Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

LEA-0007/205 Rev. 01
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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

CONTENTS

1.
2.
3.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE .......................................................................................................... 6

REFERENCED PARACREO DOCUMENTS ............................................................................ 6
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD.............................................................................................. 7
3.1.
What is the Mean Aerodynamic Chord? ....................................................................... 7
3.2.
Principals ..................................................................................................................... 7
3.2.1. Centre of Area .................................................................................................. 7
3.2.2. MAC Definition.................................................................................................. 8
3.3.
Finding the MAC .......................................................................................................... 9
3.3.1. Analytical Method ............................................................................................. 9
3.3.2. Graphical Method ............................................................................................. 9
3.3.3. Numerical ....................................................................................................... 11
3.4.
Finding the position of the MAC ................................................................................. 11
3.4.1. Analytical ........................................................................................................ 12
3.5.
Special Cases ............................................................................................................ 13
3.5.1. Multi-Panel MAC Calculation .......................................................................... 13
3.5.2. Elliptical Wings ............................................................................................... 13
3.5.3. Biplanes.......................................................................................................... 14
3.6.
MAC Calculator .......................................................................................................... 14
3.7.
Application ................................................................................................................. 14

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

AMENDMENT RECORD
RFC / DCN

Details of Change

Rev.

Date

Author

N/A

Original Document

01

28/07/2011

R. Wylie

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Trapezoidal Wing Planform & Centre of Area ............................................................................7

Figure 2: Graphical MAC Determination .................................................................................................10
Figure 3: Alternate Graphical MAC Calculation.......................................................................................11
Figure 5: MAC for Elliptical Wing ............................................................................................................14

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS

List of Acronyms
Definition

Acronym
LE
TE

Leading Edge
Leading Edge

List of Symbols
Definition

Symbol
RE
MAC
b
Sref
MAC
c
cr
ct

y
1/4

[]
m
m
2
m
m
m
m
m
[]
m
Deg

Reynolds Number
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
Wing Span
Wing Reference Area
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
Wing chord
Root Chord
Tip Chord
Taper Ratio
Spanwise Coordinate
Quarter Chord Sweep

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

1.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The document provides an explanation of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord, the principals behind it, and a
few approaches to finding the MAC and the location of the MAC.

2.

REFERENCED PARACREO DOCUMENTS

Ref. No.

Document Number

Document Title

Revision

Date

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

3.

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

3.1.

What is the Mean Aerodynamic Chord?

The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) is an aerodynamic parameter referenced throughout aerodynamic
and stability calculations in aircraft design: it is essentially an average chord of a lifting surface. This is
simple if the aircraft wing has a constant chord, which is almost never the case - it is often advantageous
to introduce taper and sweep into the wing planform. However, one needs to establish a representative
average chord of the lifting surface and the location of this average chord longitudinally and laterally.
Note: the MAC can be found for any lifting surfaces, including the horizontal and vertical stabilizers.

3.2.

Principals

3.2.1.

Centre of Area

The MAC of an aircraft lifting surface lies on the centre of area (or centroid) of the surface planform.
Finding the MAC of an aircraft is equivalent to finding the location of the centroid, and the chord at that
location. The centre of area of any shape can be thought of as the average x and y co-ordinates if your
shape was broken up into pixels. Consider the trapezoidal wing below:
y
Centre of Area
xC / LE
cr
ct

yC / ROOT
b/4
b/2

Figure 1: Trapezoidal Wing Planform & Centre of Area

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Finding the average x coordinate follows the same principle as any average moment (centre of gravity,
statistical average etc.). If one broke the above trapezium into pixels, it is clear that there would be more
pixels to the left of the centreline (dotted) than to the right. Hence if one took an average of the x
coordinates, one should expect that the average x coordinate is located as shown. What is actually
happening is the summation of all individual pixel areas multiplied by their x-coordinate called the area
moment:

M i = xi Ai
Each of the pixels area moment are added, and then the result is divided by the total planform area to
give a result in units of length again:

x A
=
A
i

xC

x1 A1 + x 2 A2 + x3 A3 +
A1 + A2 + A3 + = ATot

The same applies to the y-coordinate and this can easily be extended to any parameter such as mass
(CG calculation) or chord.

3.2.2.

MAC Definition

Like we have found the average x and y co-ordinates above, the same principle is applied to calculate an
average chord, the MAC. Instead of multiplying by the x and y coordinates however, one multiplies by
the wing chord at that location.

MAC A
MAC =
A
i

c1 A1 + c 2 A2 + c3 A3
A1 + A2 + A3

This is simply extended to a continuous case, where the areas are still discrete rectangles, but so small
that it looks like you are dealing with a continuous area, and this forms the definition of the MAC:

c( y) dA = c ( y) dy
MAC =
S
dA
2

ref

In practice, one does not need to apply the integral definition of the MAC if they cant come to grips with
this principal.

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

3.3.

Finding the MAC

Various methods exist for calculation of the MAC of a lifting surface including analytical, numerical and
graphical methods. Modern aircraft design and simulation is very much a computer-centred science, and
as such, analytical or numerical computation of the MAC is useful. If you are not dealing with an
extensive analysis however, graphical determination will yield sufficient accuracy.

3.3.1.

Analytical Method

The MAC can be found analytically as a function of the taper ratio :

MAC =

1 + + 2
2
ct
cr
, =
3
cr
1+

Note: this applies only to wings with constant taper for multi-panel wings, see section Error!
Reference source not found..

3.3.2.

Graphical Method

The MAC is easily determined graphically, however one must remember that the accuracy of the result is
influenced by the scale you have drawn it at (bigger is better) and the accuracy of your drawing and
measuring. Two graphical processes which will yield the same result are presented hereunder the
diagrams are labelled with the step numbers for clarity.

1. Draw the wing planform to scale as large as possible;

2. Measure the root chord, and add construction lines of this length ahead of the tip chord LE and
behind the tip chord TE respectively;
3. Measure the tip chord, and add construction lines of this length ahead of the root chord LE and
behind the root chord TE respectively;
4. Join the ends of the construction line pairs as shown in Figure 2 hereunder. The intersection of
these two lines defines the y-location of the MAC, where the MAC is the local chord at that
station.

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

ct

cr

cr

ct

ct
MAC

cr

Figure 2: Graphical MAC Determination

Alternatively, a slightly more accurate and less involved method:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Draw the wing planform to scale as large as possible;

Mark off points at half the root chord, and half the tip chord, and join the line (the half-chord line)
Measure the root chord, and add a construction line of this length ahead of the tip chord LE;
Measure the tip chord, and add construction lines of this length behind the root chord TE
respectively;
5. Join the ends of the construction lines as shown in Figure 3 hereunder. The intersection of this
line with the half-chord line defines the y-location of the MAC, where the MAC is the local chord
at that station.

Note: adding the root chord behind the tip chord TE and the tip chord ahead of the root chord LE will not
change the result.

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

cr

cr

ct
4

ct
MAC
Half Chord Line

Figure 3: Alternate Graphical MAC Calculation

If the reader has access to CAD software, then following the above procedures in a CAD environment
will obviously give a very accurate result, and is largely effortless, and independent of the scale at which
it was drawn.

3.3.3.

Numerical

A typical numerical method for fining the MAC and its location is provided in the appendix. Note: this will
only really make sense to those who are familiar with some basic programming.

3.4.

Finding the position of the MAC

As was mentioned earlier, it is not sufficient to find only the MAC of a lifting surface, but also the
longitudinal and lateral positions of the MAC. The tail moment arm for instance is defined as the
longitudinal distance between the quarter-chord of the wing MAC and that of the horizontal stabilizer.
Wing (rearward) sweep decreases the tail moment arm and reduces longitudinal stability, and hence it is
important to consider the MAC position during the initial phases of design.

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Graphical methods for MAC determination are useful in that they give you a direct result for the MAC and
the location of the MAC. The analytical methods require a bit more effort.

3.4.1.

Analytical

In a wing of constant taper, this is still simple: the wing (or lifting surface) has a root chord larger than the
MAC, and a tip chord smaller than the MAC, i.e. somewhere in between lies the MAC. In a constant
taper wing, the chord decreases linearly from root to tip, and one needs only to establish an analytical
expression for the variation of the chord from root to tip.

c( y ) = c r

In terms of MAC:

y
(c r ct )
b/2

MAC = c r

y MAC

y MAC
(c r ct )
b/2

b
(c r MAC )
2
=
c r ct

Finding the longitudinal position of the MAC is simple one you have the lateral position from above. From
the wing root LE, the longitudinal position of the MAC quarter-chord is:

x MAC 1 / 4 =

cr
+ y MAC tan ( 1 / 4 )
4

, where 1/ 4 is the quarter-chord sweep.

Note: It is important that the wing root chord is located at y = 0. If it isnt, either the root chord must be
extrapolated, or the formulae modified to incorporate this. The best way to approach an MAC calculation
is a good drawing, from which you derive the equations, and validate the equations with the root and tip
chords. Should you define the root chord outside of the centreline of the aircraft at y0 , the expression for
wing chord becomes:

c( y ) = c r

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(b / 2 y 0 )

(c r ct )

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

3.5.

Special Cases

3.5.1.

Multi-Panel MAC Calculation

Where the wing has multiple discrete panels of different taper, the integral definition should be applied or
the following can be used once the MAC of the individual panels are known:

MAC A
MAC =
A
i

MAC1 A1 + MAC 2 A2 + MAC 3 A3 +

A1 + A2 + A3 +

The y-coordinate of the MAC for a multi-panel wing can be found as:

y A
=
A
MAC i

y MAC

y MAC1 A1 + y MAC 2 A2 + y MAC3 A3 +

A1 + A2 + A3 +

The x coordinate can be found in the same manner presented above.

Note: there may exist a case where the MAC calculated for a multi-panel wing may be larger than the
local chord where the MAC lies. This is okay - the MAC should be regarded as an aerodynamic
parameter, not a geometric parameter.

3.5.2.

Elliptical Wings

An elliptical planform is rarely seen in modern aircraft production given the structural and manufacture
complexities. Remembering that the MAC lies on the centre of area of the ellipse, the wing area and
MAC for an elliptical wing are given respectively as:

Wing Area:

S Ellipse =

Mean Aerodynamic Chord:

MAC Ellipse = 0.9055 c r

Location of MAC:

y MAC Ellipse = 0.4244

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cr b

b
2

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

MAC
0.9055 b/2

0.4244 b/2
b/2

Figure 4: MAC for Elliptical Wing

3.5.3.

Biplanes

This section will be updated shortly.

3.6.

MAC Calculator

Those that dont like applying formulas can look forward to our MAC calculator on our website.

3.7.

Application

The MAC is used throughout aircraft aerodynamic analysis and design, particularly in longitudinal
stability analyses. Some other examples of where the MAC is used include:

Reynolds Number Computation;

Downwash Estimation;
Longitudinal Stability;
Drag Estimation;
Structural Mechanics: Elementary Load Determination;

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Introduction to Aircraft Design: Mean Aerodynamic Chord

APPENDIX: NUMERICAL CALCULATION OF MAC

% Finding the MAC:

dy = 0.01;
b = 2;
y = 0;
while y <= b/2
c = {some Function of y};
dA = c * dy;
I_1 = I_1 + c * dA;
I_2 = I_2 + dA;
y = y + dy;
end
MAC = I_1 / I_2;
% Finding the y-location of the MAC:
y = 0;
while y <= b/2
c = {some Function of y};
if (c = MAC + dy) or (c = MAC - dy)
y_MAC = y;
end
y = y + dy;
end
% This will give the y-location accurate to +- dy

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