The pH
of familiar solutions can be seen on the scale.
Buffers
From organisms to ecosystems, pH needs to be maintained within
a narrow range to prevent negative consequences. Normally, pH
stability is possible because the body and the environment have
buffers to prevent pH changes. Buffers help keep the pH within
normal limits, because they are chemicals or combinations of
chemicals that take up excess hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxide ions
(OH−). For example, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is a weak acid that
minimally dissociates and then re-forms in the following manner:
+
H2CO3 re-forms H+ HCO3–
carbonic hydrogen bicarbonate
acid dissociates ion ion
The pH of our blood when we are healthy is always about
7.4—just slightly basic (alkaline). Blood always contains a combi-
nation of some carbonic acid and some bicarbonate ions. When hy-
drogen ions (H+) are added to blood, the following reaction occurs:
H+ + HC​​O​ −3​ ​​⟶ H2CO3

[H+] pH When hydroxide ions (OH−) are added to blood, this reaction
(moles per liter)
occurs:
0.000001 = 1 × 10–6 6
0.0000001 = 1 × 10–7 7
0.00000001 = 1 × 10–8 8 OH− + H2CO3 ⟶ HC​​O​ −3​ ​​+ H2O

1
pH is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]. These reactions prevent any significant change in blood pH.

ISTUDY
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
lasciandolo libero di venire o non venire, di troncare o no ogni
rapporto con lei?
L’ora della lezione fu, come sempre, un’ora di tregua, di pace pel
nostro Teofoli. In quell’Università ch’era il suo regno, in quelle aule
rese domestiche dalla lunga consuetudine, davanti alle faccie allegre
di quegli studenti che, pur cambiando ogni anno, conservavano
un’aria di famiglia, egli non dimenticava già le sue pene, ma gli
pareva che il carico ne fosse men grave.
L’agitazione ricominciò appena egli fu di nuovo all’aperto, e andò
crescendo di mano in mano ch’egli si avvicinava a casa. Era già
presso al portone quando sentì qualcheduno che lo rincorreva e una
voce che non gli era ignota lo chiamò replicatamente: — Professore,
professore.
Era il cameriere della contessa Serlati.
— Ho questo biglietto per lei, — egli disse. — Non c’è risposta.
Fece un inchino e tirò innanzi.
Bianco come un cadavere, con le gambe che gli traballavano, Teofoli
s’appoggiò allo stipite della porta, e aperse con mano tremante il
biglietto sulla cui soprascritta aveva riconosciuto la calligrafia della
contessa.
Poche parole. “Ieri avete certo pranzato male e digerito peggio. Una
ragione di più perchè veniate oggi a desinare con noi alle sette. Non
si accettano scuse di nessuna specie e il mio servo ha l’ordine di
non star nemmeno ad aspettar la risposta. Arrivederci. Giorgina.„
In fondo, con queste poche righe la contessa Serlati non solo
schivava ogni spiegazione immediata, ma non lasciava intravedere
nessuna probabilità di spiegazioni future. Alle sfuriate di Teofoli ella
dava incirca quel peso che suol darsi alle bizzarrie d’un bambino che
si rabbonisce coi trastulli e coi dolci. Se il professore fosse stato
davvero sollecito della propria dignità come pretendeva di essere,
non avrebbe accettato l’invito. Ma egli era un innamorato e gli
innamorati trovano sempre argomenti efficacissimi per giustificare la
loro vigliaccheria. Prima ancora di fare i quindici o venti scalini che
mettevano al suo quartierino, egli aveva vinti tutti i suoi dubbi,
ribattute tutte le sue obbiezioni. Non andar dai Serlati sarebbe stata
una sconvenienza senza nome, sarebbe stato anche un
imperdonabile errore. Era precisamente coll’andarvi che si poteva
presentar l’opportunità d’un colloquio intimo con la Giorgina, la quale
del resto faceva prova d’una grande equanimità non prendendo in
mala parte le parole risentite del professore, e continuando a
trattarlo come un amico.

XI.

Fu una serata deliziosa, ma poco propizia ai colloqui intimi. A pranzo

non erano che in quattro persone, i due padroni di casa, il professore
Teofoli e un erudito francese, membro dell’Istituto, un Monsieur de la
Rue Blanche, che la Giorgina aveva conosciuto a Parigi. La
contessa fu amabilissima; presentò Teofoli all’accademico francese
come uno dei pensatori più illustri d’Italia e nello stesso tempo come
un intimo suo, accennò alla grande opera ch’egli aveva in lavoro,
dolendosi solo che l’operosità del suo amico non fosse pari al suo
ingegno e alla sua dottrina, e pronosticando a quell’opera, quando
fosse compiuta, un successo colossale. Ne parlava con un calore
scevro di affettazione, quasi d’una cosa in cui ella avesse parte,
quasi d’una gloria che dovesse gettare un riflesso sopra di lei. E
aveva realmente l’aria di persona appassionata pegli studi; non si
sarebbe mai detto ch’ella era la medesima donna che rideva agli
scherzi scipiti di Montalto e d’altri balordi simili. Teofoli e Monsieur de
la Rue Blanche erano in estasi; soltanto Seriati frenava a stento gli
sbadigli. Quando non si discorreva di cavalli e di cocottes egli
sbadigliava sempre.
Monsieur de la Rue Blanche era un uomo di mezza età e di buon
aspetto, e quantunque fosse un erudito era un uomo di spirito. Fu lui
che portò pel primo nella conversazione una nota mondana
chiedendo so fosse vero che Mister e Mistress Gilbert pei quali egli
aveva una lettera di raccomandazione dovessero dare una gran
festa da ballo.
— Sicuro! — rispose la Serlati. — Consegnerà la lettera e andrà alla
festa anche lei.
— Parbleu! — esclamò Monsieur de la Rue Blanche confessando
che andava pazzo per le feste da ballo, ciò che parve alquanto
strano al nostro Teofoli.
— Però.... una festa in costume.... — notò timidamente il professore.
Ma prima che il francese potesse dire se questa clausola creasse
per lui un ostacolo insuperabile, la contessa Giorgina intervenne con
vivacità. — Il costume non è più obbligatorio. I Gilbert hanno
risoluto.... un po’ per mio suggerimento, — ella soggiunse
rivolgendosi con un sorriso a Teofoli, — di ammettere in semplice
abito nero gli uomini di più di quarant’anni.... Tutto sta confessare i
quarant’anni.... Il professore li confessa?
— Sfido io.... A ogni modo....
La Serlati non badò a quell’ogni modo gravido di restrizioni, e con
uno sguardo interrogativo all’altro commensale: — E Monsieur de la
Rue Bianche...?
Monsieur de la Rue Bianche trovava che questa degli anni è una
faccenda delicata per tutt’e due i sessi; ma già, seppur avesse
giurato sul suo onore di non aver compiuto i quaranta, nessuno gli
avrebbe creduto.... Comunque sia, anche riconoscendo i suoi
quarantacinqu’anni sonati, se fosse stato a Parigi egli non avrebbe
avuto una difficoltà al mondo di cercarsi un costume; fuori di paese
era cosa diversa, ed egli accettava di buon grado la concessione dei
signori Gilbert. Sarebbe andato in abito nero. Non dubitava che il
suo cher confrère avrebbe fatto altrettanto.
Ma il cher confrère era molto perplesso. Non aveva frequentate le
feste nemmen da giovine; o che doveva cominciare alla sua età?
— Che età? Che età? — saltò su il francese. — Per lui non c’erano
uomini vecchi; c’erano tutt’al più uomini malati. E il cher confrère
stava bene; dunque...? Monsieur de la Rue Bianche, riscaldato un
poco dall’eccellente vino dei Serlati, si accinse a magnificare le
splendide veglie parigine a cui assistono senza vergognarsi
personaggi gravi e maturi, trovandovi, in mancanza di meglio, un
spectacle pour les yeux.... Et quel spectacle!... Ci vorrebbe altro che
si dovesse far penitenza appena cominciano a brizzolarsi i capelli.
Il buon umore di Monsieur de la Rue scosse dal suo intorpidimento
anche il conte Ercole che di Parigi si ricordava molte bellissime cose
e ne discorse con grande competenza abbassando la voce nei punti
scabrosi ed espandendosi col dotto forestiero.
Intanto la contessa Giorgina catechizzava Teofoli. Quella sua
ripugnanza ad andar dai Serlati era veramente incomprensibile.
Valeva la spesa ch’ella si sbracciasse a ottener dai Gilbert una
modificazione al loro programma! E l’aveva ottenuta pensando a lui,
proprio a lui, per togliergli la sola scusa che gli fosse lecito addurre
con qualche apparenza di ragione.... La bella figura ch’egli le
avrebbe fatto far coi Gilbert se si ostinava nel suo rifiuto!
Teofoli era sulle spine. Avrebbe voluto compiacer la contessa alla
quale era riconoscente dal fondo dell’anima della nuova prova di
benevolenza ch’ella gli dava. Ma, Dio buono! Che parte poteva
essergli riserbata in una festa? Se avesse ballato, se fosse stato in
grado di chiedere una quadriglia, un lancier alla persona che sapeva
lui.... allora sì. Invece quella persona egli l’avrebbe appena vista,
avrebbe appena potuto dirle una parola....
La contessa si mise a ridere. — Via, via.... Quella persona, che forse
io conosco, non vi offre una quadriglia, un lancier, dal momento che
non ballate.... Ma si farà accompagnare da voi al buffet.... un
privilegio che molti v’invidieranno.
Era una sirena, una vera sirena quella Giorgina. Come resisterle?
Teofoli sollevava ancora qualche lieve obbiezione, tanto per la
forma, ma si capiva bene che ormai si dava per vinto. Se almeno la
sua mansuetudine gli avesse valso dalla contessa una franca
spiegazione sull’argomento che più gli stava a cuore! Sembrava
però ch’ella neanche si ricordasse d’aver ricevuto da lui una lettera
meno docile, meno sommessa del consueto. A un cenno ch’egli
gliene fece con infinita circospezione, ella gli chiuse la bocca con
una risata e una scrollatina di spalle. — Siete un visionario, — ella
disse. E fu tutto.
Alle nove ella si accommiatò da’ suoi ospiti, dovendo vestirsi pel
teatro, e Monsieur de la Rue Bianche uscì insieme col professore
Teofoli al quale egli mostrava una simpatia straordinaria. E presolo a
braccetto si fece accompagnare da lui per le vie della città
parlandogli poco di studi e molto di femmine e chiedendogli una
serie di notizie che il candido professore non era in grado di fornirgli.
Anzi il linguaggio cinico assunto dall’accademico francese circa al
bel sesso frenò sulle labbra del buon Teofoli le espansioni e le
confidenze a cui forse, come ogni innamorato, egli sarebbe stato
disposto. No, non avrebbe tradito il suo sentimento con un uomo che
nell’amore non vedeva altro che un passatempo e riassumeva in
qualche frase brutale le sue massime sulla linea di condotta da
tenersi con le donne. — De l’audace, de l’audace, et toujours de
l’audace, — egli diceva battendo forte sulla spalla del suo
interlocutore. — C’est le mot de Danton.
Quel benedetto Monsieur de la Rue Bianche non si decideva più a
tornare all’albergo. E dopo non so quanti giri e rigiri, attratto
dall’illuminazione d’una birreria posta sulla piazza maggiore della
città, egli insistè per entrarvi. Ora quella era appunto la birreria ove
una volta il professore soleva recarsi tre o quattro sere per
settimana, e proprio di fronte alla porta d’ingresso Teofoli si trovò
faccia a faccia con Frusti e Dalla Volpe che sedevano soli soletti ad
un tavolino. Non potè a meno di salutarli e di presentar loro
Monsieur de la Rue Bianche, che Dalla Volpe specialmente avrebbe
dovuto conoscer di nome perchè s’occupava di studi analoghi ai
suoi. Ma tra i due professori e il dotto confrère c’era troppa diversità
d’indole perchè il colloquio riuscisse animato, e Frusti e Dalla Volpe,
limitandosi a scambiar poche parole col forestiero, preferirono di
vuotare il sacco degli epigrammi contro il collega. Il più esacerbato
era Dalla Volpe che aveva sullo stomaco una quantità di pranzi di
magro ammannitigli dalla consorte. E tirò in campo la festa dei
Gilbert alla quale aveva sentito dire che Teofoli fosse invitato. Era
vero?
Verissimo.
E ci sarebbe andato?
Probabile.
— E in che costume? — seguitò Dalla Volpe.
Teofoli avrebbe potuto rispondere che sarebbe andato in abito nero,
ma non volle abbassarsi a troppe spiegazioni. — Si vedrà, — egli
disse seccamente.
— Allora, — ripigliò Dalla Volpe, — scommetto ch’è vero anche
questo: che comparirai da Zefiro....
— E che ballerai un passo di grazia con la contessa Serlati —
soggiunse Frusti.
Il professore replicò con mal garbo, e chi sa che battibecco sarebbe
successo se la presenza d’un estraneo non avesse servito di freno.
Però Teofoli e Monsieur de la Rue Blanche non istettero molto ad
accommiatarsi. Il francese esternò subito la sua antipatia pei due
istrici che l’altro gli aveva fatto conoscere e svolse le sue idee sulla
necessaria inferiorità di quelli che sfuggono le donne. Beninteso qu’il
ne faut pas nager dans l’azur; bisogna andar subito al concreto; se
no, guai.
Fra i sarcasmi di Dalla Volpe e di Frusti e le dottrine radicali di
Monsieur de la Rue Bianche, il professore tornò a casa che aveva la
testa come un cestone. E tutta la notte sognò le mot de Danton: de
l’audace, de l’audace, et toujours de l’audace. E, sempre in sogno,
fu audacissimo; tanto audace che la mattina, a ricordarsene, sentì
drizzarsi i capelli sulla fronte e salirsi le fiamme al viso.
 XII.

Comunque sia, in quei giorni, con la migliore volontà del mondo, il

professore Teofoli non avrebbe potuto essere audace altro che in
sogno. I preparativi pel ballo mascherato dei Gilbert assorbivano
tutte le facoltà e tutto il tempo delle signore eleganti di X; le virtuose
non badavano più alla loro famiglia, le peccatrici non badavano più
ai loro amanti, e quelle che, senza essere ancora cadute, avevano
voglia di gustare il frutto proibito, si riserbavano a stendervi la mano
in quaresima. Per ora conveniva pensare alla gran serata. Ed erano
abboccamenti misteriosi e misteriose corrispondenze con sarti e
vestiaristi del paese e di fuori, erano colloqui diplomatici in cui le
rivali si tasteggiavano a vicenda cercando strapparsi il geloso
segreto di un’acconciatura, del taglio d’un abito, del colore d’un
nastro. Si consultavano gli artisti, si sfogliavano le opere più riputate
sul costume antico e moderno dei vari popoli, si esaminavano
disegni e modelli, si applicava la celebre formola dell’Accademia del
Cimento: provando e riprovando.... ogni sorta di foggie. C’era poi da
combinare le coppie per le quadriglie, e anche questo grave
argomento era oggetto di lunghi e delicatissimi negoziati.
Le intenzioni della contessa rimasero per un pezzo avvolte in un
mistero impenetrabile. Finalmente si seppe ch’essa sarebbe
comparsa da Madama di Pompadour e che il suo cavaliere nella
quadriglia sarebbe stato il marchese Montalto in uniforme di
gentiluomo della Corte di Luigi XV.
Teofoli accolse la notizia con mediocre entusiasmo. La marchesa di
Pompadour, una favorita! Non c’era proprio di meglio da scegliere?
E con molte reticenze il professore fece intendere alla sua amica che
avrebbe preferito qualche cos’altro, qualche tipo immortalato dalla
poesia, reso sacro dalla sventura....
— Mio caro, — interruppe la Serlati, — la poesia e la sventura son
bellissime cose, ma in un ballo si bada a ben altro che a ciò.... Sarò
una marchesa di Pompadour adorabile, ve ne dò la mia parola
d’onore... senza esser per questo la favorita di nessun principe....
— O contessa cattiva, può attribuirmi un pensiero simile? Gli è ch’io
l’avrei vista così volentieri come Beatrice, come Laura, come Vittoria
Colonna....
— Per carità, Teofoli, lasciamole in pace queste illustri signore.
Beatrice una maestra di catechismo, Laura una smorfiosa, Vittoria
Colonna una pedante.... La mia marchesa di Pompadour almeno è
una donna, viziosa fin che vi piace, ma donna, piena di buon gusto,
d’eleganza, di spirito.... E poi ella vestiva bene, e quest’è
l’essenziale.... domandate l’opinione delle sarte sulle toilettes delle
vostre tre dame.
In complesso Teofoli non osava dirlo, ma più che la scelta del
costume lo infastidiva la scelta del cavaliere. Montalto? Sempre
Montalto? Perchè la Giorgina aveva accordato un tanto favore a
quello tra i suoi adoratori che gli dava più ombra?
Questa, pel professore, avrebbe dovuto essere un’ottima ragione per
riconfermarsi nella sua prima e savissima idea di non andare dai
Gilbert; ma in amore non vi sono ottime ragioni; vi sono degli istinti;
vi sono, come direbbero gli avvocati, delle forze irresistibili che ci
trascinano a fare precisamente il contrario di quello che sarebbe
richiesto dalla nostra quiete e dal nostro decoro.
Nè ormai c’era alcuno che avesse presa sull’animo del buon Teofoli,
che potesse trattenerlo sul pendìo sdrucciolevole nel quale egli era
avviato. Non aveva altra persona di famiglia che una sorella maritata
a Roma e con cui egli scambiava due lettere all’anno; sfuggiva gli
amici e in particolar modo gli Ermansi, Frusti, Dalla Volpe, e quando
non era all’Università, o nel suo studio, o dai Serlati, vedeva con
qualche frequenza il solo Monsieur de la Rue Bianche, che, senza
parlargli della contessa Giorgina, coltivava coi discorsi procaci le sue
recenti disposizioni erotiche e gl’intronava la testa col mot de
Danton: de l’audace, de l’audace et toujours de l’audace.
Si avvicinava intanto la sera del ballo e alla vigilia del memorabile
avvenimento la signora Pasqua vide giungere a casa due paia di
guanti gris perle, due paia di cravatte bianche e un abito nero
completo. Quest’abito nero fu quello che l’impressionò di più, perchè
il professore ne aveva uno, fatto da un anno in occasione d’una
cerimonia scolastica, e tuttora in buonissime condizioni, tantochè
egli se n’era servito anche nel corso dell’inverno per andare nelle
sue società.
Dopo la scena che il lettore ricorda, le relazioni tra la signora Pasqua
e il padrone erano quelle di due potenze che hanno richiamato gli
ambasciatori senza venire a una aperta rottura. Del licenziamento
non si parlava nè da una parte nè dall’altra; si dicevano soltanto le
cose indispensabili, e si dicevano col minor numero di parole
possibile.
Questa volta però la signora Pasqua non potè tacere.
— Scusi, — ella disse, — s’è dimenticato che ha un frac quasi
nuovo?
— Non ho dimenticato nulla, — rispose il professore, — ma quel frac
non va bene.
— Come? Non è più di moda?
— Già.... Non è più di moda, — replicò Teofoli per troncare il
discorso.
Ma la signora Pasqua insistette. — Un uomo come lei curarsi della
moda! — ella brontolò. E soggiunse: — Io poi le giuro che il vestito
vecchio è dell’identico taglio di questo che il sarto le ha fatto adesso
per mangiarle dei quattrini.... Anzi vado a prenderlo.... Vedrà co’ suoi
occhi.
— No, no, — ripigliò il professore ordinandole di fermarsi. — Volete
saperla la ragione di quel frac nuovo? L’altro era diventato troppo
largo e non c’era modo di stringerlo convenientemente....
Vi sono parole che illuminano.... La signora Pasqua guardò il
professore e riconobbe subito che il vecchio frac doveva realmente
essergli diventato assai largo. In fatti gli eran diventati larghi tutti i
vestiti dell’anno scorso.
— È vero, — ella disse a mezza voce. — È dimagrato.
— Meglio così.
La signora Pasqua tentennò la testa. — Mi permetta di non esser del
suo parere. Creda a me, questa vita non le conferisce. Benedetti
quei tempi che aveva i suoi metodi, i suoi sistemi fissi, e stava
solamente co’ suoi amici, e non pensava ad arricciarsi, a
profumarsi....
— Oh, ci siamo con le prediche....
— Le chiami prediche fin che vuole, i fatti son fatti.... Una volta
aveva appetito e c’era una soddisfazione d’amor proprio a prepararle
qualche cosa di buono; adesso non bada neanche a quel boccone
che mangia.... seppur lo mangia; una volta era sempre di umore
gaio, adesso ha mille pensieri pel capo....
— Insomma, basta....
— Basterà, basterà.... Ma creda pure che non parlo per interesse....
gli è che vorrei il suo bene.... perchè meriterebbe d’esser contento....
e mi fa una pena vedere invece....
— Via, via, — interruppe Teofoli, — vi ringrazio della vostra premura,
ma siate pur certa che non ho niente e che piuttosto d’ingrassare
son contento di divenir sottile come uno stecco.... In ogni caso il
carnevale è agli sgoccioli, e presto finiranno anche questi grandi
strapazzi.
— E, — domandò la signora Pasqua con una certa esitazione, — a
quel ballo ci va proprio?
— Sì che ci vado.... O credete che andare a un ballo sia come
andare alla guerra?
La signora Pasqua avrebbe aggiunto volentieri parecchie altre
considerazioni, ma desiderava di non far terminare con un diverbio il
primo colloquio amichevole che dopo un così lungo intervallo di
musoneria ell’aveva col suo padrone, e uscì lentamente,
borbottando: — Non son cose per lei.... Abbia pazienza, non son
cose per lei.
Quantunque un po’ maravigliato della singolare tolleranza da lui
usata in quell’occasione verso la sua donna di governo, il nostro
amico era costretto a riconoscere che la signora Pasqua era animata
dalle migliori intenzioni del mondo e ch’egli avrebbe trovato il suo
tornaconto a seguire i consigli di lei piuttosto che quelli di chi si
ostinava a distrarlo dai suoi studi e dalle sue abitudini. Ed era anche
persuaso che la sua salute non fosse quella d’una volta, nè si
guardava nello specchio senza riportarne un’impressione penosa. Il
dimagrimento era il meno; aveva le guancie terree e fioscie, le
labbra scolorite, gli occhi smorti; quell’aspetto insomma che rivela
l’amore, ma non dice se si tratti d’un amore troppo felice, o troppo
disgraziato. E poi non si sentiva bene; pativa di emicranie, di
vertigini, di palpitazioni di cuore, di spossatezza; non si sarebbe più
sognato, come un anno addietro, di camminare tre ore di fila. Messo
sull’avviso dalle parole della signora Pasqua, egli avvertì, il giorno
stesso della sua conversazione con lei, un’oppressione di respiro, un
insolito abbassamento di voce, un uggioso tintinnio negli orecchi.
Pur non volle consultare il medico nè correre il rischio di esser
sottoposto a una cura, obbligato al riposo, impedito d’intervenire al
ballo dei Gilbert. E l’intervenire a quel ballo era per lui un punto
d’onore, il mancarvi gli sarebbe parso una diserzione, una
pusillanimità; un darla vinta agli Ermansi, al Frusti, al Dalla Volpe,
alla signora Pasqua, un offrirsi per bersaglio ai loro epigrammi. Ma
questo non era il peggio. Il peggio era che gli sarebbe stato forza di
rinunziare ad accompagnare la Serlati al buffet, di rinunziare a
vederla in tutto lo splendore della sua bellezza e della sua eleganza.
L’avrebbe vista invece con la fantasia, cinta dai suoi vagheggini, a
braccio del suo Montalto, trascinata nel vortice delle danze, e la
visione tormentatrice l’avrebbe fatto ammalar davvero. No, no, sin
dopo la festa dei Gilbert egli non aveva il diritto di badare a’ suoi
piccoli acciacchi.
 XIII.

Quel sabato sera, l’ultimo sabato di carnovale, quantunque

nevicasse fitto e tirasse un vento impetuoso che spegneva i lampioni
alle cantonate, una folla tenuta indietro a fatica da due guardie
municipali s’accalcava dinanzi al palazzo dei Gilbert. Quella gente
venuta per curiosità non vedeva null’altro che le finestre illuminate
del primo piano, e le carrozze che a una a una infilavano il portone e
andavano a deporre il proprio carico a’ piedi della scala, nell’ampio
cortile coperto di vetri e adorno di piante e di fiori. Ma gli sguardi
profani non arrivavano fino all’ampio cortile, non penetravano nelle
chiuse carrozze, e solo di tratto in tratto qualcheduno che conosceva
il cocchiere, o i cavalli, o lo stemma, o il monogramma, susurrava al
vicino un nome che correva poi per tutte le bocche. E ogni nome
sonoro e ogni equipaggio di lusso provocava un bisbiglio
lunghissimo, mentre i pochi fiacres che portavano alla festa gl’invitati
di minor conto erano accolti da mormorii dispregiativi e da
sghignazzate. Tanto fascino conservano, in quest’epoca di vantata
democrazia, il blasone e la ricchezza! A quei poveri diavoli che
irrigiditi e fradici fino all’ossa stavano lì esposti all’intemperie a
godersi lo spettacolo del lusso altrui parevano degni di scherno i
modesti borghesi che si recavano al signorile ritrovo senza carrozza
propria e livrea.
Anche l’umile vettura che conduceva il nostro Teofoli destò l’ilarità
petulante di alcuni monelli, uno dei quali, gran frequentatore della
Corte d’Assise, gridò con voce stentorea: — Entra la Corte. — Non
si sa se offeso o lusingato dal paragone, il magro ronzino mise un
piede in fallo e fu a un pelo per cadere; le risate aumentarono, il
fiaccheraio tirò tre o quattro moccoli, e il professore, abbassando il
vetro della portiera e cacciando fuori la testa, domandò a due
riprese: — Che c’è? Che c’è?
Il cocchiere non si curò di rispondergli, ma fatto far giudizio al cavallo
con un paio di frustate entrò solennemente nell’atrio del palazzo.
Abbarbagliato dal fulgor dei lumi e dalla varietà dei colori, e intontito
dal brulichìo della gente che saliva lo scalone insieme con lui, il
celebre professore Teofoli si trovò, quasi senz’accorgersene, prima
nel guardaroba ove un servo gli levò di dosso la pelliccia e gli
consegnò una tessera, poi su nell’appartamento di fronte ai coniugi
Gilbert che nel severo costume dei contemporanei di Washington,
fondatori della libertà americana, ricevevano gli ospiti.
Ed essi ebbero anche per Teofoli una stretta di mano espansiva e
una parola gentile, ma non poterono prestare ascolto alla sua
risposta, costretti com’erano a badare ai sopravvenienti. Allora il
professore girando gli occhi intorno notò con rammarico che in
quella sala su trenta o quaranta uomini ce n’erano appena due o tre
che vestissero la prosaica marsina, nè una rapida corsa attraverso le
altre sale gli offrì argomento di conforto. Dappertutto l’abito nero
figurava come un’isola, e una brutta isola in mezzo all’Oceano e
quelli che lo indossavano avevano l’aria di vergognarsene. Persino
Monsieur de la Rue Blanche, all’ultimo momento, s’era deciso a
camuffarsi da dottore della Sorbona, in toga e parrucca, e Teofoli se
lo vide comparir dinanzi in questa foggia a braccio d’una dama del
primo impero, non giovine, non bella, ma d’un’opulenza di forme che
rispondeva ai gusti dell’erudito francese. Era una contessa Aginulfo
che Monsieur de la Rue Blanche aveva conosciuto tre sere addietro
dal console francese e con la quale egli sembrava disposto a
esperimentare il suo sistema de laudace, toujours de l’audace. In
fatti egli passò accanto al suo recente amico con piglio di
conquistatore e con un sorriso fatuo sul labbro che Teofoli interpretò
così: Tu languisci da mesi per una femmina che ti canzona; io in
pochi giorni farò capitolar la fortezza.
— Ah, una femmina che mi canzona, — pensava Teofoli. — Riderà
bene chi riderà ultimo. Se mi casca un’altra volta sotto le unghie, non
sarò mica tanto ingenuo....
Due compagni di sventura del professore, vale a dire due persone
che come lui erano in frac, gli vennero incontro sorridenti ed
espansivi. L’uno d’essi, il vecchio dottor Lumi, medico dei Gilbert,
pieno di decorazioni. — Anche lei, — gli disse, — anche lei ha
ottenuto la dispensa.... Sfido io.... noi uomini seri, noi uomini maturi,
metterci la maschera, via....
— Ci si trova però alquanto a disagio, — soggiunse l’altro signore, il
cavalier Forlier, consigliere di prefettura. — Siamo una minoranza
impercettibile.
— Per me, — riprese il dottor Luini, — me ne vado di qui a
un’oretta.... E lei, professore?
— Ma.... Non so.... Credo che mi tratterrò un poco di più....
Arrivederci. Voglio fare un giretto per le sale.
Era il secondo giretto che Teofoli faceva al solo ed unico scopo di
cercar la Serlati.
Ma la Serlati aveva sempre l’abitudine di arrivare fra le ultime. Del
resto, mancavano ancora parecchie fra le stelle della high life
cittadina.
Ciò non toglie che l’appartamento fosse ormai affollato e
presentasse uno spettacolo incantevole pel lusso degli addobbi, per
lo splendore dell’illuminazione, per lo scintillìo dei brillanti, per la
bellezza delle signore, pel largo contributo portato alla festa dai
costumi di tutti i luoghi e di tutti i tempi, dai capricci della fantasia,
dalle geniali evocazioni della letteratura e dell’arte. Qua un giovane e
colossale higlander scozzese che pareva uscito da uno dei romanzi
di Walter Scott dava il braccio a una fanciulla idealmente bella, miss
Gilbert, nipote dei padroni di casa, che nell’aspetto e nel vestire
riproduceva alla perfezione il tipo della soave Evangelina di
Longfellow,
 . . . . . . . in cerula gonnella,
E adorna il crin della normanna cuffia,
E le orecchie dei tremuli pendenti
Che, recati di Francia ai vecchi giorni,
Furon trasmessi poi di madre in figlia....

Più in là una Margherita biondissima, dimentica in quel momento di

Fausto, s’appoggiava con un certo abbandono a un mandarino
chinese, precedendo di pochi passi una Maria Antonietta, che
improvvida dell’avvenire, discorreva animatamente con un Enrico IV.
Nel vano di una finestra, un’altra tragica regina, Maria Stuarda,
civettava in lingua tedesca con un arabo dall’ampio e pittoresco
turbante, e un maresciallo Turenna, ritto davanti a una figlia di
Madama Angot, stava aspettando ch’ella avesse bevuto una
limonata per riprender dalle sue mani il bicchiere. E trovatori e
castellane del Medio Evo, e donne e cavalieri d’ogni età e d’ogni
paese, e bizzarre personificazioni di fiori e di piante, e albe rosee, e
notti stellate passavano e ripassavano, mentre dall’alto una musica
invisibile dava il segnale delle danze. Non si ballava però, o appena
cominciato a ballare si smetteva, tant’era la ressa della gente, tanta
la curiosità che tutti avevano di esaminarsi a vicenda.
Sulla mezzanotte, quasi contemporaneamente, arrivarono tre gruppi,
ciascuno di otto persone che furono ricevuti con grandi applausi.
L’uno di mugnai e mugnaie, era tutto composto di ragazze o di
giovinetti la cui avvenenza fresca e vivace poteva sfidare quel
costume semplicissimo e primitivo. Il secondo ed il terzo ci
trasportavano in pieno secolo decimottavo, all’epoca di Luigi XV.
Otto fra pastori e pastorelle scesi dai quadri del Watteau, e otto fra
gentildonne e gentiluomini della Corte frivola, arguta, elegante. In
quest’ultimo gruppo era la Serlati, da marchesa di Pompadour, e al
fianco di lei, lindo, attillato, con la mano sinistra sull’elsa dello
spadino, il suo Montalto. Che fascino c’era nella Serlati! E come i
suoi occhi sfavillavano sotto la parrucca incipriata! Ecco, ell’era
appena giunta che già tutti quanti gli sguardi si rivolgevano a lei e i
travestimenti meglio riusciti impallidivano al confronto del suo, e le
più superbe bellezze si vedevano per sua cagione disertate da una
parte dei loro adoratori! Ell’attraversava le sale senza imbarazzo e
senza spavalderia, non turbata, non esaltata dal fremito
d’ammirazione e di desideri che sollevava intorno a sè, ma con la
sicurezza calma e serena, ma con la facile indulgenza di chi non
teme rivali.
Quale ella paresse a Teofoli non c’è bisogno di dirlo. Tutti i
superlativi del vocabolario gli salivano al labbro ed egli susurrava fra
sè: — Stupenda, celeste, divina! — Però, quanto maggiore era il suo
entusiasmo, tanto più egli sentiva la follia della sua passione, tanto
più si maravigliava seco medesimo delle parole temerarie che aveva
poco innanzi masticato fra i denti, quasi per rispondere alla tacita
canzonatura di Monsieur de la Rue Blanche. Egli esser l’amante
della contessa Giorgina Serlati! Era possibile? Non era un segno
d’aberrazione il solo averlo supposto? Eppure.... eppure egli
l’amava, su questo punto non c’era dubbio, e l’amore, nato in lui così
tardi, aveva tutta la violenza degli amori giovanili.... Sarebbe stato
tanto felice di morire per lei. Anzi, poichè questa, ragionevolmente,
era la sola felicità a cui egli potesse aspirare, il suo pensiero vi si
riposava con una specie di voluttà dolorosa.... Morire.... morire....
Intanto egli era combattuto fra il desiderio di salutar la Giorgina e
quello di dileguarsi inavvertito, di fuggir mille miglia lontano da un
luogo ov’egli appariva assurdo, ridicolo agli occhi propri.
Ma ella che lo aveva scorto in mezzo alla gente e che non voleva
perdere i suoi omaggi (a lei premeva di raccogliere persino le
briciole) gli si avvicinò con quella affabilità che le accattivava gli
animi. — O Teofoli, bisogna dunque che vi venga incontro io.... E
avete voluto far a modo vostro.... venire in frac. V’era così facile
indossare una toga di professore.... Avete visto il vostro amico de la
Rue Blanche?.... Quei quindici o venti frac (non saranno mica di più)
sono i punti neri della festa e son quasi pentita d’aver interceduto io
per ottenere questa concessione dai padroni di casa.... Non importa,
mi accompagnerete ugualmente al buffet.... quando sarà l’ora della
cena.... Speravate forse di esimervi dal vostro impegno? Vi leggo in
viso io il vostro tradimento....
— Oh contessa....
— Sì, sì, mi negherete che avevate una mezza intenzione
d’andarvene?
— Ma.... — balbettò Teofoli, come uno scolaro côlto in fallo.
— Eh, — interpose con un sorrisetto il marchese di Montalto che
faceva da cavaliere alla contessa, — il signor professore non ha
l’abitudine di far così tardi....
— In quanto a questo, — replicò l’altro punto sul vivo, — non si dia
pensiero.... All’ora della cena sarò al mio posto.
— Bravo Teofoli, — esclamò la Serlati. — Ogni promessa è debito....
verrete a cercarmi nella sala da ballo.... Arrivederci.
E si confuse nella folla.
Era destino. Qualunque atto d’indipendenza egli volesse fare, ella
era pronta ad accorgersene, pronta a risaldar la catena che lo
avvinceva a lei.
S’era finalmente incominciato a ballare, e per quella selezione
naturale che avviene in queste occasioni gli uomini gravi e maturi si
trovavan separati dalla parte più giovine e vivace della società.
Il dottor Luini si riaccostò a Teofoli e lo prese pel braccio. — Venga
con me, professore, venga a bevere una tazza di tè; chè questo è il
vero momento di trovar la sala del buffet quasi vuota.
Teofoli si lasciò condurre, più che per la tazza di tè di cui non gli
premeva punto, per riconoscere la situazione. Non era qui infatti
ch’egli doveva accompagnare la contessa Giorgina?
Senza esser quasi vuota, come il dottor Luini aveva previsto, la sala
del buffet non era nemmeno affollata. La divideva nel senso della
sua larghezza una gran tavola ad arco dietro la parte rientrante della
quale stavano dodici camerieri in livrea; sulla tovaglia bianca di neve
erano disposti in bell’ordine vasi di fiori, trionfi di dolci, piramidi di
frutta, vassoi con ogni sorta di pasticceria, servizi di tè e di caffè,
ciotole da guazzi, gruppi di bottiglie, calici da sciampagna, bicchieri e
bicchierini di tutte le forme e misure. E pensare che il meglio
sarebbe venuto poi, quando dopo una mezz’oretta di preparazione, il
buffet dolce si sarebbe trasformato in buffet solido e i conoscitori
sarebbero stati chiamati a giudicar l’opera collettiva di tre cuochi
rivali pacificatisi per poco dinanzi alle medesime casseruole!
Nell’attesa del buffet solido, il professore Arnaldi, maestro d’italiano
di Miss Gilbert, faceva onore al buffet dolce, ed egli s’affrettò ad
illuminare il dottor Luini e il professor Teofoli sui meriti rispettivi delle
varie paste, delle frutta, dei vini ch’egli aveva assaggiati. Già aveva
assaggiato di tutto e poteva parlare con cognizione di causa. —
Tutto è eccellente, ma provino di questo, ma provino di quello. — E li
incoraggiava con l’esempio.
I camerieri sorridevano.
— Per mia moglie e per i miei figliuoli, — diceva il buon professore,
prendendo a manate le confetture e riempiendosene le tasche. — È
vero che si rischia di rimetterci il frac.... un frac.... quasi nuovo.... ma
come si fa?... la famiglia porta degli obblighi.
— Adesso poi per me.
E accennava a uno dei servi di mescergli ancora un bicchiere di
champagne frappé, un nettare. Era il decimo ch’egli beveva.
Luini e Teofoli, per sottrarsi a questa pericolosa vicinanza, si tirarono
al capo opposto della tavola, ove cinque o sei persone posate dei
due sessi sorseggiavano tranquillamente la loro tazza di tè e
discorrevano della festa. In fondo, in un angolo, un paggio toscano
del quattrocento sbucciava un mandarino per una walkiria pallida,
bionda, fantastica.
— Ecco l’età buona per questi divertimenti, — disse a voce bassa il
dottor Luini alludendo a quei due che parevano mangiarsi cogli
occhi. E soggiunse deponendo la chicchera sulla credenza: — Per
me ne ho d’avanzo.... Capisco che lei rimane, Teofoli.... È diventato
un discolo lei.... Buona notte.
— Vengo di là anch’io a dare una capatina nella sala da ballo.
— Non vuol perderne una, non vuole....
Il professore Arnaldi, un po’ allegro per lo sciampagna, gridò dietro a
Luini e a Teofoli: — Torneranno pel buffet solido, spero.... Ho saputo
delle cose, delle cose.... Ci sarà del salmone fresco.... E dei tartufi....
E del pasticcio di Strasburgo.... proprio genuino.... arrivato da
Strasburgo direttamente.
— Ma! — notò il dottore mentre usciva dalla sala in compagnia del
nostro Teofoli. — Quell’uomo lì, un galantuomo, un brav’uomo, ha
trovato un mezzo infallibile per farsi ridicolo.
Teofoli non rispose. Egli aveva il vago presentimento che ci fossero
altri mezzi non meno sicuri per raggiungere il medesimo fine.

XIV.

La sala da ballo, assai ampia e di forma regolare, pressochè

quadrata, era per tre delle sue pareti rivestita di grandi specchi che
moltiplicavano all’infinito le immagini, onde l’occhio si smarriva in
quello scintillìo di fiammelle, in quell’intrecciarsi turbinoso di coppie
che apparivano, si dileguavano, ricomparivano subitamente, ora di
qua ora di là, ora in forma concreta, e palpabile, ora come visioni
lontane e fantastiche. Del resto, con tanta folla, non si ballava che
dai più pertinaci, urtandosi di continuo coi gomiti, pestandosi i piedi
ad ogni momento, fra scuse e risatine brevi, e agitarsi di ventagli, ed
esclamazioni involontarie, e fruscìo di vesti, tutte cose che unite
insieme davano un rumore simile a quello dell’api che sciamano. Si
sarebbe detto che gli specchi rimandassero, oltre che le immagini, il
suono.
Il professore Teofoli aveva finito coll’appoggiarsi allo stipite d’un
uscio, adattandosi a ricever spintoni da quelli che s’ammontavano
dietro a lui per vedere, da quelli che uscivano, da quelli ch’entravano
e perfino dai servitori che portavano in giro i rinfreschi. Anzi uno
d’essi, dopo esser stato in procinto di rovesciare un vassoio per
colpa sua, brontolò con mala grazia: — Vogliamo star lì duri,
impalati. — Era singolare come quella sera tutti gli mancassero di
riguardo. Teofoli non aveva vanità, non aveva superbia, ma Dio
buono, egli aveva pure il convincimento di valer meglio di quattro
quinti della gente ch’era raccolta da Gilbert, era avvezzo a esser
trattato con rispetto, con deferenza. Quella sera invece non c’era un
bellimbusto che non lo squadrasse d’alto in basso con piglio di
superiorità. Anche i suoi conoscenti, gli stessi che usavano
largheggiar seco in dimostrazioni di stima, appena gli rivolgevano la
parola. Passi per la Ermansi che aveva ragioni plausibili di tenergli il
broncio e che aveva risposto con estremo sussiego al suo saluto.
Ma c’era alla festa una ventina di studenti universitari camuffati in
varie foggie, giovinotti che a scuola pendevano dalle sue labbra,
volevano essere illuminati da’ suoi consigli e dei quali non uno si
degnava adesso di fermarsi a fare un po’ di conversazione con lui. Il
meno villano, un paggio Fernando della Partita a scacchi, aveva
buttato lì distrattamente un — buona sera, professore, come sta? —
E detto ciò per incarico di coscienza l’aveva piantato in asso per
correr dietro a un’Ofelia con la quale aveva impegnato la seconda
quadriglia.
Il modo di barattar quattro chiacchiere il nostro professore l’avrebbe
trovato sicuramente nella stanza da fumare, rifugio ordinario dei
vecchi scapoli che hanno rinunziato alla galanteria, e dei mariti
filosofi rassegnati ai decreti della Provvidenza; senonchè, egli era
inchiodato a quel posto di dove gli era concesso di veder ogni tanto
la bella Serlati. La vedeva ora a braccio dell’uno, ora a braccio
dell’altro, ballando un giro con questo e con quello, ma nei balli
figurati avendo sempre per cavaliere quell’antipatico di Montalto. Poi,
fra un ballo e l’altro ella usciva per una delle quattro porte della sala,
passava talvolta rasente a lui, accompagnata, ben s’intende, da
qualche spasimante, lo salutava con un cenno, con un sorriso, e si
perdeva via nella folla che invadeva le stanze vicine. Egli esprimeva
la tentazione di seguirla, rattenuto dal timore di farsi scorgere, di
recarle noia, e soprattutto dalla certezza di non coglierla mai sola, di