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Mathematics Pocket Book for
Engineers and Scientists 5th Edition

John Bird
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Why is knowledge of science
and mathematics important in
engineering?
A career in any engineering field will require both basic and advanced
mathematics and science. Without mathematics and science to determine
principles, calculate dimensions and limits, explore variations, prove con-
cepts, and so on, there would be no mobile telephones, televisions, stereo
systems, video games, microwave ovens, computers, or virtually anything
electronic. There would be no bridges, tunnels, roads, skyscrapers, automo-
biles, ships, planes, rockets or most things mechanical. There would be no
metals beyond the common ones, such as iron and copper, no plastics, no
synthetics. In fact, society would most certainly be less advanced without
the use of mathematics and science throughout the centuries and into the
future.
Electrical engineers require mathematics and science to design, develop,

test, or supervise the manufacturing and installation of electrical equip-
ment, components, or systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scien-
tific use.
Mechanical engineers require mathematics and science to perform engineer-

ing duties in planning and designing tools, engines, machines, and other
mechanically functioning equipment; they oversee installation, operation,
maintenance, and repair of such equipment as centralised heat, gas, water,
and steam systems.
Aerospace engineers require mathematics and science to perform a variety

of engineering work in designing, constructing, and testing aircraft, mis-
siles, and spacecraft; they conduct basic and applied research to evaluate
adaptability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and manufacture
and recommend improvements in testing equipment and techniques.
Nuclear engineers require mathematics and science to conduct research on

nuclear engineering problems or apply principles and theory of nuclear sci-
ence to problems concerned with release, control, and utilisation of nuclear
energy and nuclear waste disposal.
Petroleum engineers require mathematics and science to devise methods

to improve oil and gas well production and determine the need for new or
modified tool designs; they oversee drilling and offer technical advice to
achieve economical and satisfactory progress.
Industrial engineers require mathematics and science to design, develop,
test, and evaluate integrated systems for managing industrial production
processes, including human work factors, quality control, inventory control,
logistics and material flow, cost analysis, and production coordination.
Environmental engineers require mathematics and science to design, plan,

or perform engineering duties in the prevention, control, and remediation
of environmental health hazards, using various engineering disciplines;
their work may include waste treatment, site remediation, or pollution con-
trol technology.
Civil engineers require mathematics and science in all levels in civil engi-
neering – structural engineering, hydraulics and geotechnical engineering
are all fields that employ mathematical tools such as differential equations,
tensor analysis, field theory, numerical methods and operations research.
Architects require knowledge of algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calcu-

lus. They use mathematics for several reasons, leaving aside the necessary
use of mathematics in the engineering of buildings. Architects use geometry
because it defines the spatial form of a building, and they use mathemat-
ics to design forms that are considered beautiful or harmonious. The front
cover of this text shows a modern London architecture and the financial
district, all of which at some stage required in its design a knowledge of
mathematics.
Knowledge of mathematics and science is clearly needed by each of the dis-

ciplines listed above.
It is intended that this text – Mathematics Pocket Book for Engineers and
Scientists – will provide a step by step, helpful reference, to essential mathe-
matics topics needed by engineers and scientists.
Engineers and Scientists
Fifth Edition
John Bird
Fifth edition published 2020
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 John Bird
The right of John Bird to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published as Newnes Mathematics for Engineers Pocket Book by Newnes 1983
Fourth edition published as Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book by Routledge 2008
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-26653-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-26652-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-29440-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Frutiger 45 Light by

Servis FIlmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire.
Engineers and Scientists
John Bird is the former Head of Applied Electronics in the Faculty of Technology at
Highbury College, Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined freelance lec-
turing at the University of Portsmouth, with examiner responsibilities for Advanced
Mathematics with City and Guilds and examining for International Baccalaureate.
He has over 45 years’ experience of successfully teaching, lecturing, instructing,
training, educating and planning trainee engineers study programmes. He is the
author of 140 textbooks on engineering, science and mathematical subjects, with
worldwide sales of over one million copies. He is a chartered engineer, a chartered
mathematician, a chartered scientist and a Fellow of three professional institu-
tions. He is currently lecturing at the Defence College of Marine Engineering in the
Defence College of Technical Training at H.M.S. Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, UK,
one of the largest technical training establishments in Europe.
Contents
Preface xiii
Section 1 Engineering conversions, constants and symbols 1

Chapter 1 General conversions and the Greek alphabet 2
Chapter 2 Basic SI units, derived units and common prefixes 3
Chapter 3 Some physical and mathematical constants 5
Chapter 4 Recommended mathematical symbols 7
Chapter 5 Symbols for physical quantities 9
Section 2 Some algebra topics 17

Chapter 6 Introduction to algebra 18
Chapter 7 Polynomial division 22
Chapter 8 The factor theorem 23
Chapter 9 The remainder theorem 25
Chapter 10 Continued fractions 25
Chapter 11 Solving simple equations 27
Chapter 12 Transposing formulae 32
Chapter 13 Solving simultaneous equations 36
Chapter 14 Solving quadratic equations by factorising 42
Chapter 15 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square 45
Chapter 16 Solving quadratic equations by formula 47
Chapter 17 Logarithms 49
Chapter 18 Exponential functions 53
Chapter 19 Napierian logarithms 55
Chapter 20 Hyperbolic functions 58
Chapter 21 Partial fractions 63
Section 3 Some number topics 67

Chapter 22 Simple number sequences 68
Chapter 23 Arithmetic progressions 70
Chapter 24 Geometric progressions 71
Chapter 25 Inequalities 73
Chapter 26 The binomial series 80
Chapter 27 Maclaurin’s theorem 84
Chapter 28 Limiting values – L’Hopital’s rule 87
Chapter 29 Solving equations by iterative methods (1) – the
bisection method 88
Chapter 30 Solving equations by iterative methods (2) – an
algebraic method of successive approximations 90
Chapter 31 Solving equations by iterative methods (3) – the
Newton-Raphson method 92
Chapter 32 Computer numbering systems 93
viii Contents
Section 4 Areas and volumes 101

Chapter 33 Area of plane figures 103
Chapter 34 Circles 106
Chapter 35 Volumes and surface areas of regular solids 111
Chapter 36 Volumes and surface areas of frusta of pyramids and cones 116
Chapter 37 The frustum and zone of a sphere 119
Chapter 38 Areas and volumes of irregular figures and solids 122
Chapter 39 The mean or average value of a waveform 127
Section 5 Geometry and trigonometry 131

Chapter 40 Types and properties of angles 133
Chapter 41 Properties of triangles 133
Chapter 42 The theorem of Pythagoras 135
Chapter 43 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles 136
Chapter 44 Evaluating trigonometric ratios 137
Chapter 45 Fractional and surd forms of trigonometric ratios 138
Chapter 46 Solution of right-angled triangles 139
Chapter 47 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 142
Chapter 48 Sine and cosine rules and areas of any triangle 144
Chapter 49 Graphs of trigonometric functions 149
Chapter 50 Angles of any magnitude 149
Chapter 51 Sine and cosine waveforms 152
Chapter 52 Trigonometric identities and equations 157
Chapter 53 The relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic
functions 161
Chapter 54 Compound angles 163
Section 6 Graphs 170

Chapter 55 The straight-line graph 172
Chapter 56 Determination of law 174
Chapter 57 Graphs with logarithmic scales 179
Chapter 58 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations 183
Chapter 59 Quadratic graphs 184
Chapter 60 Graphical solution of cubic equations 189
Chapter 61 Polar curves 190
Chapter 62 The ellipse and hyperbola 196
Chapter 63 Graphical functions 197
Section 7 Complex numbers 204

Chapter 64 General complex number formulae 205
Chapter 65 Cartesian form of a complex number 205
Chapter 66 Polar form of a complex number 208
Chapter 67 Applications of complex numbers 210
Chapter 68 De Moivre’s theorem 212
Chapter 69 Exponential form of a complex number 214
Section 8 Vectors 216

Chapter 70 Scalars and vectors 217
Chapter 71 Vector addition 217
Chapter 72 Resolution of vectors 219
Chapter 73 Vector subtraction 220
Chapter 74 Relative velocity 222
Chapter 75 i, j, k notation 224
Contents ix
Chapter 76 Combination of two periodic functions 225

Chapter 77 The scalar product of two vectors 227
Chapter 78 Vector products 230
Section 9 Matrices and determinants 233

Chapter 79 Addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices 234
Chapter 80 The determinant and inverse of a 2 by 2 matrix 235
Chapter 81 The determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix 236
Chapter 82 The inverse of a 3 by 3 matrix 238
Chapter 83 Solution of simultaneous equations by matrices 239
Chapter 84 Solution of simultaneous equations by determinants 242
Chapter 85 Solution of simultaneous equations using
Cramer’s rule 245
Chapter 86 Solution of simultaneous equations using Gaussian
elimination 247
Chapter 87 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 248
Section 10 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 253

Chapter 88 Boolean algebra and switching circuits 254
Chapter 89 Simplifying Boolean expressions 257
Chapter 90 Laws and rules of Boolean algebra 258
Chapter 91 De Morgan’s laws 259
Chapter 92 Karnaugh maps 261
Chapter 93 Logic circuits and gates 266
Chapter 94 Universal logic gates 269
Section 11 Differential calculus and its applications 273

Chapter 95 Common standard derivatives 275
Chapter 96 Products and quotients 276
Chapter 97 Function of a function 277
Chapter 98 Successive differentiation 278
Chapter 99 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions 279
Chapter 100 Rates of change using differentiation 280
Chapter 101 Velocity and acceleration 281
Chapter 102 Turning points 282
Chapter 103 Tangents and normals 285
Chapter 104 Small changes using differentiation 287
Chapter 105 Parametric equations 288
Chapter 106 Differentiating implicit functions 291
Chapter 107 Differentiation of logarithmic functions 293
Chapter 108 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions 295
Chapter 109 Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic functions 298
Chapter 110 Partial differentiation 302
Chapter 111 Total differential 305
Chapter 112 Rates of change using partial differentiation 306
Chapter 113 Small changes using partial differentiation 307
Chapter 114 Maxima, minima and saddle points of functions of
two variables 308
Section 12 Integral calculus and its applications 315

Chapter 115 Standard integrals 317
Chapter 116 Non-standard integrals 320
Chapter 117 Integration using algebraic substitutions 321
x Contents
Chapter 118 Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic

substitutions 323
Chapter 119 Integration using partial fractions 329
θ
Chapter 120 The t = tan substitution 331
2
Chapter 121 Integration by parts 334
Chapter 122 Reduction formulae 337
Chapter 123 Double and triple integrals 342
Chapter 124 Numerical integration 346
Chapter 125 Area under and between curves 349
Chapter 126 Mean or average values 355
Chapter 127 Root mean square values 357
Chapter 128 Volumes of solids of revolution 359
Chapter 129 Centroids 361
Chapter 130 Theorem of Pappus 365
Chapter 131 Second moments of area 369
Section 13 Differential equations 375

dy
Chapter 132 The solution of equations of the form  f(x) 377
dx
dy
Chapter 133 The solution of equations of the form  f(y) 377
dx
dy
Chapter 134 The solution of equations of the form  f(x).f(y) 379
dx
Chapter 135 Homogeneous first order differential equations 381
Chapter 136 Linear first order differential equations 383
Chapter 137 Numerical methods for first order differential equations
(1) – Euler’s method 384
(2) – Euler-Cauchy method 386
(3) – Runge-Kutta method 388
Chapter 140 Second order differential equations of the form
d2y dy
a 2 b  cy  0 391
dx dx
Chapter 141 Second order differential equations of the form
d2y dy
a 2 b  cy  f(x) 395
dx dx
Chapter 142 Power series methods of solving ordinary differential
equations (1) – Leibniz theorem 400
equations (2) – Leibniz-Maclaurin method 401
equations (3) – Frobenius method 403
equations (4) – Bessel’s equation 406
equations (5) – Legendre’s equation and Legendre’s
polynomials 407
equations (6) – Rodrigue’s formula 408
Contents xi
Chapter 148 Solution of partial differential equations (1) – by

direct integration 409
Chapter 149 Solution of partial differential equations (2) – the
wave equation 410
Chapter 150 Solution of partial differential equations (3) – the heat
conduction equation 414
Chapter 151 Solution of partial differential equations (4) – Laplace’s
equation 415
Section 14 Laplace transforms 418

Chapter 152 Standard Laplace transforms 419
Chapter 153 The initial and final value theorems 423
Chapter 154 Inverse Laplace transforms 425
Chapter 155 Poles and zeros 428
Chapter 156 The Laplace transform of the Heaviside function 431
Chapter 157 Solving differential equations using Laplace transforms 439
Chapter 158 Solving simultaneous differential equations using
Laplace transforms 442
Section 15 Z-transforms 447

Chapter 159 Sequences 448
Chapter 160 Properties of z-transforms 451
Chapter 161 Inverse z-transforms 456
Chapter 162 Using z-transforms to solve difference equations 460
Section 16 Fourier series 464

Chapter 163 Fourier series for periodic functions of period 2π 466
Chapter 164 Fourier series for a non-periodic function over period 2π 469
Chapter 165 Even and odd functions 471
Chapter 166 Half range Fourier series 474
Chapter 167 Expansion of a periodic function of period L 476
Chapter 168 Half-range Fourier series for functions defined over
range L 479
Chapter 169 The complex or exponential form of a Fourier series 482
Chapter 170 A numerical method of harmonic analysis 487
Chapter 171 Complex waveform considerations 490
Section 17 Statistics and probability 494

Chapter 172 Presentation of ungrouped data 497
Chapter 173 Presentation of grouped data 500
Chapter 174 Measures of central tendency 504
Chapter 175 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles 507
Chapter 176 Probability 509
Chapter 177 Permutations and combinations 511
Chapter 178 Bayes’ theorem 513
Chapter 179 The binomial distribution 514
Chapter 180 The Poisson distribution 516
Chapter 181 The normal distribution 517
Chapter 182 Linear correlation 522
Chapter 183 Linear regression 524
Chapter 184 Sampling and estimation theories 525
Chapter 185 Chi-square values 532
Chapter 186 The sign test 535
xii Contents
Chapter 187 Wilcoxon signed-rank test 537

Chapter 188 The Mann-Whitney test 540
Index 547
Preface
Mathematics Pocket Book for Engineers and Scientists 5th Edition is intended
to provide students, technicians, scientists and engineers with a readily available ref-
erence to the essential engineering mathematics formulae, definitions, tables and
general information needed during their work situation and/or studies – a handy
book to have on the bookshelf to delve into as the need arises.
In this 5th edition, the text has been re-designed to make information easier to
access. The importance of why each mathematical topic is needed in engineering
and science is explained at the beginning of each section. Essential theory, formulae,
definitions, laws and procedures are stated clearly at the beginning of each chapter,
and then it is demonstrated how to use such information in practice.
The text is divided, for convenience of reference, into seventeen main sections
embracing engineering conversions, constants and symbols, some algebra topics,
some number topics, areas and volumes, geometry and trigonometry, graphs, com-
plex numbers, vectors, matrices and determinants, Boolean algebra and logic cir-
cuits, differential and integral calculus and their applications, differential equations,
Laplace transforms, z-transforms, Fourier series and statistics and probability. To aid
understanding, over 675 application examples have been included, together with
some 300 line diagrams.
The text assumes little previous knowledge and is suitable for a wide range of dis-
ciplines and/or courses of study. It will be particularly useful as a reference for those
in industry involved in engineering and science and/or for students studying mathe-
matics within Engineering and Science Degree courses, as well as for National and
Higher National Technician Certificates and Diplomas, GCSE and A levels.
JOHN BIRD BSc(Hons), CEng, CSi, CMath, FIET, FIMA, FCollP

Royal Naval Defence College of Marine Engineering,
HMS Sultan,formerly University of Portsmouth
and Highbury College, Portsmouth
Section 1
Engineering conversions,
constants and symbols
Why are engineering conversions, constants and

symbols important?
In engineering there are many different quantities to get used to, and hence
many units to become familiar with. For example, force is measured in
Newtons, electric current is measured in amperes and pressure is measured in
Pascals. Sometimes the units of these quantities are either very large or very
small and hence prefixes are used. For example, 1000 Pascals may be written
as 103 Pa which is written as 1 kPa in prefix form, the k being accepted as
a symbol to represent 1000 or 103. Studying, or working, in an engineering
and science discipline, you very quickly become familiar with the standard units
of measurement, the prefixes used and engineering notation. An electronic
calculator is extremely helpful with engineering notation.
Unit conversion is very important because the rest of the world other than
three countries uses the metric system. So, converting units is important in
science and engineering because it uses the metric system.
Without the ability to measure, it would be difficult for scientists to conduct

experiments or form theories. Not only is measurement important in science
and engineering, it is also essential in farming, construction, manufacturing,
commerce, and numerous other occupations and activities.
Measurement provides a standard for everyday things and processes. Examples

include weight, temperature, length, currency and time, and all play a very
important role in our lives.
2 Mathematics Pocket Book for Engineers and Scientists
Chapter 1 General conversions and Greek alphabet
General conversions
Length (metric) 1 kilometre (km)  1000 metres (m)

1 metre (m)  100 centimetres (cm)
1 metre (m)  1000 millimetres (mm)
1 cm  102 m
1 mm  103 m
1 micron ()  106 m
1 angstrom (A)  1010 m
Length (imperial) 1 inch (in)  2.540 cm or 1 cm  0.3937 in
1 foot (ft)  30.48 cm
1 mile (mi)  1.609 km or 1 km  0.6214 mi
1 cm  0.3937 in
1 m  39.37 in  3.2808 ft  1.0936 yd
1 km  0.6214 mile
1 nautical mile  1.15 mile
Area (metric) 1 m2  106 mm2
1 mm2  106 m2
1 m2  104 cm2
1 cm2  104 m2
1 hectare (ha)  104 m2
Area (imperial) 1 m2  10.764 ft2  1.1960 yd2
1 ft2  929 cm2
1 mile2  640 acres
1 acre  43560 ft2  4840 yd2
1 ha  2.4711 acre  11960 yd2  107639 ft2
Volume 1 litre (l)  1000 cm3
1 litre  1.057 quart (qt)  1.7598 pint (pt) 
0.21997 gal
1 m3  1000 l
1 British gallon  4 qt  4.545 l  1.201 US
gallon
1 US gallon  3.785 l
Mass 1 kilogram (kg)  1000 g  2.2046 pounds (lb)

1 lb  16 oz  453.6 g
1 tonne (t)  1000 kg  0.9842 ton
Speed 1 km/h  0.2778 m/s  0.6214 m.p.h.
1 m.p.h.  1.609 km/h  0.4470 m/s
1 rad/s  9.5493 rev/min
1 knot  1 nautical mile per hour 
1.852 km/h  1.15 m.p.h.
1 km/h  0.540 knots
1 m.p.h.  0.870 knots
Angular measure 1 rad  57.296°

Engineering conversions, constants and symbols 3
Greek alphabet
Letter Name Upper Case Lower Case
Alpha A 
Beta B 
Gamma  
Delta  
Epsilon E e
Zeta Z 
Eta H 
Theta θ θ
Iota l 
Kappa K 
Lambda  
Mu M 
Nu N 
Xi  
Omicron O o
Pi  π
Rho P 
Sigma  
Tau T 
Upsilon Y 
Phi  φ
Chi X 
Psi  
Omega  
Chapter 2 Basic SI units, derived units and common

prefixes
Basic SI units
Quantity Unit
Length metre, m
Mass kilogram, kg
Time second, s
Electric current ampere, A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin, K
Luminous intensity candela, cd
Amount of substance mole, mol
SI supplementary units
Plane angle radian, rad

Solid angle steradian, sr
Derived units
Quantity Unit
Electric capacitance farad, F

Electric charge coulomb, C
Electric conductance siemens, S
Electric potential difference volts, V
Electrical resistance ohm, 
Energy joule, J
Force Newton, N
Frequency hertz, Hz
Illuminance lux, lx
Inductance henry, H
Luminous flux lumen, lm
Magnetic flux weber, Wb
Magnetic flux density tesla, T
Power watt, W
Pressure pascal, Pa
Some other derived units not having special names
Quantity Unit
Acceleration metre per second squared, m/s2

Angular velocity radian per second, rad/s
Area square metre, m2
Current density ampere per metre squared, A/m2
Density kilogram per cubic metre, kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity pascal second, Pa s
Electric charge density coulomb per cubic metre, C/m3
Electric field strength volt per metre, V/m
Energy density joule per cubic metre, J/m3
Heat capacity joule per Kelvin, J/K
Quantity Unit
Heat flux density watt per square metre, W/m3

Kinematic viscosity square metre per second, m2/s
Luminance candela per square metre, cd/m2
Magnetic field strength ampere per metre, A/m
Moment of force newton metre, Nm
Permeability henry per metre, H/m
Permittivity farad per metre, F/m
Specific volume cubic metre per kilogram, m3/kg
Surface tension newton per metre, N/m
Thermal conductivity watt per metre Kelvin, W/(mK)
Velocity metre per second, m/s2
Volume cubic metre, m3
Common prefixes
Prefix Name Meaning
Y yotta multiply by 1024

Z zeta multiply by 1021
E exa multiply by 1018
P peta multiply by 1015
T tera multiply by 1012
G giga multiply by 109
M mega multiply by 106
k kilo multiply by 103
m milli multiply by 103
 micro multiply by 106
n nano multiply by 109
p pico multiply by 1012
f femto multiply by 1015
a atto multiply by 1018
z zepto multiply by 1021
y yocto multiply by 1024
Chapter 3 Some physical and mathematical constants
Below are listed some physical and mathematical constants, each stated correct to 4
decimal places, where appropriate.
Quantity Symbol Value
Speed of light in a vacuum c 2.9979  108 m/s

Permeability of free space 0 4π  107 H/m
Permittivity of free space e0 8.8542  1012 F/m
Elementary charge e 1.6022  1019 C
Planck constant h 6.6261  1034 J s
h
Reduced Planck constant h= 1.0546  1034 J s
2π
e2
Fine structure constant = 7.2974  103
4πe0hc
Coulomb force
constant ke 8.9875  109 Nm2/C2
Gravitational constant G 6.6726  1011 m3/kg s2
Atomic mass unit u 1.6605  1027 kg
Rest mass of electron me 9.1094  1031 kg
Rest mass of proton mp 1.6726  1027 kg
Rest mass of neutron mn 1.6749  1027 kg
Bohr radius a0 5.2918  1011 m
Compton wavelength of C 2.4263  1012 m
electron
Avogadro constant NA 6.0221  1023/mol
Boltzmann constant k 1.3807  1023 J/K
Stefan-Boltzmann  5.6705  108 W /m2K4
constant
Bohr constant B 9.2740  1024 J/T
Nuclear magnetron N 5.0506  1027 J/T
Triple point Tt 273.16 K
temperature
Molar gas constant R 8.3145 J/K mol
Micron m 106 m
Characteristic Zo 376.7303 
impedance of vacuum
Astronomical constants
Mass of earth mE 5.976  1024 kg

Radius of earth RE 6.378  106 m
Gravity of earth’s surface g 9.8067 m/s2
Mass of sun Me 1.989  1030 kg
Radius of sun Re 6.9599  108 m
Solar effective temperature Te 5800 K
Luminosity of sun Le 3.826  1026 W
Astronomical unit AU 1.496  1011 m
Parsec pc 3.086  1016 m
Jansky Jy 1026 W/m2HZ
Tropical year 3.1557  107 s

Standard atmosphere atm 101325 Pa
Mathematical constants
Pi (Archimedes’ constant) π 3.1416

Exponential constant e 2.7183
Apery’s constant (3) 1.2021
Catalan’s constant G 0.9160
Euler’s constant  0.5772
Feigenbaum’s 1st constant  4.6692
Feigenbaum’s 2nd constant  2.5029
Gibb’s constant G 1.8519
Golden mean φ 1.6180
Khintchine’s constant K 2.6855
Chapter 4 Recommended mathematical symbols
equal to 
not equal to 
identically equal to 
corresponds to =
approximately equal to 
approaches →
proportional to 
infinity 
smaller than 
larger than 
smaller than or equal to 
larger than or equal to 
much smaller than 
much larger than 
plus 
minus 
plus or minus 
minus or plus 7
a multiplied by b ab or a  b or a ? b
a
a divided by b or a/b or ab-1
b
magnitude of a |a|
a raised to power n an
1
square root of a a or a 2
1
n’th root of a n
a or a n or a1/n
mean value of a a
factorial of a a!
sum 
function of x f(x)
limit to which f(x) tends as lim f(x)
x approaches a x →a
finite increment of x Dx
variation of x x
df
differential coefficient of f(x) with respect or df/dy or f′(x)
to x dx
dnf
differential coefficient of order n of f(x) or dnf/dx 2 or fn (x)
dxn
partial differential coefficient of ∂ f(x,y,...)  ∂f 
f(x, y, …) w.r.t. x when y, … are held or   or fx
∂x  ∂ x 
constant y
total differential of f df
indefinite integral of f(x) with
respect to x ∫ f(x) dx
definite integral of f(x) from b
x  a to x  b ∫ a
f(x) dx
logarithm to the base a of x loga x

common logarithm of x lg x or log10 x
exponential of x ex or exp x
natural logarithm of x ln x or loge x
sine of x sin x
cosine of x cos x
tangent of x tan x
secant of x sec x
cosecant of x cosec x
cotangent of x cot x
inverse sine of x sin1 x or arcsin x
inverse cosine of x cos1 x or arccos x
inverse tangent of x tan1 x or arctan x
inverse secant of x sec1 x or arcsec x
inverse cosecant of x cosec1 x or arccosec x
inverse cotangent of x cot1 x or arccot x
hyperbolic sine of x sinh x
hyperbolic cosine of x cosh x
hyperbolic tangent of x tanh x
hyperbolic secant of x sech x
hyperbolic cosecant of x cosech x
hyperbolic cotangent of x coth x

inverse hyperbolic sine of x sinh1 x or arsinh x
inverse hyperbolic cosine of x cosh1 x or arcosh x
inverse hyperbolic tangent of x tanh1 x or artanh x
inverse hyperbolic secant of x sech1 x or arsech x
inverse hyperbolic cosecant of x cosech1 x or arcosech x
inverse hyperbolic cotangent of x coth1 x or arcoth x
complex operator i, j
modulus of z |z|
argument of z arg z
complex conjugate of z z*
transpose of matrix A AT
determinant of matrix A |A|
→
vector A or A
magnitude of vector A |A|
scalar product of vectors A and B A•B
vector product of vectors A and B AB
Chapter 5 Symbols for physical quantities
(a) Space and time

angle (plane angle) , , , θ, φ, etc.
solid angle , 
length l
breadth b
height h
thickness d, 
radius r
diameter d
distance along path s, L
rectangular co-ordinates x, y, z
cylindrical co-ordinates r, φ, z
spherical co-ordinates r, θ, φ
area A
volume V
time t
dθ
angular speed, 
dt
d
angular acceleration, 
dt
ds
speed, u, v, w
dt
du
acceleration, a
dt
acceleration of free fall g
speed of light in a vacuum c
Mach number Ma
(b) Periodic and related phenomena

period T
frequency f
rotational frequency n
circular frequency 
wavelength 
damping coefficient 
attenuation coefficient 
phase coefficient 
propagation coefficient 
(c) Mechanics
mass m
density 
relative density d
specific volume v
momentum p
moment of inertia I, J
second moment of area Ia
second polar moment of area Ip
force F
bending moment M
torque; moment of couple T
pressure p, P
normal stress 
shear stress 
linear strain e, e
shear strain 
volume strain θ
Young’s modulus E
shear modulus G
bulk modulus K
Poisson ratio , 
compressibility 
section modulus Z, W
coefficient of friction 
viscosity 
fluidity φ
kinematic viscosity 
diffusion coefficient D
surface tension , 
angle of contact θ
work W
energy E, W
potential energy Ep, V, 
kinetic energy Ek, T, K
power P
gravitational constant G
Reynold’s number Re
(d) Thermodynamics
thermodynamic temperature T, 
common temperature t, θ
linear expansivity , 
cubic expansivity , 
heat; quantity of heat Q, q
work; quantity of work W, w
heat flow rate , q
thermal conductivity , k
heat capacity C
specific heat capacity c
entropy S
internal energy U, E
enthalpy H
Helmholtz function A, F
Planck function Y
specific entropy s
specific internal energy u, e
specific enthalpy h
specific Helmholz function a, f
(e) Electricity and magnetism

Electric charge; quantity of electricity Q
electric current I
charge density 
surface charge density 
electric field strength E
electric potential V, φ
electric potential difference U, V
electromotive force E
electric displacement D
electric flux 
capacitance C
permittivity e
permittivity of a vacuum e0
relative permittivity er
electric current density J, j
magnetic field strength H
magnetomotive force Fm
magnetic flux 
magnetic flux density B
self inductance L
mutual inductance M
coupling coefficient k
leakage coefficient 
permeability 
permeability of a vacuum 0
relative permeability r
magnetic moment m
resistance R
resistivity 
conductivity , 
reluctance Rm, S
permeance 
number of turns N
number of phases m
number of pairs of poles p
loss angle 
phase displacement φ
impedance Z
reactance X
resistance R
quality factor Q
admittance Y
susceptance B
conductance G
power, active P
power, reactive Q
power, apparent S
(f) Light and related electromagnetic

radiations
radiant energy Q, Qe
radiant flux, radiant power , e, P
radiant intensity I, Ie
radiance L, Le
radiant exitance M, Me
irradiance E, Ee
emissivity e
quantity of light Q, Qv
luminous flux , v
luminous intensity I, Iv
luminance L, Lv
luminous exitance M, Mv
illuminance E, Ev
light exposure H
luminous efficacy K
absorption factor, absorptance 
reflexion factor, reflectance 
transmission factor, transmittance 
linear extinction coefficient 
linear absorption coefficient a
refractive index n
refraction R
angle of optical rotation 
(g) Acoustics
speed of sound c
speed of longitudinal waves cl
speed of transverse waves ct
group speed cg
sound energy flux P
sound intensity I, J
reflexion coefficient 
acoustic absorption coefficient , a
transmission coefficient 
dissipation coefficient 
loudness level LN
(h) Physical chemistry

atomic weight Ar
molecular weight Mr
amount of substance n
molar mass M
molar volume Vm
molar internal energy Um
molar enthalpy Hm
molar heat capacity Cm
molar entropy Sm
molar Helmholtz function Am
molar Gibbs function Gm
(molar) gas constant R
compression factor Z
mole fraction of substance B xB
mass fraction of substance B wB
volume fraction of substance B φB
molality of solute B mB
amount of substance concentration of solute B cB
chemical potential of substance B B
absolute activity of substance B B
partial pressure of substance B in a gas mixture pB
fugacity of substance B in a gas mixture fB
relative activity of substance B B
activity coefficient (mole fraction basis) fB
activity coefficient (molality basis) B
activity coefficient (concentration basis) yB
osmotic coefficient φ, g
osmotic pressure 
surface concentration 
electromotive force E
Faraday constant F
charge number of ion i zi
ionic strength I
velocity of ion i vi
electric mobility of ion i ui

electrolytic conductivity 
molar conductance of electrolyte 
transport number of ion i ti
molar conductance of ion i i
overpotential 
exchange current density j0
electrokinetic potential 
intensity of light I
transmittance T
absorbance A
(linear) absorption coefficient a
molar (linear) absorption coefficient e
angle of optical rotation 
specific optical rotatory power m
molar optical rotatory power n
molar refraction Rm
stoiciometric coefficient of molecules B B
extent of reaction 
affinity of a reaction A
equilibrium constant K
degree of dissociation 
rate of reaction , J
rate constant of a reaction k
activation energy of a reaction E
(i) Molecular physics

Avogadro constant L, NA
number of molecules N
number density of molecules n
molecular mass m
molecular velocity c, u
molecular position r
molecular momentum p
average velocity c , u , c 0 , u0
average speed c , u , c, u
most probable speed ĉ, û
mean free path l, 
molecular attraction energy e
interaction energy between molecules i and j φij, Vij
distribution function of speeds f(c)
Boltzmann function H
generalized co-ordinate q
generalized momentum p
volume in phase space 
Boltzmann constant k
partition function Q, Z
grand partition function 
statistical weight g
symmetrical number , s
dipole moment of molecule p, 
quadrupole moment of molecule 

polarizability of molecule 
Planck constant h
characteristic temperature 
Debye temperature D
Einstein temperature E
rotational temperature r
vibrational temperature v
Stefan-Boltzmann constant 
first radiation constant c1
second radiation constant c2
rotational quantum number J, K
vibrational quantum number v
(j) Atomic and nuclear physics

nucleon number; mass number A
atomic number; proton number Z
neutron number N
(rest) mass of atom ma
unified atomic mass constant mu
(rest) mass of electron me
(rest) mass of proton mp
(rest) mass of neutron mn
elementary charge (of protons) e
Planck constant h
Planck constant divided by 2π h
Bohr radius a0
Rydberg constant R
magnetic moment of particle 
Bohr magneton B
Bohr magneton number, nuclear magneton N
nuclear gyromagnetic ratio 
g-factor g
Larmor (angular) frequency L
nuclear angular precession frequency N
cyclotron angular frequency of electron c
nuclear quadrupole moment Q
nuclear radius R
orbital angular momentum quantum number L, l1
spin angular momentum quantum number S, s1
total angular momentum quantum number J, j1
nuclear spin quantum number I, J
hyperfine structure quantum number F
principal quantum number n, n1
magnetic quantum number M, m1
fine structure constant 
electron radius re
Compton wavelength C
mass excess 
packing fraction f
mean life 
level width 
activity A
specific activity a
decay constant 
half-life T1 , t 1
2 2
disintegration energy Q
spin-lattice relaxation time T1
spin-spin relaxation time T2
indirect spin-spin coupling J
(k) Nuclear reactions and ionising radiations

reaction energy Q
cross-section 
macroscopic cross-section 
impact parameter b
scattering angle θ, φ
internal conversion coefficient 
linear attenuation coefficient , 1
atomic attenuation coefficient 
mass attenuation coefficient m
linear stopping power S, S1
atomic stopping power Sa
linear range R, R1
recombination coefficient 
Section 2
Some algebra topics
Why is Algebra important?

Algebra is one of the most fundamental tools for engineers and scientists
because it allows them to determine the value of something (such as length,
material constant, temperature, mass, and so on) given values that they do
know (possibly other length, material properties, mass). Although the types of
problems that mechanical, chemical, civil, environmental, electrical engineers
deal with vary, all engineers use algebra to solve problems. An example where
algebra is frequently used is in simple electrical circuits, where the resistance is
proportional to voltage. Using Ohm’s Law, V = I × R, an engineer or scientist
simply multiplies the current in a circuit by the resistance to determine the volt-
age across the circuit. Engineers and scientists use algebra in many ways, and
so frequently that they don’t even stop to think about it. Algebra lays the foun-
dation for the mathematics needed to become an engineer or scientist.
A basic form of mathematics, algebra is nevertheless among the most com-

monly used forms of mathematics in the workplace. Although relatively simple,
algebra is a powerful problem-solving tool used in many fields of engineering
and science. For example, in designing a rocket to go to the moon, engineers
and scientists must use algebra to solve for flight trajectory, how long to burn
each thruster and at what intensity, and at what angle to lift off. Engineers and
scientists use mathematics all the time – and, in particular, algebra; becoming
familiar with algebra will make all engineering mathematics studies so much
easier.
Chapter 6 Introduction to algebra
Some rules of algebra
Algebra merely uses letters to represent numbers. If, say, a, b, c and d represent
any four numbers then in algebra:
(i) a + a + a + a = 4a
(ii) 5b means 5 × b
(iii) 2a + 3b + a – 2b = 2a + a + 3b – 2b = 3a + b
Only similar terms can be combined in algebra.
(iv) 4abcd = 4 × a × b × c × d
(v) (a)(c)(d) means a × c × d
Brackets are often used instead of multiplication signs.
(vi) ab = ba
(vii) b2 = b × b
(viii) a3 = a × a × a
Application: Simplify 4x2 – 2x – 3y + 5x + 7y
Re-ordering 4x2 – 2x – 3y + 5x + 7y gives 4x2 + 5x – 2x + 7y – 3y = 4x2 + 3x + 4y
Application: Simplify 3xy – 7x + 5xy + 3x
Re-ordering 3xy – 7x + 5xy + 3x gives 3xy + 5xy + 3x – 7x = 8xy – 4x
Application: Simplify ab × b2c × a
ab × b2c × a = a × b × b × b × c × a = a × a × b × b × b × c = a2× b3 × c = a2b3c

Some algebra topics 19
Laws of indices
The laws of indices in algebraic terms are as follows:

(i) am × an = am+n For example, a3 × a4 = a3+4 = a7
am c5
(ii) = am–n For example, 2 = c5–2 = c3
an c
(iii) (am)n = amn For example, (d2)3 = d2×3 = d6
4
m 3
(iv) a n = n
am For example, x 3 = x 4
(v) a–n = 1 For example, 3-2 = 1 = 1

an 32 9
(vi) a0 = 1 For example, 170 = 1
Application: Simplify a2b3c × ab2c5
a2b3c × ab2c5 = a2 × b3 × c × a × b2 × c5 = a2 × b3 × c1 × a1 × b2 × c5
Grouping together like terms gives: a2 × a1 × b3 × b2 × c1 × c5
Using law (i) of indices gives: a2+1 × b3+2 × c1+5 = a3 × b5 × c6
i.e. a2b3c × ab2c5 = a3b5c6
x5y 2z
Application: Simplify
x 2y z3
5 2
x5y 2z x5 × y 2 × z x y z
2 3
= 2 = 2 × 1 × 3 = x5–2 × y2–1 × z1–3 by law (ii) of indices
x yz x × y × z3 x y z
x3 y
= x3 × y1 × z–2 × x3yz–2 or by law (v) of indices
z2
Application: Simplify (p3)2(q2)4
Using law (iii) of indices gives: (p3)2(q2)4 = p3 × 2 × q2 × 4 = p6q8
Brackets
With algebra (i) 2(a + b) = 2a + 2b

(ii) (a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Application: Determine 2b(a – 5b)
2b(a – 5b) = 2b × a + 2b × – 5b = 2ba – 10b2 = 2ab – 10b2 (Note that 2ba is the
same as 2ab)
Application: Determine (3x + 4y)(x – y)
(3x + 4y)(x – y) = 3x(x – y) + 4y(x – y) = 3x2 – 3xy + 4yx – 4y2
= 3x2 – 3xy + 4xy – 4y2 = 3x2 + xy – 4y2
Application: Simplify 3(2x – 3y) – (3x – 5y)
3(2x – 3y) – (3x – 5y) = 3 × 2x – 3 × 3y – 3x – – 5y = 6x – 9y – 3x + 5y
= 6x – 3x + 5y – 9y = 3x – 4y
Application: Remove the brackets from the expression and simplify:
2[x2 – 3x (y + x) + 4xy]
2[x2 – 3x (y + x) + 4xy] = 2[x2 – 3xy – 3x2 + 4xy] Whenever more than one type of
brackets are involved, always start
with the inner brackets
= 2[–2x2 + xy] = – 4x2 + 2xy = 2xy – 4x2
Factorisation
The factors of 8 are 1, 2, 4, and 8, because 8 may be divided by 1, 2, 4, and 8
The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 because 24 may be divided by

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24
The common factors of 8 and 24 are 1, 2, 4 and 8 since 1, 2, 4 and 8 are fac-
tors of both 8 and 24.
The highest common factor (HCF) is the largest number that divides into two
or more terms.
Hence, the HCF of 8 and 28 is 4
When two or more terms in an algebraic expression contain a common factor,

then this factor can be shown outside of a bracket.
For example, df + dg = d(f + g)
which is just the reverse of d(f + g) = df + dg
This process is called factorisation
Application: Factorise ab – 6ac
‘a’ is common to both of the terms ab and – 6ac. ‘a’ is therefore taken outside of
the bracket. What goes inside the bracket?
(i) What multiplies ‘a’ to make ab? Answer: b
(ii) What multiplies ‘a’ to make – 6ac? Answer: – 6c
Hence, b – 6c appears in the bracket.
Thus, ab – 6ac = a(b – 6c)
Application: Factorise 2x2 + 14xy3
For the numbers 2 and 14, the highest common factor (HCF) is 2 (i.e. 2 is the largest
number that divides into both 2 and 14)
For the x terms, x2 and x, the HCF is x
Thus, the HCF of 2x2 and 14xy3 is 2x
2x is therefore taken outside of the bracket. What goes inside the bracket?
(i) What multiplies 2x to make 2x2? Answer: x
(ii) What multiplies 2x to make 14xy3? Answer: 7y3
Hence x + 7y3 appears in the bracket
Thus, 2x2+ 14xy3 = 2x(x+7y3)
Laws of precedence
With the laws of precedence the order is
Brackets
Order (or pOwer)
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction
The first letter of each word spells BODMAS
Application: Simplify 5x + 3x × 4x – x
5x + 3x × 4x – x = 5x + 12x2 – x (M)
= 5x – x + 12x2
= 4x + 12x2 (S)
or 4x( 1 + 3x) by factorising

Application: Simplify (y + 4y) × 2y – 5y
(y + 4y) × 2y – 5y = 5y × 2y – 5y (B)
= 10y2 – 5y (M)
or 5y(2y – 1) by factorising
Application: Simplify 2y ÷ (8y + 3y – 5y)
2y ÷ (8y + 3y – 5y) = 2y ÷ 6y (B)

2y
= (D)
6y
= 1 by cancelling
3
Chapter 7 Polynomial division
A polynomial is an expression of the form: f(x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + …..

and polynomial division is sometimes required when resolving a fraction into par-
tial fractions.
Application: Divide 2x2  x  3 by x  1
2x2  x  3 is called the dividend and x  1 the divisor. The usual layout is shown
below with the dividend and divisor both arranged in descending powers of the
symbols.
2x 3
x )
1 2x 2 x 3
2x 2 − 2x
3x 3
3x 3
. .
Dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor, i.e. 2x 2 /x gives
2x, which is placed above the first term of the dividend as shown. The divisor is then
multiplied by 2x, i.e. 2x(x  1)  2x2  2x, which is placed under the dividend as
shown. Subtracting gives 3x  3.
The process is then repeated, i.e. the first term of the divisor, x, is divided into 3x,
giving 3, which is placed above the dividend as shown. Then 3(x  1)  3x  3
which is placed under the 3x  3. The remainder, on subtraction, is zero, which
completes the process.
Thus, (2x2  x  3) ÷ (x  1)  (2x  3)
The answer, (2x + 3), is called the quotient.

Application: Divide (x2  3x  2) by (x  2)
x+5
)
x − 2 x 2 + 3x − 2
x 2 − 2x
5x − 2
5x − 10
8
x 2  3x - 2 8
Hence  x 5
x-2 x-2
Application: Divide (3x3  x2  3x + 5) by (x + 1)
(1) (4) (7)

3x 2 2x 5
)
x + 1 3x 3 x 2 + 3x + 5
3x 3 + 3x 2
– 2x 2 + 3x + 5
−2x 2 − 2x
5x + 5
5x + 5
. .
3 2 2 3
(1) x into 3x goes 3x . Put 3x above 3x
(2) 3x2(x + 1) = 3x3 + 3x2
(3) Subtract
(4) x into –2x2 goes –2x. Put –2x above the dividend
(5) –2x(x+1) = –2x2– 2x
(6) Subtract
(7) x into 5x goes 5. Put 5 above the dividend
(8) 5(x+1) = 5x+5
(9) Substract
3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5
Thus = 3x2 – 2x +5
x +1
Chapter 8 The factor theorem
A factor of (x  a) in an equation corresponds to a root of x  a

If x  a is a root of the equation f(x)  0, then (x  a) is a factor of f(x)
Application: Factorise x3  7x  6 and use it to solve the cubic equation

x3  7x  6  0
Let f(x)  x3  7x  6
If x  1, then f(1)  13  7(1)  6  12
If x  2, then f(2)  23  7(2)  6  12
If x  3, then f(3)  33  7(3)  6  0
If f(3)  0, then (x  3) is a factor – from the factor theorem.
We have a choice now. We can divide x3  7x  6 by (x  3) or we could continue

our ‘trial and error’ by substituting further values for x in the given expression – and
hope to arrive at f(x)  0.
Let us do both ways. Firstly, dividing out gives:

x2 3x 2
)
x − 3 x 3 0 − 7x − 6
x 3 − 3x 2
3x 2 − 7x − 6
3x 2 − 9x
2x − 6
2x − 6
. .
x 3 - 7x - 6
Hence,  x 2  3x  2
x-3
i.e. x3  7x  6  (x  3)(x2  3x  2)
x2  3x  2 factorises ‘on sight’ as (x  1)(x  2)
Therefore, x3  7x  6  (x  3)(x  1)(x  2)

A second method is to continue to substitute values of x into f(x).
Our expression for f(3) was 33  7(3)  6. We can see that if we continue with pos-
itive values of x the first term will predominate such that f(x) will not be zero.
Therefore let us try some negative values for x.
f(1)  (1)3  7(1)  6  0; hence (x  1) is a factor (as shown above).
Also f(2)  (2)3  7(2)  6  0; hence (x  2) is a factor.
To solve x3  7x  6  0, we substitute the factors, i.e.
(x - 3)(x  1)(x  2)  0
from which, x  3, x  1 and x  2

Note that the values of x, i.e. 3, 1 and 2, are all factors of the constant term, i.e.
the 6. This can give us a clue as to what values of x we should consider.
Chapter 9 The remainder theorem
If (ax2  bx  c) is divided by (x  p), the remainder will be

ap2  bp  c
If (ax3  bx2  cx  d) is divided by (x  p), the remainder will be
ap3  bp2  cp  d
Application: When (3x2  4x  5) is divided by (x  2) find the remainder
ap2  bp  c, (where a  3, b  4, c  5 and p  2),
hence the remainder is 3(2)2  (4)(2)  5  12  8  5  9
We can check this by dividing (3x2  4x  5) by (x  2) by long division:

3x 2
)
x − 2 3x 2 − 4x + 5
3x 2 − 6x
2x 5
2x − 4
9
Application: When (2x2  x  3) is divided by (x  1), find the remainder
ap2  bp  c, (where a  2, b  1, c  3 and p  1), hence the remainder is

2(1)2  1(1)  3  0,
which means that (x  1) is a factor of (2x2  x  3).
In this case, the other factor is (2x  3),

i.e. (2x2  x  3)  (x  1)(2x  3)
Application: When (3x3  2x2  x  4) is divided by (x  1), find the remainder
The remainder is ap3  bp2  cp  d (where a  3, b  2, c  1, d  4 and

p  1), i.e. the remainder is:
3(1)3  2(1)2  (1)(1)  4  3  2  1  4  8
Chapter 10 Continued fractions
A continued fraction is an expression obtained through an iterative process of

representing a number as the sum of its integer part and the reciprocal of another
number, then writing this other number as the sum of its integer part and another
reciprocal, and so on. These approximations to fractions are used to obtain practical
ratios for gearwheels or for a dividing head (used to give a required angular
displacement).
Any fraction may be expressed in the form shown below for the fraction 26/55:
26 1 1 1 1 1
= = = = =
55 55 3 1 1 1
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
26 26 26 2 1
8+ 8+
3 3 3
2
1
=
1
2+
1
8+
1
1+
2
The latter factor can be expressed as:

1
A
B
C 
D
Comparisons show that A, B, C and D are 2, 8, 1 and 2 respectively.

A fraction written in the general form is called a continued fraction and the inte-
gers A, B, C and D are called the quotients of the continued fraction. The quotients
may be used to obtain closer and closer approximations, called convergents.
A tabular method may be used to determine the convergents of a fraction:
1 2 3 4 5
a 2 8 1 2
 bp 0 1 8 9 26
b 
 bq 1 2 17 19 55
The quotients 2, 8, 1 and 2 are written in cells a2, a3, a4 and a5 with cell a1 being
left empty.
0
The fraction 1 is always written in cell b1.
1
The reciprocal of the quotient in cell a2 is always written in cell b2, i.e. 2
in this case.
(a3 × b2p)  b1p
The fraction in cell b3 is given by ,
(a3 × b2q)  b1q
(8 × 1)  0 8
i.e. 
(8 × 2)  1 17
(a4 × b3p)  b2p

The fraction in cell b4 is given by ,
(a4 × b3q)  b2q
(1× 8)  1 9
i.e.  , and so on.
(1× 17)  2 19
1
Hence the convergents of 26 are , 8 , 9 and 26 , each value approximating
55 2 17 19 55
closer and closer to 26 .
55
Chapter 11 Solving simple equations
Introduction
3x – 4 is an example of an algebraic expression.
3x – 4 = 2 is an example of an algebraic equation (i.e. it contains an ‘=’ sign)
An equation is simply a statement that two expressions are equal.
Hence, A = πr2 (where A is the area of a circle of radius r)

9
F = C + 32 (which relates Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures)
5
and
y = 3x + 2 (which is the equation of a straight line graph)
are all examples of equations.
Solving equations
To ‘solve an equation’ means ‘to find the value of the unknown’.
Application: Solve the equation: 4x = 24
4x 24
Dividing each side of the equation by 4 gives: =
4 4
i.e. x = 6 by cancelling
which is the solution to the equation 4x = 24
2x
Application: Solve the equation: =4
5
 2x 
Multiplying both sides by 5 gives: 5   = 5(4)
 5 
Cancelling and removing brackets gives: 2x = 20

2x 20
Dividing both sides of the equation by 2 gives: =
2 2
Cancelling gives: x = 10
Application: Solve the equation: x + 3 = 8
Subtracting 3 from both sides gives: x + 3 – 3 = 8 – 3

i.e. x=8–3
i.e. x=5
Application: Solve the equation: 7x + 1 = 3x + 9
In such equations the terms containing x are grouped on one side of the equation
and the remaining terms grouped on the other side of the equation. Changing from
one side of an equation to the other must be accompanied by a change of sign.
Since 7x + 1 = 3x + 9
then 7x – 3x = 9 – 1
i.e. 4x = 8
4x 8
Dividing both sides by 4 gives: =
4 4
Cancelling gives: x=2
Application: Solve the equation: 3(x – 2) = 12
Removing the bracket gives: 3x – 6 = 12
Rearranging gives: 3x = 12 + 6
i.e. 3x = 18
Dividing both sides by 3 gives: x=6
Application: Solve the equation: 4(2y – 3) – 2(y – 4) = 3(y – 3) – 1
Removing brackets gives: 8y – 12 – 2y + 8 = 3y – 9 – 1
Rearranging gives: 8y – 2y – 3y = – 9 – 1 + 12 – 8
i.e. 3y = – 6
-6
Dividing both sides by 3 gives: y= =–2
3
4 2
Application: Solve the equation: =
t 5
The lowest common multiple (LCM) of the denominators, i.e. the lowest algebraic
expression that both t and 5 will divide into, is 5t
4  2
Multiplying both sides by 5t gives: 5t   = 5t  
 t   5 
Cancelling gives: 5(4) = t(2)
i.e. 20 = 2t (1)
20 2t
2 2
Cancelling gives: 10 = t or t = 10
When there is just one fraction on each side of the equation as in this example,
there is a quick way to arrive at equation (1) without needing to find the LCM of the
denominators.
 4  2
We can move from   = to: 4 × 5 = 2 × t
 t  5
by what is called ‘cross-multiplication’.
a c
In general, if= then: ad = bc
b d
We can use cross-multiplication when there is one fraction only on each side of the
equation.
3 4
Application: Solve the equation: =
x-2 3x + 4
‘Cross-multiplication’ gives: 3(3x + 4) = 4(x – 2)
Removing brackets gives: 9x + 12 = 4x – 8
Rearranging gives: 9x – 4x = – 8 – 12
i.e. 5x = – 20
–20
Dividing both sides by 5 gives: x= =–4
5
Application: Solve the equation: 2 d = 6
Whenever square roots are involved in an equation, the square root term needs to
be isolated on its own before squaring both sides
6
‘Cross-multiplying’ gives: d = 2
Cancelling gives: d =3
( d)
2 2
Squaring both sides gives: = ( 3)
i.e. d9
15 2
Application: Solve the equation: 
4 t2 3
We need to rearrange the equation to get the t2 term on its own.
‘Cross-multiplying’ gives: 15(3)  2(4t2)
i.e. 45  8t2
Dividing both sides by 8 gives: 45 8t 2

=
8 8
By cancelling: 5.625  t2
or t2  5.625
Taking the square root of both sides gives:
t 2 = 5.625
i.e. t  ± 2.372, correct to 4 significant figures,
Practical problems involving simple equations
Application: Applying the principle of moments to a beam results in the follow-

ing equation:
F × 3  (7.5 – F) × 2
where F is the force in Newtons. Determine the value of F.
Removing brackets gives: 3 F  15 – 2 F
Rearranging gives: 3 F + 2 F  15
i.e. 5 F  15
5F 15
5 5
from which, force, F  3 N
Application: PV = mRT is the characteristic gas equation. Find the value of gas
constant R when pressure, P = 3 × 106Pa, volume, V = 0.90m3, mass, m = 2.81kg
and temperature, T = 231 K.
Another random document with
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ciencia y la experiencia de
manera que no lo sepa curar. Que
hay pocos boticarios en España
que sepan lo que han de saber y
lo que se requiere para no errar,
no puedo negarlo, y que hay
también muchos que, sabiéndolo,
pecan con malicia y que la codicia
se antepone en ellos á la
conciencia, también lo creo, y aun
lo sé, porque lo he visto estando
tratando en las casas y tiendas de
muchos boticarios, donde pasan
cosas extrañas y tan
desordenadas que me han
espantado, y sin duda los malos
boticarios, de cualquier manera
que sea, son cruel pestilencia
para los pueblos, y yo confiesso
que no hay cosa más justa que
remediarlo si fuesse posible; y
porque no puedan decir los
culpados que en mi se cumple el
proverbio ¿quién es tu enemigo?
hombre de tu oficio, no quiero
extenderme á más, que por
ventura pndiera decir otros
muchos y mayores secretos de
las maldades que hacen que no
han venido á noticia del señor
licenciado. Pero con todo esto no
quiero que se dé toda la culpa á
los boticarios en muchas cosas
que tienen la mayor parte los
médicos, aun á las veces es toda,
y así las autoridades que vuesa
merced ha alegado de Jacobo
Silvio contra los malos boticarios,
si tiene memoria dello, también
las dice contra los que no son
buenos médicos, porque en aquel
proemio contra los unos y los
otros va hablando.
Lerma.—Creo que decís la
verdad, pero poco es lo que vos
ni nadie podrá decir contra los
médicos en comparación de lo
que yo he dicho y se podría decir
contra los boticarios.
Dionisio.—Si vuesa merced
quiere tener sufrimiento para oirlo,
no le parecerá sino mucho; que
no es menor el daño ni perjuicio
que hacen en la república, ni
habría menos razón para que los
desconciertos que dellos se
siguen se remediasen.
Lerma.—Decid lo que
quisiéredes, que quiero que estos
señores no digan que no cumplo
mi palabra.
Pimentel.—Ni aun sería justo
que se dexase de cumplir, y vos,
señor Dionisio, decid lo que os
pareciere, pues que el señor
licenciado no tiene tanta priesa
que no pueda detenerse otro
tanto para escucharos como se
ha detenido para hacer verdadero
lo que al principio propuso contra
los boticarios.
Lerma.—Forzado me sería hacer
lo que vuestras mercedes
mandan, aunque en verdad que
hago alguna falta á dos ó tres
enfermos que tengo de visitar.
D. Gaspar.—Tiempo habrá para
todo, que si la plática se dexase
en estos términos, era quedar
pleito pendiente, y lo mejor será
que luego se determine.
Dionisio.—Aunque yo tenía harto
en que alargarme, procuraré ser
breve diciendo en suma lo que
cerca desto entiendo, pues no
será necesario más de apuntarlo
para que vuestras mercedes lo
entiendan y estén al cabo de
todo. Y digo lo primero que lo que
Ipocras dice de los que no son
buenos médicos en el libro que se
llama Introductorio son las
palabras siguientes: Muy
semejantes son éstos á los que
se introducen en las tragedias,
porque tienen la figura y vestidos
y atavíos y aun la presencia de
médicos de la misma manera que
los hipócritas, y así hay muchos
médicos de nombre y que lo sean
en las obras son muy pocos.
Pues Ipocras evangelista de los
médicos es llamado, y podemos
tener por cierto que en ninguna
cosa de lo que cerca desto dice
recibe engaño, y pluguiese á Dios
que en nuestros tiempos no
acertase tan de veras como
acierta en esto que ha dicho,
porque así no habría los daños y
grandes inconvenientes que para
la salud de los enfermos se
siguen por falta de los buenos
médicos.
Lerma.—Assí es como vos decís,
señor Dionisio; pero decime:
¿quiénes son essos malos
médicos, que yo á todos los tengo
por buenos?
Dionisio.—Antes son tan pocos
los buenos médicos, que apenas
hay ninguno que no sea malo,
como vuesa merced ha dicho de
los boticarios, y por no gastar
palabras, quiérome ir declarando
más particularmente, para que
nos entendamos, de las
condiciones que se requieren
para que un médico cumpla con
Dios y con el mundo. La primera,
que sea hombre justo, temeroso
de Dios y de su conciencia,
conforme á lo que Salomón dice
(Eccl., I): El principio de la
sabiduría es el temor que á Dios
se tiene; porque el que no llevare
su fundamento sobre esto, no
podrá hacer las curas suficientes
ni que aprovechen á los
enfermos, y así dice Galeno:
Aquel cuyo juicio fuere débil y
cuya ánima fuere mala, no
aprenderá aquello que se enseña
en esta ciencia, y esto es porque
su fin no es de aprovechar á su
prójimo con ella, sino á sí mismo.
No sé yo qué temor de Dios
tienen los médicos que curan sin
tener la ciencia y experiencia y las
otras cosas necessarias y
convinientes para que curen, y si
éstas les faltan, y faltándoles con
la codicia de la ganancia se
ponen á curar no sabiendo lo que
hacen, no solamente pecan, pero
dañan su ánima; de manera que
no podrán aprender lo que son
obligados á saber, como Galeno
les ha dicho, ni tampoco puede
ser piadoso ni misericordioso el
médico que cura las
enfermedades que no conoce, ni
sabe, ni entiende; antes es muy
gran crueldad y inhumanidad la
que usan, pues que, ó por ganar
dineros ó por no confesar su
iñorancia, ponen los enfermos en
el peligro de la muerte y no
guardan lo que Rasis dice,
trayéndolo por autoridad de un
gran médico judío, que los
médicos han de ser muy piadosos
con los enfermos, para que con
mayor cuidado y diligencia curen
dellos.
Lerma.—¿Pues cómo sabéis vos
que los médicos no tienen
suficiencia y habilidad que se
requiere para curar, de manera
que no cumplan con lo que deben
á su conciencia?
Dionisio.—Ya yo he dicho que no
son todos los médicos, sino que
hablo con la mayor parte dellos, y
si vuesa merced quiere que le
declare lo que sabe muy mejor
que yo lo entiendo, quiero
aclararme más para que estos
señores lo entiendan. Cruel cosa
y fuera de todo término de
razones la que se consiente y
permite á los médicos que
después que se van á estudiar á
las universidades, con tres ó
cuatro años que han oido de
medicina presumen luego de
ponerse á curar, ó por mejor decir
á matar los enfermos. Y con tres
maravedís de ciencia quieren
ganar en un año quinientos
ducados, porque su intención es á
sola ganancia, no teniendo
atención á lo que Ipocras dice en
su juramento, que siempre su
principal intención será en curar á
los enfermos, sin tener respecto á
lo que por ello se ha de ganar.
Lerma.—Mal podéis vos juzgar
las intenciones de los médicos.
Dionisio.—Antes muy bien se
pueden juzgar de las obras que
hacen, porque si el médico es
necio de su natural, mal acertará
en el remedio de la vida de un
hombre, donde tan gran
discreción se requiere, y si es
sabio, ha de saber que con tan
poca ciencia no ha de presumir
de hacer lo que otros con mucha
no pueden ni saben, y con este
conocimiento está obligado á no
curar hasta que pueda tener
mejor constanza de sí, y si no lo
hacen, claro está que la codicia
de la ganancia les hace poner en
aventura la salud y vida de los
hombres en si aciertan ó no
aciertan en la cura que hacen.
D. Gaspar.—Pues si esso es así,
¿cuándo han de comenzar á
curar los médicos?
Dionisio.—Cuando tuvieren la
ciencia suficiente y la práctica que
se requiere para ponerla en obra.
D. Gaspar.—No os entiendo lo
que queréis decir.
Dionisio.—Digo, que no
solamente un médico ha de tener
muy gran ciencia y saber muy
bien los preceptos y reglas de
medicina, sino que también ha de
tener muy larga y conocida
experiencia de las enfermedades
y de la manera y orden que han
de tener en curarse. Porque el
principal fundamento está en
conocerlas, y esta experiencia
requiere muy largo tiempo,
conforme á lo que Ipocras dice:
La vida de los hombres es muy
breve y la arte es muy luenga; el
tiempo es agudo y la experiencia
engañosa. Si esto es así verdad,
¿qué experiencia pueden tener
los que ayer salieron del estudio,
ni los que ha un año, ni dos, ni
seis que curan, á lo menos si las
curas que hacen son con sólo su
parecer y por su albedrío?
Pimentel.—Muy poca ó ninguna,
y cuando viniera á tenerla,
habrían ya muerto más hombres
que sanado enfermos.
D. Gaspar.—¿Pues qué han de
hacer los médicos para no errar?
Dionisio.—Lo que dice el señor
licenciado de los boticarios: que
es, tratar mucho tiempo su oficio
antes que comiencen á usar dél
por su actoridad, y primero que se
atrevan á hacer una experiencia
la han de haber visto muchas
veces, ó á lo menos otra
semejante; y esto ha de ser
curando mucho tiempo los
médicos mancebos en compañía
de los viejos experimentados, lo
que no hace ninguno, porque con
la leche en los labios de lo que
han estudiado, les parece que
son bastantes á curar cualquiera
enfermedad por sí solos, y si la
ganancia no estuviese de por
medio, todavía se humillarían á lo
que son obligados; porque no
basta que den muy buena razón
de lo que les preguntassen si no
lo saben obrar, conforme á lo que
dice Avicena: Que no basta en la
medicina la razón sin la
experiencia ni la experiencia sin la
razón, porque ambas son
menester y han de andar juntas la
una con la otra.
Pimentel.—¿Pues qué han de
hacer los médicos en tanto que
no pudiesen ganar de comer?
Que según esso primero llegarán
á viejos que justamente puedan
llevar alguna ganancia.
Dionisio.—Que coman de sus
patrimonios, y si no lo tienen, que
lo procuren por otra vía, que no
ha de ser su ganancia tan á costa
y perjuicio de las repúblicas que
sean los médicos peor pestilencia
y más crueles verdugos que los
boticarios, como el señor
licenciado ha dicho, pues que
están obligados á cumplir el
juramento que su evangelista juró
en nombre de todos ellos.
Lerma.—Bien sería si los
médicos de agora que fuesen
como los de los tiempos pasados
que esso escribieron, que
hablaban á su seguro y sin
necesidad de ganar de comer por
su trabajo, que Ipocras, señor fué
de la isla de Coo y tan rico y
poderoso, que no quiso las
riquezas de un potentísimo rey
que se las ofrecía por que le
fuese á curar de una enfermedad,
ni después temió sus amenazas
porque no quiso hacerlo. Avicena,
príncipe fué del reino de Córdoba.
Hamech, hijo fué de un rey, y así
otros muchos médicos que se
podrían decir semejantes á éstos;
pero los que agora aprendemos
esta arte es para sustentarnos
con ella y no para mostrarnos
sabios y ganar honra solamente,
como ellos.
Dionisio.—Yo no quito que del
trabajo se saque el premio para
sustentarse los médicos; pero
querría que con mayor cuidado
procurasen que yo no tuviese
razón en lo que digo, porque
verdaderamente por lo menos
habrían de haber visto curar y
tratar las enfermedades cinco ó
seis años antes que tuviesen
licencia de curar por si solos:
porque sabe un médico dar razón
de las alteraciones que ha de
haber en un pulso para que un
enfermo tenga calentura, y
cuando le toma el pulso no lo
conoce por falta de experiencia, y
muchas veces desta manera
vemos que curando dos médicos
á un enfermo, el uno dice que
tiene calentura y el otro que está
sin ella, y así mesmo yerran
diversas veces, teniendo unas
enfermedades por otras; y cuando
Galeno, siendo tan excelentísimo
médico, confiesa de sí mesmo
haberse engañado una vez que
teniendo mal de cólico y muy gran
dolor pensó que le procedía de
tener piedra en los reñones,
haciendo diferentes remedios de
los que para aquella enfermedad
eran necesarios, ¿qué harán
estos médicos de quien yo digo, y
más no teniendo las
enfermedades en sus mesmos
cuerpos para sentirlas, sino en los
ajenos, donde por la mayor parte
juzgan por adivinanzas? Y el no
conocer bien los médicos las
enfermedades que son tan
diversas y diferentes es causa de
venir á morir muchos de los que
las tienen, que siendo curados
dellas con los remedios que se
les suelen hacer no perderían las
vidas; y sin esto, ¿qué menos
obligación tienen los médicos que
los boticarios á conocer si las
medicinas son buenas ó malas, y
escoger las mejores cuando
mandan hacer una purga ó unas
píldoras ó otra cosa semejante,
para que los boticarios no los
engañen, que así la culpa es de
los unos y de los otros? Por cierto
cosa es para reir ver algunos
médicos de los nuevos, y aun de
los viejos, ir á nuestras boticas y
pedir que les mostremos las
medicinas y tomar las peores por
las mejores, y algunas veces
unas por otras, y el xarabe que
está bueno dicen que está malo, y
el que está malo alaban por
bueno, tanto que muchas veces
nos burlamos dellos,
mostrándoles una cosa por otra
sin que lo conozcan. Y no para en
esto la fiesta, sino que hay
médicos que recetan disparates, y
cosas que bastarían á matar á los
sanos, cuanto más é los
enfermos, y tienen necesidad las
boticarios de remediarlo, por no
ser participantes en la culpa, que
si las medicinas obran bien,
quieren ellos llevarlas gracias, y si
mal, que nos den á nosotros por
culpados. También hacen otra
cosa perjudicial á sus conciencias
y honras, y es que se aficionan á
unos boticarios más que á otros
para darles provecho, no teniendo
respecto á lo que saben y
entienden, ni al aparejo que
tienen, sino á los servicios que les
hacen, porque les dan parte de
las ganancias; y aunque no sea
tan descubiertamente, en fin,
aprovéchanse dellos en las
haciendas y en las personas, y el
boticario que no les sirviere y
anduviere bailando delante, poca
medra tiene con ellos; y de aquí
nace que pocas veces los
médicos son amigos de los
buenos boticarios, porque
confiando en su saber y bondad y
en el buen aparejo de medicinas
que hay en sus tiendas, no les
quieren tener aquel respecto que
ellos desean y procuran, y con
esto no medran mucho con la
ganancia que les dan, porque se
la quitan cuando pueden.
Pimentel.—Si todos los
boticarios les dan el trato que vos
agora les dais, poca razón
tendrán de serles amigos; pero
pasad adelante, porque me
parece que os queda más que
decir.
Dionisio.—No sería poco si se
hubiese de decir todo; pero
todavía quiero pasar más larga la
carrera, que yo me iré abreviando
por no cansar á vuesas
mercedes. Por cierto, cosa es de
notar, y aun de burlar, ver á los
médicos ponerse en los portales
de sus casas, esperando por las
mañanas que les traigan las
orinas de los lugares comarcanos
donde viven, que las unas son
tomadas cuatro horas ha y otras
seis, y algunas por ventura de
una noche ó de todo un día
vienen mazadas y botadas, que
no parecen sino lodo, y así las
están mirando como si estuviesen
para conocerse las enfermedades
por ellas, habiendo de estar la
orina tomada por lo más de una
hora y reposada en el orinal para
que no esté revuelto el hipostasis,
y con esto cumplen los pobres
simples, para que les den dineros
por ello, y si á un médico destos
le llaman para cien enfermos, á
todos irá á visitar y á curarlos de
cualquiera enfermedades que
tengan, no teniendo tiempo de
estudiar para los seis dellos, ni
para acabar de entender lo que
curan y los remedios necesarios,
y así andan ciegos y desatinados
en lo que es necesario tener el
mayor concierto y tino del mundo,
fuera de la salvación del ánima,
porque no han de confiar de lo
que han estudiado ni de lo que
tienen en sus memorias, sino de
ver de nuevo cada día y cada
hora cómo se ha de curar la
enfermedad que tienen entre
manos y qué remedios se le han
de aplicar para sanarla.
Pimentel.—No me parece que
tenéis tanta razón en lo que decís
que no podáis engañaros, porque
los médicos viejos que han visto y
estudiado mucho, con lo que
saben pueden curar sin tornar á
ver los libros tantas veces como
vos decís.
Dionisio.—A los que eso
hicieren, acaescerles ha como á
los predicadores, que siendo
grandes teólogos, presumen de
hacer algunos sermones sin
estudiar los primeros, y por una
vez que aciertan á llevarlos bien
ordenados, diez veces se pierden,
de manera que luego se les
conoce que lo que predican es sin
estudio, y cuando yerran, es ésta
la disculpa que tienen; así los
médicos que quieren curar las
enfermedades sin estudiar de
nuevo para cada una dellas, por
una que aciertan, errarán
muchas, para acabar la vida de
aquellos que se ponen en sus
manos por alargarla.
D. Gaspar.—Todas estas faltas
se suplen con la discreción y
buen natural de un médico, y
muchas veces aprovecha más
con ello que con la arte ni con
cuanta medicina han estudiado.
Dionisio.—No digo yo menos que
esso, y vuestra merced me ha
quitado de trabajo en echarlo en
el corro, para que aquí se declare;
pero diga vuestra merced
¿cuántos médicos hay hoy con
las propiedades y condiciones
que cerca de eso se requieren?
Pluguiese á Dios que antes les
faltase parte de la ciencia que no
el buen natural y el juicio claro,
reposado y assentado, porque
teniéndolo, con él suplirían
muchas faltas, juzgando con
discreción en algunas cosas, que
sólo ella bastaría; porque la
buena estimativa, como dice
Averroes, sola hace bueno al
médico. Lo mismo tiene
Halirodoan y Galeno en el primero
de los días críticos, y conforme á
esto Damasceno: el ingenio
natural del médico con pequeño
fundamento ayuda á la
naturaleza, y el que es defetuoso
hace el effeto contrario. Pues
siendo esto assí, como estos
autores dicen, ¿qué podrán hacer
muchos médicos alterados, locos,
desasosegados, elevados y, lo
que peor es de todo, muy grandes
necios? Por cierto, en los tales
como éstos yo tengo en muy poco
la ciencia que tienen, porque no
sabrán usar della por mucha que
tengan, ni aprovechar á los que
tuvieren necesidad de su ayuda.
Porque los unos dellos todo lo
que saben lo tienen en el pico de
las lenguas, alegando textos y
autoridades á montones sobre
cada cosa que se trata, sabiendo
entenderla para tratarla y no para
usar della. Otros que les parece
que todo su saber consiste en
sustentar opiniones contrarias de
los otros médicos; y en fin si les
preguntasen dónde está el bazo ó
el hígado, apenas sabrían
mostrarlo, porque, como he dicho,
no lo han tratado ni tienen
experiencia dello. Y estos tales
son como unos marineros que
saben aritmética, cosmografía y
astrología, y dan buena razón de
todo lo que les preguntan cerca
de la arte de marear, y les
pusiessen un timón de una nave
en las manos, presto la pondrían
en trabajo y peligro de anegarse,
por no saber gobernarla y guiarla,
y así como se hiciese pedazos en
las peñas ó se encallase en
algunos vaxios, para no poder
salir de la arena, porque no
conocen la tierra, ni saben los
puertos donde acogerse, ni los
lugares seguros donde echar
áncoras hasta que pase la
tempestad y tormenta. Y así los
médicos que no han visto las
enfermedades ni las han curado
otras veces, no saben guiarlas á
puerto seguro, ni sacarlas de los
peligros desta mar del mundo en
que navegamos, y dan con los
enfermos al través; de suerte que
en lugar de sacarlos á puerto de
salvación, los llevan al de
perdición de su salud y vida; y de
estas cosas muchas remedia el
buen entendimiento, y el buen
natural y claro juicio y la buena
estimativa á donde la hay, aunque
esto todo juntamente con las
letras necesarias pocas veces y
en pocos médicos se halla, y
éstos pierden la bondad que
tienen por el fin que pretenden de
las riquezas, que la codicia les
hace desordenarse de manera
que no atienden tanto á hacer con
su habilidad cuanto á sacar el
provecho que pueden della, y así
hacen mil descuidos y desatinos,
proveyendo lo que conviene á las
enfermedades sin haber
estudiado sobre ellas, no mirando
lo que dice Galeno: Que conviene
al médico ser muy estudioso para
que no diga ni provea alguna
cosa en la enfermedad que curare
absolutamente y sin haberla
primero bien mirado. Al médico
que esto hiciese no le acaecería
lo que á mí me han contado de
uno que mirando cierta
enfermedad de un hombre dixo
que con muy gran brevedad la
curaría, y el enfermo, que lo
deseaba, oyendo esto dióle
mayor priesa al médico. Por
abreviar, mandóle que, así como
había de tomar para purgarse
cuatro ó cinco xarabes que
digestiesen el humor, que se
trajesen todos juntos y que los
tomase de una vez, pareciéndole
que por ser la mesma cantidad
haría el mesmo efeto que si se
tomaran en cinco días; y así le dió
luego la purga, la cual nunca le
salió del cuerpo, porque se murió
con ella, lo cual por ventura no
pasara si el tiempo ayudara á los
xarabes repartidos, que en cinco
días tuvieron el humor digesto
para poder hacer la evacuación
que por falta de éste no se hizo. Y
porque ya me parece que me voy
alargando, quiero resumirme con
que el día de hoy hay pocos
médicos que verdaderamente lo
sean, y muchos que tienen los
nombres de médicos que no lo
son, porque tienen el nombre
sólo, sin las obras; y no hay
menos necesidad de que en esto
se pusiese remedio que en lo de
los boticarios, no dexando curar
sino á las personas que fuesen
suficientes para ello y que
tuviesen todas las partes y
condiciones que se requieren
para no matar á los enfermos en
lugar de sanarlos.
Pimentel.—Conforme á eso,
¿queríades que los médicos
fuesen tan perfetos que todas sus
obras fuesen sin reprehensión?
Dionisio.—Yo querría lo que
Galeno dice que conviene á los
médicos (así como antiguamente
está dicho) ser semejantes á los
ángeles, para que no yerren en lo
que hicieren.
D. Gaspar.—Mucha medicina
habéis estudiado, á lo que
parece, señor Dionisio, pues
tantas autoridades y de tantos
autores traéis para probar vuestra
intención contra los médicos.
Lerma.—Aquellas tiénenlas
estudiadas y recopiladas muchos,
días ha, para satisfacerse de los
médicos que dixeren alguna cosa
de los boticarios, aunque no
puedo dexar de confesar que
Dionisio tiene tanta habilidad que
basta para más que esto, y en
todo lo que ha dicho dice muy
gran verdad y tiene razón, porque
son todas cosas convenientes y
necesarias; y verdaderamente es
mucho el daño que hacen los
médicos que no son suficientes ni
tienen la habilidad que se
requiere para usar bien sus
oficios, de las cuales es la mayor
la arte y después la experiencia, y
con ellas se ha de juntar el buen
natural, la discreción y la buena
estimativa para conocer y juzgar y
obrar con la calidad y cantidad, y
guardar los tiempos, las
condiciones, diferenciando con el
buen juicio la manera que se ha
de tener en las curas, que
requieren diversas formas y
maneras para ser curadas; y
conforme á esto, los médicos,
para ser buenos médicos, si fuese
cosa que se pudiese hacer,
habrían de ver curar cuando
mozos y curar cuando viejos y
experimentados.
Pimentel.—Lo que yo infiero de
lo que ha dicho Dionisio y de lo
que vos, señor licenciado, decís,

Mathematics Pocket Book For Engineers and Scientists 5Th Edition John Bird Full Chapter

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Mathematics Pocket Book for

Engineers and Scientists 5th Edition

Electrical engineers require mathematics and science to design, develop,

Mechanical engineers require mathematics and science to perform engineer-

Aerospace engineers require mathematics and science to perform a variety

Nuclear engineers require mathematics and science to conduct research on

Petroleum engineers require mathematics and science to devise methods

Environmental engineers require mathematics and science to design, plan,

Architects require knowledge of algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calcu-

Knowledge of mathematics and science is clearly needed by each of the dis-

Typeset in Frutiger 45 Light by

Section 1 Engineering conversions, constants and symbols 1

Section 2 Some algebra topics 17

Section 3 Some number topics 67

Section 4 Areas and volumes 101

Section 5 Geometry and trigonometry 131

Section 6 Graphs 170

Section 7 Complex numbers 204

Section 8 Vectors 216

Chapter 76 Combination of two periodic functions 225

Section 9 Matrices and determinants 233

Section 10 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 253

Section 11 Differential calculus and its applications 273

Section 12 Integral calculus and its applications 315

Chapter 118 Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic

Section 13 Differential equations 375

Chapter 148 Solution of partial differential equations (1) – by

Section 14 Laplace transforms 418

Section 15 Z-transforms 447

Section 16 Fourier series 464

Section 17 Statistics and probability 494

Chapter 187 Wilcoxon signed-rank test 537

JOHN BIRD BSc(Hons), CEng, CSi, CMath, FIET, FIMA, FCollP

Why are engineering conversions, constants and

Without the ability to measure, it would be difficult for scientists to conduct

Measurement provides a standard for everyday things and processes. Examples

Chapter 1 General conversions and Greek alphabet

Length (metric) 1 kilometre (km)  1000 metres (m)

Mass 1 kilogram (kg)  1000 g  2.2046 pounds (lb)

Angular measure 1 rad  57.296°

Letter Name Upper Case Lower Case

Chapter 2 Basic SI units, derived units and common

Plane angle radian, rad

Electric capacitance farad, F

Some other derived units not having special names

Acceleration metre per second squared, m/s2

Heat flux density watt per square metre, W/m3

Prefix Name Meaning

Y yotta multiply by 1024

Chapter 3 Some physical and mathematical constants

Quantity Symbol Value

Speed of light in a vacuum c 2.9979  108 m/s

Mass of earth mE 5.976  1024 kg

Tropical year 3.1557  107 s

Pi (Archimedes’ constant) π 3.1416

Chapter 4 Recommended mathematical symbols

logarithm to the base a of x loga x

hyperbolic cotangent of x coth x

Chapter 5 Symbols for physical quantities

(a) Space and time

(b) Periodic and related phenomena

(e) Electricity and magnetism

(f) Light and related electromagnetic