Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Structure of Singing
The Structure of Singing
Structure
of
The
Structure
of
Singing
System and Art in
Vocal Technique
Richard Miller
O berlin College C o n serv ato ry of M usic
Schirmer Books
A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
N ew Y okk
Schirm er Books
A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
8 6 6 Third Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10022
Collier M acmillan Canada, Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog C ard N um ber: 85-11492
Printed in the United S tates of A m erica
printing nu m b er
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
85 11492
-----Reuben Fine
(The Ideas Behind Chess Openings.
Contents
Preface
xv
Acknowledgments
xvii
Introduction
xix
1. The Coordinated Vocal Onset and Release:
Establishing Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium
through Onset and Release
1
The Varieties of Onset
1
The Hard Attack
2
The Soft Onset
3
The Balanced Onset (Dynamic Muscle
Equilibrium)
4
Exercises for Achieving the Balanced Onset
4
Uses of the Aspirated Onset
7
Uses of the Glottal Attack
8
Physiological Benefits of the Coordinated Onset
8
Onset Vocalises which Induce Dynamic Equilibrium
9
Group 1 Exercises
,
(i 1'
Staccato and Onset
12
Group 2 Exercises
Cl3
Group 3 Exercises
15
The Release
18
The Soft Release
18
The Hard Release
18
The Balanced Release
19
2. The Supported Singing Voice: Breath Management
in Singing
20
Subglottic Pressure and Glottal Activity
21
The Technique of appoggio
23
Breath Management Exercises without
Phonation
29
Breath Management Exercises with Sibilants
and Fricatives
32
Breath Management Exercises Involving
Phonation
34
Breath-pacing versus More Support
37
vii
Contents
3.
40
42
48
50
55
56
58
60
62
63
69
69
70
70
71
71
72
72
73
73
73
73
76
76
77
79
79
80
81
84
85
86
Contents
IX
Contents
116
116
117
118
118
119
119
123
125
126
127
129
129
132
133
133
134
136
136
136
137
140
142
142
143
144
147
149
150
155
157
159
Contents
XI
161
163
167
14.
15.
167
171
173
176
182
183
185
186
187
189
191
193
194
195
197
16.
205
207
208
209
210
211
212
212
214
Healthy Singing
Conditioning for Performance Readiness
Performance-day Routine
When Not to Sing
What to Sing
The Teacher-performer
The Question of Complete Vocal Rest
The Question of Medication
218
220
221
224
226
228
229
230
12.
13.
17.
X li
Dry Throat
"Clearing the Throat
Fighting the Cough
Chewing
Singers and the Laryngologist
Weight and the Singing Voice
Diet and the Singer
Physical Exercise and Singing
Longevity and the Voice
The Optimistic Performer
Appendix 1. Laryngeal Structure and Function
Cartilaginous Structure of the Larynx
The Single or Unpaired Laryngeal Cartilages
The Paired Laryngeal Cartilages
Ligaments and Membranes of the Larynx
The Interior of the Larynx
Muscles of the Larynx and their Function
Extrinsic Muscles
Intrinsic Muscles
The Muscles of Adduction
The Muscles of Elongation
Summary of Intrinsic Laryngeal Action
Appendix 2. The Structure and Mechanics of the
Breath Apparatus
The Thoracic Cage
The Region of the Sternum
The Intercostal Muscles
The Diaphragm
The Lungs and the Pleurae
Muscles of the Neck
Muscles of the Upper Torso
Muscles of the Anterolateral Abdominal Wall
Systems of Breath Control
Appendix 3. The Physiology of the Vocal Tract
Resonator System
Appendix 4. The Physical Factors of Vocal
Contents
231
231
232
233
235
236
237
238
238
239
241
242
242
245
246
248
248
249
252
253
255
256
259
259
259
262
262
267
270
273
275
278
281
RcglHtratlon
287
287
291
Contents
D am ping
S u m m a ry o f Physical A spects of R eg istratio n
xiii
291
292
293
297
297
298
299
301
311
315
315
350
367
Preface
xvi
based on reliable, functional principles, they will make the voice sick,
just as a continual diet of desserts will adversely affect the
constitution.
Technique represents the stabilization of desirable coordination
during singing. Technique can be "computerized in the brain and
the body of the singer. No singer ever should be in doubt as to what
is going to happen, technically, in public performance, unless illness
interferes. Knowing how the singing instrum ent works, and knowing
how to get it to work consistently, is the sum of technical knowledge.
That is why a systematic approach to vocal technique is the most
successful route to artistic singing. System and art conjoin to pro
duce the professional sounds of the singing voice.
In the end, traditional vocalism is based on efficient vocal pro
duction. Artistry cannot be realized without the technical means for
its presentation. Systematic vocal technique and artistic expression
are inseparable; they comprise the structure of singing.
This book does not answ er all the questions about how to sing,
but it does provide a basis for vocal freedom in performance
through efficient handling of acoustic and physiologic aspects of the
singing voice.
Richard Miller
Acknowledgmen ts
Introduction
Why This Book Was Written
XX
Introduction
xxi
xxii
The
Structure
of
CHAPTER 1
The
Coordinated Vocal Onset
and Release
Establishing Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium
Througn Onset and Release
EXERCISE 1.1
Ml IUAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "HA, HA, HA, HA, HA" SEVERAL TIMES,
I OWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, LINGERING OVER THE
INITIAL ASPIRATED [h] OF EACH SYLLABLE. IT IS POSSIBLE TO SENSE WHEN
IIKEATH PASSING OVER THE VOCAL FOLDS IS FOLLOWED BY SOUND THAT
Kl SULTS FROM VOCAL-FOLD APPROXIMATION (THAT IS, WHEN ACTUAL
I ONE COMMENCES).
EXERCISE 1.2
HI PEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "UH, UH, UH, UH, UH SEVERAL TIMES,
I OWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, LINGERING OVER THE
INI TIAL GLOTTAL PLOSIVE [?]. ONE CAN SENSE THE MOMENT AT WHICH THE
<.1 OTTIS HAS BEEN SUFFICIENTLY RELEASED TO PRODUCE PHONATION.
EXERCISE 1.3
HI (PEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "AH, AH, AH, AH, AH SEVERAL TIMES,
M <(WLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, IMAGINING A BRIEF [h]
III I ORE EACH SYLLABLE BUT NOT ALLOWING IT TO TAKE ON AUDIBILITY.
I KIVE FOR THE SUBJECTIVE FEELING THAT WITH THE BEGINNING OF THE
PI IRASE THE PROCESS OF INHALATION HAS NOT BEEN ALTERED; THERE
IIOULD BE NO SENSATION OF BREATH EXPULSION (ALTHOUGH, OF
i ( tllRSE, AIRFLOW COMMENCES), AND NO SENSATION OF BREATH MOVING
III TORE TONE.
IF PREPHONATORY TUNING IS EXACT (THE RESULT OF DYNAMIC
MUSCLE EQUILIBRIUM), THE CORRECT ONSET WILL BE EXPERIENCED.
AWARENESS OF THE MOMENT OF ONSET CAN BE EXPECTED, BUT THE
( INSET DOES NOT RESEMBLE THE GLOTTAL CLICK OF THE HARD ATTACK.
NO VESTIGE OF BREATHINESS OR OF A VOCAL SCRAPE SHOULD BE HEARD.
I HERE IS A DISTINCT BEGINNING TO THE TONE, BUT ALL SHOCK IS
AVOIDED. TONE CAN BE AS LOUD OR AS SOFT AT ITS INCEPTION AS AT ITS
( ( INCLUSION.
fi
Margo epiglottidis
Plica vocalis
Plica ary-epiglotlica
Plica ventricularis
Tuberculum cureiforme
Tubercuium corniculatum
Plica
arylaenaoidea
Rima
glotlidis
(Pars inler-
Lig. cricothyreoid.
medium
Rima glott.
(Pars intermembran.)
P llul vutu/li, Mlmii illnil
(Pan
Hlimi ulull, (Pan Iriltfiarlllai},)
Figure 1.1. The vocal folds viewed by the laryngeal mirror, with a schematic
design beneath, in (a) quiet breathing, (b) deep inhalation, (c) normal phona
tion, (d) one form of whispering, and (e) falsetto. (From Eduard Pernkopf,
Atlas der topographischen und angewandten Anatomie des Menschens, ed.
by Helmut Ferner, Vol. 1, 1963. Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg. By per
mission.)
Nothing in technical accomplishment in singing is m ore benefii ml lo the vocal instrum ent than the proper positioning of the vocal
lolds for the clean onset. Such prephonatory tuning of the laryngeal
muscles in combination with the exact degree of subglottic pressure
nul airflow provides the basis for good singing.
Should the singer then be perm itted only the use of the
imaginary [h], always avoiding the audible [h] and the plosive ['>] as
well? The answer in both cases is probably negative. Although one of
llic three forms of onset is physiologically most efficient (the balmiced onset) and aesthetically pleasing to most, but not all, listeners,
pedagogical benefits may derive from the other two.
a
Figure 1.2. Laryngoscopic view for (a) normal phonation and (b) deep inspii ni ion. (From Vocal Fold Physiology, ctl. bv Kenneth N. Stevens and Minoru
lllrano, 1981. Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, llv permission.)
H- C'i
C2
C3
C4
c
C5
c
C
c
C7
c
Soprano
Mezzo-soprano
Contralto
A4 to Ds
F4 to A4
D4 to F4
Tenor
Baritone
Bass
A3 to D4
D3 to G3
A2 to D3
All pilch indications, o th e r th an those quoted from o th er sources, are based on the
devised by th e A coustical Society of America, endorsed by the U.S.A. S tan
d ard s Association, in which middle C is represented as (' 4 , Most international aco u s
tic research relies on this system for pitch dsignation, The pitch designations
beneath the U.S.A. S tan d ard s Association system Indicate the H elmholtz system,
which for m any years enjoyed in ternational use. In which middle C Is represented
by c 1.
N V lt c m
10
Figure 1.3. Planes of subdivision of the abdomen proper, with the names of
the nine abdominal regions. (From C unningham 's M anual o f Practical A n a t
omy, 14th ed., ed. by G. J. Romanes, Vol. 2, 1967. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. By permission.)
11
Group 1 Exercises
N u specific vowel has been designated for use in the vocalises that
lollow. All vowels should be used; care should be taken to alternate
hrlween front and back vowels. First, a single vowel may be used
throughout the series; subsequently, a different vowel should be
ir.id on each rhythmic group.
i \ i ; r c i s e 1.4
*
-Jf-/I -- ---------- .......--------- .
m----------a *---------a
(any vowel)
i \ i :r c i s e 1.5
(any vowel)
I \ l RCISE 1.6
I
(any vowel)
I X IRCISE 1.7
(any vowel)
t HI RCISE 1.8
(any vowel)
----r---- *
..... . 1 J . o
___
12
EXERCISE 1.9
(any vowel)
=f
_o ......
In Exercises 1.4 and 1.5, breath is taken after each note. W hether
breath is taken after a single note or following a series of notes,
expansion is experienced in the abdominal region. Yet, this replen
ishm ent of the breath may be so slight as to give the singer the
impression of having scarcely breathed at all
In Exercise 1.6 , which is in triplet pattern, breath is renewed only
after the completion of the triplet figure. In this exercise, the onset
impulse in the umbilical region occurs on the second and third notes,
but without inhalation (glottis abducts but inhalation does not take
place). In Exercises 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6 the vocal folds are engaged and
relaxed, sometimes in response to inhalation and sometimes inde
pendent of inhalation (as between the first two notes of the triplet
pattern). The same principle of repeated vocal onset with regulated
rhythmic breath renewal, as in Exercises 1.7 and 1.8, may be drilled
after the briefer patterns of Exercises 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6 become easy
to execute. Exercise 1.9 combines the entire series into one task,
requiring inhalation between varying rhythmic patterns. This process
of coordinating laryngeal and abdominal impulses is a m ajor vehicle
for achieving vocal-fold approximation, glottal flexibility, and rapid
silent breath renewal.
Up to this point there has been no consideration of changes in
pitch. Changing pitches should not upset the exact balance of airflow
and vocal-fold approximation, yet the basic actions of technical
coordination presented in these onset vocalises should be well estab
lished before the singer proceeds to exercises requiring greater skill
in vocal onset.
13
i ion, and involves the principle of quick alternation between vocal11 ild adduction and abduction on single pitches, then on longer
Iml terns.
There m ust be no excess of airflow (whisper factor) and no
r n c s s of subglottic pressure (grunt factor). Brodnitz (1953, p. 84)
i r inarks:
In staccato singing a form of glottal stroke is used to pro
duce the sharp interruptions of sound that characterize it.
Hut in good staccato the glottal stroke which starts each
note is well controlled and done with a minimum of
pressure. . . .
A peril of quick staccato passages is the tendency to remove
vibrancy by singing without vibrato, with a straight-tone quality.
Such straight-tone tim bre indicates a lack of vitality. As an interpre
tative, coloristic alternative to vibrant timbre, straight-tone may have
i i eason for being; its presence during technical study should be
limited to a few special circumstances (see Chapter 14).
Exercises in Group 2 are useful in applying the principles of
ilynamic muscle equilibrium and prephonatory tuning to patterns of
mi l easing rapidity in the onset, and are restricted to limited pitch
altration.
Group 2 Exercises
I XI.KCISE 1.10
*
=
1=
1
^
--------- ---------
(any vowel)
x i :r c i s e
l.ii
-- a
(any vowel)
I XI'.KCISE 1.12
ftn r t rr
(uny vowel)
H I |= = i
14
EXERCISE 1.13
&
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 1.14
i
(any vowel)
15
Group 3 Exercises
I'XERCISE 1.15
(any vowel)
x i r c i s e 1.16
ft
l_ _ V
s vUJ o ---- U
(any vowel)
I'XERCISE 1.17
M A IV |
-- f -- #
JJ-
(any vowel)
I XIKCISE 1.18
(any vowel)
.
J - o
J-
-tl
16
EXERCISE 1.19
^
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 1.20
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 1.21
^ 4 -4 - P
& i n ..m r - ^ = h =
^
' V.............. *-1
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 1.22
y - *
..
-d
...
j-
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 1.23
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 1.24
L - L _ ^ _ .
- L - - 1 - ----------1----------
J- J- ,
y.
M___ g_
ft
..........
17
i \ I.RCISE 1.25
M-wnrw
^ !
M Z2Z
(any vowel)
i KHRCISE 1.26
(any vowel)
I KERCISE 1.27
r J
fa I
p p i'
(any vowel)
.
#
ft
(any vowel)
-----
18
THE RELEASE
Even for persons who can initiate a balanced onset, the release of
sound may cause technical complications. The proper release of any
phonation is as m uch a factor of technique as is the balancing of
vocal sound at the outset. The character of the vocal release con
tributes to the response the mechanism will make at the subsequent
onset. The release m ust be rhythmically related to the rest of the
phrase, with an exact point of termination. Indeed, the type of
release a singer uses will generally be dictated by the onset. On the
other hand, it is possible to begin the onset efficiently and to term i
nate it badly.
19
CHAPTER 2
21
I ip.ure 2.1. Front view of the major structures of the pulmonary system. A
111 ;1 11 section of the double-walled pleural lining is cut away from the right
The left lung is sliced obliquely to reveal the lower airways, a small
'.cement of which is shown greatly magnified. (From Normal Aspects of
Speech, Hearing, an d Language, ed. by Fred D. Minifie, Thomas J. Hixon,
nul iTederick Williams, 1973. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. By
permission.)
22
The four factors affecting the pressure of the air below the
vocal cords may be considered by an analogy with a pair of
bellows which has ( 1 ) a mechanism to pull the handles
apart, corresponding to the inspiratory activity of the dia
phragm and the external intercostals; (2 ) an opposing m ech
anism which will pull the handles together, corresponding to
the expiratory activity of the internal intercostals and other
muscles; (3 ) a variable orifice, corresponding to variations in
the constrictions at the glottis, and in the vocal tract; and (4)
a spring between the handles, corresponding to the relaxa
tion pressure, which will exert a considerable force on the
handles when they have been pulled wide part, with contin
ually increasing force, as soon as the bellows have been
closed beyond their normal unsqueezed position (which cor
responds to the position of the lungs at the end of a normal
expiration).
Ladefogeds bellows analogy is equally applicable to a description of
the regulation of subglottic pressure and airflow rate in singing.
However, the breath cycle in singing is almost always of longer dura
tion than in speech. Following deep inspiration for the requirements
of singing, the expiratory portion of the breath cycle is retarded
through an acquired coordination of the muscles of the torso and
the larynx. Agostoni (1970, pp. 105-106) details glottal response to
subglottic pressure in the phonatory contest:
The breathing pattern during phonation consists of rapid
inspirations and prolonged expirations. During the expira
tion the vocal cords are drawn together by the adductor
muscles: the subglottic pressure pushes them apart, while
their elastic recoil and the decrease of the lateral pressure
due to the increase of kinetic pressure (Bernoulli principle)
close them again, thus generating a periodic flow. This pro
duces longitudinal vibrations of the air above the glottis at
the frequency of the fundam ental tone of the voice. . . .
To produce a tone of constant loudness and pitch the
subglottic pressure m ust increase, while the vocal cord ten
sion m ust decrease in order to keep pitch constant. Phona
tion requires therefore a fine coordination between the
laryngeal and the chest wall muscles. . . .
The Bernoulli principle mentioned in the quotation holds that
when a gas or a liquid is in motion, less than norm al pressure is
exerted on the surrounding environment. During the vibratory cycle,
the vocal folds draw closer to each other, thereby narrowing the air
passage sufficiently, so that the Bernoulli principle draws them
23
24
25
m e urs in the lateral planes (see Figure 1.3). This action does not cori espond to the pushing outw ard of the lower abdominal wall (hypo
gastric, or pubic area; see Figure 1.3 for designated areas of the torso
and abdomen), which is to be found in some breathing techniques,
following the initial expansion, a nearly imperceptible inward motion
i ommences unless consciously resisted internally by counterbalanc
ing pressure, experienced in the navel region, at the flanks, and in the
lower back regions. The torso remains stable, with almost no move
ment in the area of the lateral planes; at the close of a long phrase, of
course, some inw ard abdominal movement is apparent. There
hould be an awareness, when inhaling, of transverse expansion, the
result of antagonism of the anterolateral muscles. These muscles
include those of the rectus sheath, the rectus abdominis, the external
and internal obliques, and the transversus abdominis. (See Fig
ures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.)
Lateral distention is experienced at the level of the tenth rib and
immediately below, between the tenth rib and the crest of the ilium
(the hip bone). Balance of m uscular action is felt both in the frontal
i egions (thoracic, epigastric and umbilical) and in the lateral-poste
rior (also lumbodorsal) areas (see Figures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4).
In the technique of appoggio little or no feeling occurs in the
l>eetoral region in inspiration, even though the pectoral muscles coni ibute to the supportive framework. Although the lower abdomen
(hypogastric, or pubic, region) does not distend, there is a feeling of
muscular connection from sternum to pelvis (see Figure 2.3). How
ever, to move out the lower abdom en either during inspiration or
during the execution of a phrase, as some singers are taught to do, is
foreign to appoggio technique. Equally alien is the practice of pulling
inward on the pubic area as a means of "supporting the voice.
W hether the singer is breathing or singing, the same general poslure should apply. As breath is expelled, some slight modification of
posture ensues, but the singers intent is to keep such postural
i hanges to a minimum. This stabilized position would seem to be
what Giovanni Battista Lam perti (1931, p. 36) had in mind when he
asked, "Why should you get out of position while adding more
energy to your breath power?
The "position of singing must remain throughout the act of
mging. "Sing in the position of breathingbreathe in the position of
.mging expresses this postural attitude. Posture need not be altered
lor the renewal of the breath.
No initial sensation of grabbing or holding the breath should be
associated with singing. When a singer leels extreme muscle resis
tance to inhalation, in either pectoral or abdominal regions, a "full
26
Lateral
cutaneous branches
of intercostal nerves
External Intercostal
Internal Intercostal
Innerm ost
Jn to ritM l O b liq u e
Figure 2.2. The intercostals, the lower ribs, and the muscles of the abdomen,
showing the com m on direction of the fibers of the external intercostal and
external oblique muscles, and the continuity of the internal intercostal with
the internal oblique m uscles at the anterior ends of the 9th, 10th, and 11th
intercostal spaces. (From J. C. Boileau Grant, An Atlas of Anatomy, 5th ed.,
1962. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Company. By permission.)
27
'.onsory aspects of the reflex pathways to and from the lung during
Ilie respiratory cycle. With regard to lung distention:
[T]he prevailing degree of distention of the lung contributes
l igure 2.3. Dissection of the muscles of the right side of the trunk. The
external oblique has been removed to show the intmuil oblique, but its digi
tal ions from the ribs have been preserved. The sheath ol the rectus lias been
opened and its anterior wall removed. (From (iruv's Anatomy, 36th ed., 1980,
id |>v Peter I- Williams & Rogei Warwick l.dinhmgh ( lum hill Living
stone. By permission.)
28
alba (lata)
M. transv. abd
e t Linea semilanc
(Spigeli)
M. obi. abd. int.
Aponeurosis m. obi
abd. .e x t.
('rui
i i i / w /m
29
.Iion of a full breath from the pectoral region to the region of the
truth l ib. However, in order to avoid high-chest (clavicular) breath-*
ItiH, the chest and sternum must be relatively high so that the
muscles of the torso may move outward. (No expanding of the pec
tin ills should occur with the intake of breath; they are positioned
itther high, but they do not "feel" further expansion with inspiraIIon.) A complete, not a crowded, inspiration is appropriate.
Silent inspiration is the hallm ark of appoggio. Noise, it should be
i i t ailed, results from resistance of the throat to inspired air.
Whether taken in quickly or spread out over a period of time (howi vn paced), w hether through nose (which requires m ore time) or
11 trough mouth, the process of inspiration remains the same in the
ippoggio technique. Above all, the breath for singing must be
Inaudible.
11 might be logically presum ed that all techniques of singing
mbrace this functionally efficient approach to breath management,
nid that persons dealing professionally with singers recognize noiseIr .s inspiration as part of correct vocal production. To the contrary,
ilu-re are teachers of singing who hold that a noisy inspiration indi. .ilcs an "open th ro at ("Lets hear you open that throat!) and there
in- coaches and conductors, as well as accompanists, who find
ilirmselves disoriented unless the singer inhales noisily. Such viewI unts indicate serious lapses of technical knowledge regarding both
I'nod vocal function and good singing.
The exercises that follow are based on functional efficiency as
Induced by the appoggio technique.
30
THE STERNUM DOES NOT FALL AND THAT THE RIB CAGE DOES NOT
COLLAPSE. THE EPIGASTRIUM AND THE UMBILICAL REGION, AS WELL AS
THE RIB CAGE, MOVE OUTWARD WITH INSPIRATION. AT COMMENCEMENT
OF EXPIRATION, A SLIGHT INWARD MOVEMENT IS EXPERIENCED IN THE
UMBILICAL AREA, BUT NEITHER THE STERNUM NOR THE RIBS SHOULD
CHANGE POSITION. THE EXERCISE SHOULD BE ACCOMPLISHED BY
BREATHING THROUGH THE NOSE. FOLLOWING SEVERAL
INSPIRATION-EXPIRATION CYCLES OF NOSE BREATHING, THE SAME CYCLE
SHOULD THEN BE PRACTICED BY BREATHING THROUGH THE MOUTH. IT IS
ESSENTIAL THAT THE STRUCTURAI. SUPPORT (POSTURE) AND THE
QUIESCENT VOCAL TRACT REMAIN UNCHANGED, W HETHER BREATH IS
TAKEN THROUGH THE NOSE OR THROUGH THE MOUTH. THERE SHOULD BE
COMPLETE SILENCE DURING BOTH INHALATION AND EXHALATION.
EXERCISE 2.2
RECLINE ON A FLAT SURFACE. BE CERTAIN THE HEAD IS NOT TILTED
BACKWARD Wi l l I ELEVATED CHIN (HEAD AND SHOULDERS SHOULD BE IN
LINE). USUALLY, 1)1 1*1 NDIN<. O N HOW T ill. HEAD SITS NATURALLY ON THE
SHOULDERS, IT WII I 111 NECESSARY TO PLACE A BOOK UNDER THE HEAD
TO AVOID BACKWARD TILTING. BREATHE QUIETLY THROUGH PARTED LIPS,
T ill II Al IIANI i BRIDGING n i l I TK.ANTRIC AND UMBILICAL REGIONS (THE
AREA BETWEEN H IE NAVEL AND THE STERNUM). OBSERVE THAT THE
EPIGASTRIC-UMBILICAL AREA MOVES OUTWARD BUT THAT THE LOWER
AUDOMI N (HYPOGASTRIC, OR PUBIC AREA) DOES NOT, UNLESS PURPOSELY
PUSHED OUTWARD. (FOR A MOMENT, MOVE OUT THE LOWER ABDOMINAL
WAI L; NOTICE n i l INWARD COLLAPSE: OF THE RIB CAGE WHEN ONE
THRUSTS OUT THE LOWER ABDOMEN. THE FALSENESS OF LOW ABDOMINAL
DISTENTION AS A PART OF INHALATION WILL BE APPARENT AT ONCE.) THE
CHEST NEITHER RISES NOR FALLS DURING THE BREATH CYCLE (OR ONLY
SLIGHTLY), BECAUSE OF THE POSTURAL ALIGNMENT OF THE BODY IN THIS
RECUMBENT POSITION. BREATH INTAKE IS TOTALLY QUIET, AS IS BREATH
EXPULSION. MAINTAINING THIS RELATIONSHIP OF HEAD, NECK, AND
SHOULDERS, RISE TO A "NOBLE" STANDING POSITION. ALTHOUGH THE
DIAPHRAGM IS NOT IN EXACTLY THE SAME POSITION IN STANDING AND
LYING, THE AXIAL ALIGNMENT OF THE BODY IS SIMILAR IN BOTH
POSITIONS.
31
Suspend
Exhale
1 2 3 4 5 ---------------- - 1 2 3 4 5 ----------------- - 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 -------------- - 1 2 3 4 5 6 --------------1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -------------1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ----------- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 --------- -1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ---------M 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -------H 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ------ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
32
33
I he ability to induce this abdominal m uscular movement, indeIu ndent of breath action, is essential when agility and rapid intervallic
,n I k illation are required. Such umbilical-epigastric motion is som e
times term ed (too narrowly) "the bouncing diaphragm." (see
< hapter 3.)
I XliRCISE 2.7: RAPID EXECUTION OF THE VOICELESS
I AllIODENTAL FRICATIVE CONTINUANT [f]
IIIIS EXERCISE IS BASED ON THE EPIGASTRIC IMPULSE NECESSITATED BY
l ill ,11 EREQUENCY VIBRATIONS THAT RESULT WHEN AIR PASSES THROUGH
h ie : NARROW APERTURE OF THE LABIODENTAL ORIFICE. THE
I \ IENDITURE OF BREATH MUST BE AT A SOMEWHAT HIGH LEVEL, YET
I MISSION OF THE BREATH IS CONTROLLED BY THE ABDOMINAL
Ml ISCULATURE AND, IN TURN, BY THE RESULTING IMPACT ON THE
NARROWED LABIODENTAL ORIFICE (KANTNER AND WEST, 1960, P. 145).
ONE HAND SHOULD BE PLACED ON THE UMBILICAL-EPIGASTRIC
r I ( .ION, THE OTHER JUST BELOW THE RIBS AND ABOVE THE ILIAC CREST
i IITERMOST PORTION OF THE PELVIS), AT THE SIDE OF THE BODY. A QUIET
n i 'I ATH SHOULD BE TAKEN, PACED OVER SEVERAL SECONDS, FOLLOWED
IlV A SERIES OF RAPID, LABIODENTAL FRICATIVE CONTINUANT NOISES,
HI PRESENTED PHONETICALLY BY THE SYMBOL [f],
SUFFICIENT IMPULSE SHOULD BE GIVEN EACH FRICATIVE IN THE
I KIES SO THAT ABDOMINAL MOTION IS DISTINCT. YET THE EXIT OF THE
I I HEATH MUST BE SO CONTROLLED THAT A SERIES OF SHORT EXPULSIONS
I AN OCCUR ON ONE BREATH WITHOUT ANY COLLAPSE OF THE RIB CAGE,
VVI III NO LOWERING OF THE STERNUM, AND WITH MINIMAL INWARD
l( 1 1ION OF THE UMBILICAL-EPIGASTRIC REGION.
[ f f f f f f ] [f f f f f
f f f f ] * [f f f f f f | *
34
35
*r
F
T l h ii
F j
Mh ii
= ... n
i
;
1
a h ii
(any vowel)
n
i i r. -
?
-----=l-----------------M
9
- ......... -----, - - -
<v _r
(any vowel)
r il IAl ATION IS PACED OVER TWO BEATS, TAKEN NEITHER TOO EARLY
H iR TOO LATE FOR THE SUBSEQUENT ATTACK.
---------------------1
-----
4'
7
1
---------------------H
-------1
--------------------- h n
-J
\ ..i -
" 0~
........
(any vowel)
II /'. APPARENT THAT THE SINGER DOES N O T NEED TO R E N E W BREATH
hi I HI I N THE FOURTH AND FIRST BEATS OF THE BAR. THE PURPOSE IS TO
HI \ I I t ) / THE ABILITY TO R E L A X THE GLOTTIS WITH THE BREATH,
III I. A RIM.ESS OF LUNG CAPACITY, AND TO DO SO WITHOUT
i n I HCROWDING
h H T f i n j IT III
(imy vowel)
36
- * r'
= 1
y 1 7
i f - F - --pp ftf
tA
4- J - J 4 = --------------
(any vowel)
(any vowel)
t o
'
-------------
37
------v [
__
y _
y __
(any vowel)
Such directions as "fill out the rubber tire, "expand the bal
loon," "open out the spine, and "squeeze the dime usually result in
unnecessary pressure on the viscera; thrusting out the abdominal
wall another inch, pushing or stretching with the dorsal muscles, and
a still heavier anal sphincteral closure are actions that inhibit free
dom of breath control.
In opposition to "more support, pacing of the breath is recom
mended. Control over the speed and ease of inhalation, and over the
expiratory rate, can be acquired in a systematic manner, as indi
cated in the previous vocalises.
Contrary to what is sometimes assumed, exercises aimed at
increasing the time during which breath can be "held have ques
tionable value as aids in breath control. Such exercises are based on
an extreme degree of subglottic pressure and static laryngeal func
tion; they tend to induce earlier breath expulsion. Breath-holding
exercises are often thought to increase vital capacity, but lung capac
ity does not necessarily relate to the art of singing. The important
factor is that, through training, the singer can learn a more efficient
use- of expanded capacity (W. J. Gould, 1977, p. 4).
By now it must be clear that systems of breath control which
consciously induce the collapse of the rib cage, request a "relaxed
sternum, promulgate lower abdominal distention, or require inward
movement of the abdom en in inspiration, are contrary to function
ally efficient practices of breath management for singing.
In summation:
1. Breath m anagem ent is partly determined by the singers concept
of what takes place physiologically during the inhalation-exhalation
cycle. The singer ought not to base a m ethod of support on incor
rect information regarding the physical processes involved in singing.
2. The same breath coordination of the appoggio technique occurs
w hether a complete breath is taken within a split second or paced
over a longer period, w hether through nose or mouth.
3. Cultivation of the so-called "partial breath is as essential to good
vocal technique as the ability to take the "full breath.
39
CHAPTER 3
Agility in Singing
Flexible Application of Breath Power
Iijilllv in Singing
41
42
EXERCISE 3.2
43
Ii;i/i7v in S inging
I M R C ISE 3.3
I M R C ISE 3.4
4 c -J_J.
t'
.IfJ-J..J-..-Lf-..-J-J..j . J
r:i
ri
[a]
[e]
[e]
[i]
la ]
[o]
[i]
[u]
I M RCISE 3.5
[<]
[e]
[o]
[e]
[a]
[a]
[o]
tu]
[>]
1 M RCISE 3.6
[>]
[o]
I M K C ISE 3.7
[e]
[a]
[a]
[u]
44
EXERCISE 3.8
>
BE
[>]
>
[U]
[e]
[e]
[O]
[i]
[a]
[i]
[u]
EXERCISE 3.9
I -'I
1__ J
"T J J J J g
[a]
EXERCISE 3.10
[I]
tc]
[3]
[c]
[O]
[3]
EXERCISE 3.11
EXERCISE 3.12
D>1
[U]
[u]
[e]
[i]
[e]
[o]
45
Agility in S inging
EXERCISE 3.13
EXERCISE 3.14
EXERCISE 3.15
^
ri
Te
EXERCISE 3.16
-^*---J----*
L$s i l S t p
-
ri
rp
[a
EXERCISE 3.17
-4-^1
s
~3
3
1
1
I
46
EXERCISE 3.18
EXERCISE 3.19
[i]
[a]
te]
[d]
M
[c]
la)
[i]
[n]
[c]
[c]
[o]
[i]
[a]
[e]
[o]
[a]
[e]
[e]
[1]
[i]
[a]
[o ]
[u ]
[o ]
[u ]
[o ]
[u ]
[o ]
[u ]
[o ]
[u ]
[o ]
EXERCISE 3.20
i'o r
------ p
;
Lf
[e
13
M .
I
3
....
3
]]
4nilily
Singing
I XL,RCISE 3.22
I XERCISE 3.24
CHAPTER 4
System atic exercises for coordinating the respiratory and the phonatory system s have been suggested thus far. Two o th er system s of the
singing instru m en t rem ain to be considered: the resonatory and the
articulatory. No clear division exists betw een the latter two systems.
Articulation, to som e extent, controls resonance.
Laryngeally-produeed sound (the result of airflow and vocal fold
approxim ation) is m odified by a m echanical acoustic filter, the
vocal tract (see fig u re 4.1). Minilie (1973, p. 243) points out th a t the
shape and si/e <>l the voc al 11 ac t determ ines th e n a tu re of th e filter
ing properties Baer el al. (1478, p. 49) state th at laryngeal sound
"depends on llu aeouslu properties of the filter th a t are excited by
tin- source." They suggest that, although th ere are basic acoustic
principles whieli apply to both speaking and singing, singing involves
different pattei iis ol control over the source and th e filter. Clearly, in
both speech and song (Baer et al., 1979, p. 51)
(1) |M o v e m e n ts of the articulators affect tu b e or cavity
dim ensions in the vocal tract; (2) these shapes affect the
resonances (that is, the filter function) of the vocal tract; (3)
this change in the filter function affects w hat we hear.
The vocal tra c t reso n ato r tu b e consists of the pharynx, the m outh,
and a t tim es the nose, (see Figure 4.1). By skillfully com bining the
resonating cavities, vocal tim bre can be controlled (see Appendix III
Figure 4.1. The voice organ is com posed of the lungs, the larynx, the
pharynx, the mouth, and the nose, shown in longitudinal section (a). The
larynx is a short tube at the base of which are twin in-foldings of m ucous
membrane, the vocal folds (b). The larynx opens into the pharynx; the
opening is protected during swallowing by the epiglottis. The larynx,
pharynx, and m outh (and in nasal sounds also the nose) constitute the vocal
tract. The vocal tract is a resonator whose shape, which determines vowel
sounds, is modified by changes in the position of the articulators: the lips, the
jaw, the tip and body of the tongue, and the larynx. The vocal folds are
opened for breathing and are closed for phonation by the pivoting arytenoid
cartilages. (From Johan Sundberg, "The Acoustics of the Singing Voice,
Scientific American, March 1977, Vol. 236, No. 3. By permission.)
48
N A S A L CA>
pASAL^
[PHARYNX]
\S O F T ' V /V
PALATE^T
W 3
O R A L fJ
PHARYNX
TONGUE
EPIG LO T T IS
P H A R Y N X.
LARYNX
FA LSE ^7 *
VOCAL f o l d ;
L A RYN G EA L/*;-/^;- ^
V E N T R IC L E &&&&]
T H Y R O ID
C A R T IL A G E
TRACH EA
VOCAL F O L D ^ f f ^ : / I
(b)
V0CA1 FOLD
T H Y R O ID
C A R T IL A G E
A M , I I M< )||)
(.AMtil A m
50
for the physiology of the vocal tract reso n ato r system). The tu b e
responds to th e dem ands of articulation presented by vowels and
consonants.
VOWEL FORMANTS
Complex tones, such as those generated by the larynx, are com posed
of frequencies th at are integral m ultiples of the lowest frequency.
The first com ponent is the fundam ental frequency (the first h a r
monic), and th e others arc overtones. A partial is a harm onic com
ponent of this complex tone, and the sound spectrum is m ade up of
the resonance frequencies, whic h produce peaks, called form ants.
K antner and West (1460, p. 68) describe how resonance patterns
p roduce recognizable vowels:
All vowels, pel se, have resonance b ut each vowel has its
own distil u l pallet n ol resonance th at is the result of the
num ber, frequencies and energy distribution of the over
tones that are present. It is by m eans of these differences in
the ovet all p at tei ns of i esonance that we are able to h ear
and discrim inate one vowel from another. These changing
i esonam e pal lei ns are produced by altering shape and size
of the discharging orif ice.
The shaping of the resonator tube produces prom inent distribu
tions of acoustic energy, a phenom enon that has led to the identifica
tion of tw o frequency m axim a called form ants, for each vowel
sound (Luchsinger and Arnold, 1965, p. 462). Although frequencies
vary from voice to voice on th e sam e vowel, th e fo rm an ts tend to
appear in a fairly predictable m an n er (see Figure 4.2).
W hen the resonance cavities m atch the shape for a particular
vowel, a pitch is determ inable even w ithout com plete vocal-fold
approxim ation, as can be illustrated by loudly w hispering the cardi
nal vowels [i, e, a, o, u] in sequence. A descending pitch p a tte rn results
(Aikin, 1910, p. 50). R egardless of the raising o r the lowering of pitch,
harm onic partials th at m atch shapes of m outh and pharynx (vocal
tra c t configuration) identify th e vowel. W e h e a r the sam e vowel,
determ ined by its typical acoustic spectrum , even though the pitch
of the voice m ay traverse the scale.
Minifie (1973, p. 243), in an exposition of speech acoustics and
vowel form ation, identifies th e physical factors th at produce the
Iront vowels, the central vowels, and the back vowels:
If the m ajor constriction of the airway during vowel produc
tion is the result of elevating the tongue tip and blade so that
51
2,000
1,000
heed
hid
head
had
hod
hawed
hood
who'd
I igure 4.2. A spectrogram showing the frequencies of the first and second
formants of som e o f the English vowels. (From Peter Ladefoged, Elements of
Acoustic Phonetics, 1962. Tenth impression, 1974. Chicago: The University of
( liicago Press. By permission.)
52
P o in t o f m ax im u m
to n g u e height
P o in t o f m a x im u m
co n s tric tio n
( 1 ) [i ]
(2 ) [e]
(3 )
[e]
(4 )
[ ]
(5 )
(6 )
(7 )
[a ]
[o]
[o ]
(8 )
[u]
( )
H igh
[e ]
# (o ]
Mid
>[3)
U1
1*1
Low
[a]
Back
F ro n t
H ighest p o in t o f th e to n g u e
(b)
Figure 4.3. (a) A schematic drawing of tongue and lip positions for certain
vowels, (b) Location of the high point of the tongue for various vowels.
(From Normal Aspects of Speech, Hearing, and Language, ed. by Fred D. Minifie, Thomas J. Hixon, and Frederick Williams, 1973. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc. By permission.)
53
I hr Itcson an t Voice
La b i a l
2.
Dental
I Inure 4.4. A schem atic view of the articulators, vocal tract cavities, and
pinces of articulation. (From Norm al Aspects of Speech, Hearing, and Lant (tone, ed. by Fred D. Minifie, Thomas J. Hixon, and Frederick Williams,
I<17 ' Knglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. By permission.)
I'iguiv 4, S. The positions of the vocal organs (based on data Imm X-ray
I t l l i ' t l >> 11 111 111l, \ i i i i i l
I lia
u n u /ili'n
i> l
1U
ik iid h I
u /tim /lu
In
(l m
i ii/l,ll.
..I
m /k x /lu
55
ii< tan*lty(dB )
Figure 4.6. The vow el [o] (as in "hawed) su ng at approxim ately 262 11/ (C..i ).
tlie spectral en velope indicates desirable vow el definition and sinner's for
m aul. N ote the favorable balance in sound energy betw een the region ol
vow el definition and that o f the singers form ant. ( I t o i u R ichard Miller and
Harm Korn el is Sch utte, "The Effect ol T ongue 1osltlon on Spectra in S ing
ing, The NATS Bulletin, January/F ebruary, 1981, Vol. \7, No. V Hy per
m ission.)
56
57
I he R eson an t Voice
59
g<>gy can be found sources th at advocate as thp ideal position for singmg exactly th e fully distended pharyngeal and buccal posture found
in the yawn. O ther sources recom m end a m odification of the sensa
tions of yawning. How do these sensations correspond to those of
H<)la aperta, long advocated by the historic Italian School?
A sensation of openness is essential in singing, but such sensa
tion need n o t be chiefly felt in eith er the laryngophai ynx o r the oropharynx. W hen one b reathes deeply through the nose, as, loi example, w hen filling th e lungs w ith fresh, clean air following an electrical
Morm, o r w hen one inhales a pleasant fragrance, th ere is a feeling of
( onsiderable openness in the nasopharynx, som e in the oropharynx,
.ind to som e extent in the laryngopharynx. The position of the longue
does not a lte r (it will, if th e b rea th is g rab b ed noisily), the jaw does
not hang, th e larynx is not radically depressed, and the velum is not
i igidly raised. A lthough spatial relationships am ong th e resonators
now have changed from those of "norm al speech," n either o f the
i liicf resonators (m outh and pharynx) has becom e subservient to the
o ther in this coupling. Yet, th ere is a favorable arch to the fauces, the
velum is raised, and th e connecting channel betw een the resonators
is open and free. The sam e sensation of openness can be experienced
w hether one breathes th rough the nose o r through the m outh.
By breathing in this fashion, th e singer achieves a position of th
i esonators th at feels open, w ithout, however, the m uscle tension thu
m ust occu r in the th ro a t w ith the yaw n posture. T hroat tension
Inherent in the yaw n can be verified externally by placing the fingers
flat under the jaw betw een th e chin and the larynx. This tension can
also be internally felt, and externally seen, in singers w ho believe
they have opened the th ro at.
The nasopharynx is capable of playing a m ajor role in sensations
of open-throatedness. One often experiences openness in th e region
ol the oropharynx and in th e region of th e nasopharynx (as opposed
to co n cen trated sensation in the laryngopharynx) in m om ents of
heightened em otion in speech. W hen we a re happily excited, when
surprised by pleasant circum stances, w hen physically alert loi
undertaking an u nusual activity, w hen viewing a thrilling event,
when greeting a long-absent loved one, when about to smile oi
laughw e b rea th e w ith this sense of openness in the regions of the
nasopharynx and the oropharynx. Do we drop the jaw, low er the
tongue, depress the larynx, and yawn al those m om ents? The yawn,
which produces pharyngeal enlargem ent and laryngeal depression,
plays no part in those joyous m om ents of life; it has no role in active
athletic m ovem ent, and it is not part of the im aginative, alert, c re a
tive m om ents of daily life. Why then assum e a need loi the yawn in
60
61
m ent as to w hat these sensations should be. "Forw ard placem ent is
Ilu* aim of som e teachers: "into th e masque (m ask), into the
ii<tnth, into the u p p er jaw , "out in front, "behind the eyes, "into
(lie sinuses, "at the end of the nose, "on the lips, etc. O ther
h u hers believe th e tone should be directed posteriorly: "down the
.pine, "at th e back of th e th ro a t wall, "up the back of the throat
wall, then over into the forehead, "into the body, "into the back
half of the head, etc.
Although m ost teach ers are com m itted to one, ot to som e
limited n u m b er of "places to w hich tone is to be directed and w here
*'iisations of resonance are to be felt, th ere are o th er teachers who
use m ost o r all of these expressions in an experim ental way, d epend
ing on w hat they consider to be the need of th e singer. R egardless ol
what theory of placem ent a tea c h e r m ay em brace, th ere is always
i he peril th at the stu d e n t m ay not experience the sensation th at the
li .u hers term inology m eans to elicit. A wise route, it m ight seem,
would be to u n d erstan d the acoustic principle of reso n ato r coupling
m singing, and to find som e objective technical language to com
m unicate this inform ation.
Moth b reath m anagem ent and reso n an ce factors are included in
IIn term appoggio; although imposto, o r impostazione, refers to
placem ent sensations, these sensations a re not considered apart
I m m breath m anagem ent. Imposto does not narrow ly indicate a
loi ali/ed "place, b u t ra th e r expresses the m ore general concept of
lesonance in singing as a result of appoggio. In the term inology of
\ oi al technique, impostazione (or imposto) indicates the m an n e r by
which the vocal organs cooperate in phonation during singing
(/ nciclopedia Garzanti della musica 1974, p. 277).
Impostazione produces distinct and recognizable sensations of
le .onator coupling. W hereas pedagogies th at strive for localized
placem ent also localize sensation, in the historic Italian School
resonator coupling perm its sensation in all parts of the vocal tract.
I In- resonance balance (placem ent) relies neither on the pharynx nor
on the m outh as chief resonator, b u t on a com bination of both. Sen
.ation cen ters neith er in the th ro a t no r in the face. R esonator
t oupling becom es resonance balancing without functional or aeons
Hi violation of any single p art of the vocal tract. I langing the jaw and
spreading the pharynx will produce m arked sensations of openness
In Ihe throat, but an im balance of the resonator tube al the expense
ol higher frequencies in som e vowels; concepts ol mask placem ent
will produce the opposite result, unnecessary thinning of the tim bre
and an increase in u p p er partials. Imposto technique avoids both the
heavy, didl vocal production and the shrill, blatant production.
62
EXERCISE 4.2
--------------------------------------------- ]
[m
ESTABLISH I lll', "NOBI.F," l<)S 11 UK; BREATHE THROUGH THE NOSE AS '
THOUGH INHALING I lll FRAGRANCE OF A ROSE AND HUM THE PATTERN IN
SE V E R A l. KI V S ( >1 EASY RANGE. BE CERTAIN THAT THE HUM IS PRODUCED
WITHOUT TENSION IN T ill TONGUE, THE VELUM, OR THE JAW. STRUM THE
I IPS LIGHTLY AND QUICKLY A FEW TIMES WITH THE FOREFINGER. UNLESS
A DIS I IN< T " MUM MU M MU M" RESULTS, THE PROPER NEUTRAL POSTURE
Ol H I E ARTICULATORY MECHANISM IS NOT PRESENT.
EXERCISE 4.3
fi
VI7"
**
rj
M
[m]
[m]
........ .
ii
[a
[e
EXERCISE 4.4
..
I hr R eson an t Voice
63
i x l '.RCISE 4.5
[ a -------- --------------------
J -j-FO
Exercises th a t juxtapose the h u m and closed nostrils during nonu. isals often pro d u ce dram atic im provem ent in resonance balance in
11it- singing voice. S ensation th en m oves o u t of th e throat. Although
11it* pharynx continues to serve as a m ajor resonator, sensation tends
io be equally experienced in th e nasopharynx an d in th e frontal
.uvas. These sensations attest to a balance am ong the com ponents of
tin- reso n ato r tube; no single p a rt of th e vocal tra c t is given
pi e eminence.
i XI RC ISE4.6
[a _
(nostrils
open)
(nostrils
closed)
(closed )
(op en )
(closed )
PAH I S OF THE PHRASE ARE SUNG WITH THE NOSTRILS CLOSED GENTLY BY
11II FINGERS, OTHER PARTS WITHOUT CLOSURE OF THE NOSTRILS. THE
INIiKR MUST BE CERTAIN THAT NO CHANGE IN TIMBRE OCCURS WHEN
I III NOSTRILS ARE RELEASED IN MID-PHRASE. RESONANCE SENSA TIONS,
I 111U K WITH MOUTH OPEN OR CLOSED, OR WITH NOSTRILS OCX I UDIil) OR
I Kl Ii, REMAIN THE SAME.
VELOPHARYNGEAL CLOSURE
I m m ordinary X -ray sagittal projection s, il is difficult to d eterm in e
(he exten t o f v elo p h a ry n g ea l (p alatop h aryn geal) clo su re in non nasal
mounds. T o m o g ra p h y p rovid es p ictu res ol sharp er con trast and
le io r d s a m o r e a c c u r a te c ro ss sectio n , On the basis ol tom ograp h ic
64
studies, Bjork (1961, supplem ent 202, pp. 1-94) concludes th at velo
pharyngeal closure m ay be less com plete th an X-ray photographs
show. His study indicates m arked narrow ing of the nasopharyngeal
opening, b oth from lateral and from anterio r-p o sterio r aspects. Fant
(1964, p. 231) suggests th at the elevated velum as viewed tomographically m ay not occlude the velopharyngeal opening to the extent
phoneticians often assum e. Zw itm an et al. (1973, p. 473) find that
"[T]he degree of lateral pharyngeal wall m ovem ent varies am ong
norm al individuals. . . . Conflicting descriptions of lateral wall m ove
m ent probably are attributable to differences am ong individuals.
Z w itm an et al. (1974, pp. 368-370) established th at several fac
tors contribute to pharyngeal closure:
1. L ateral walls m ove medially and fuse, resulting in a purse-string
closure as the velum touches the approxim ated section of the
lateral walls.
2. Lateral walls almost approxim ate, with the velum contacting the
lateral walls and partly occluding the space betw een them . A
small medial opening is observed in som e cases.
3. Lateral walls move medially, filling the lateral gutters and
fusing with the raised velum as it contacts the posterior wall.
4. I ateral walls move slightly or not at all. Velum touches
posterior wall at midline, and lateral openings are observed
during phonation.
Nearly half of the 34 norm al subjects exam ined in this study
show ed incom plete velar closure on non-nasals. Fritzell (1979,
pp. 93-102) also suggests that m uscular action in velopharyngeal
closure varies am ong norm al subjects. Such studies are of im por
tance in providing probable factual support for theories of "the open
nasal p o rt in som e form in singing.
The possibility of at least som e coupling of the nasal resonator to
the buccopharyngeal reso n ato r has also been recognized by Sundberg (1977a, p. 90) in dealing w ith the acoustics of the singing voice:
"It is ju st possible . . . that the nasal cavity has a role in singing of
vowels th a t a re not norm ally nasalized. It should be kept in mind
th at th ere m ay well be considerable individual physiological varia
tion with regard to nasopharyngeal coupling.
Im plications fo r the technique of singing are significant. Limited
degrees of nasopharyngeal coupling (som e a p e rtu re of the port) seem
to be induced by the num erous vocalises th a t m ake use of nasal con
sonants as "placem ent devices. The perception of nasality in nonnasals is always, of course, to be avoided. However, vocal sound per
65
I hr R rson an t Voice
Cartilage of
auditory tube
Tensor veli palatini
Levator veli palatini
Ascending palatine
artery
Pterygo
mandibular raphe
Salpingopharyngeus
Palatglossus
Styloglossus
Superior con
strictor
Palatopharyngeus
Stylohyoid liy.
n.
Inferior con
strictor
Middle con
strictor
Mucous membrane of
pharynx, cut
Epiglottis
I Inure 4.7. Median sagittal section of the head showing a dissection of the
Interior of the pharynx after the removal of the mucous membrane. (In
nitler that the structures may be displayed satisfactorily, the bodies of the
(Mvlcal vertebrae have been removed and the cut posterior wall of the
iihurynx then drawn backward and laterally. The palatopharyngeus is drawn
Imu kward to show the upper fibers of the inferior constrictor, and the
ill il sum of the tongue is drawn forward to display a part of the styloglossus
In the angular interval between the mandibular and the lingual fibers of
o f the superior constrictor. (From Gray's Anatomy, 36th ed., ed. by
IVlri L, Williams and Roger Warwick, 1980. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingulonc. Hy permission.)
66
Rectus capitis
bnfrnln:
1
Superior
oblique
Transverse
process of atlas
Anterior intertransverse
Genioglossus
Transverse
process of axis
\Stylopharyvngeus
Geniohyoid
Buccinator (cut)
\Stylohyoid
Superior constrictor .
Styloglossus
\Middle con
strictor
Eyoglossus
Thyrohyoid membrane
Cricothyroid'
Inferior con
strictor
Figure 4.8. A dissection showing the muscles of the tongue and pharynx.
(From Gray's Anatomy, 36th ed., ed. by Peter L. Williams and Roger War
wick, 1980. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. By permission.)
67
M axilla
M axillary
artery
Lateral pterygoid
plate, partly excised
ru o tfo iilv of
maxilla
Mandibular y
Middle memnji'dl artery
Spine o f sphenoid
Levator veli.
palatini
Pterygoid
hamulus
Superior con
strictor
Uuooinator
Parotid duct
StylopharyngeusGlossopharyngeal n.
Styloglossus (cut)
Pterygo
mandibular
raphe
Uyoglossus
Middle constrictor
Mylohyoid {cut)
Stylohyoid ligament
Geniohyoid
Greater cornu o f hyoid boner
Lesser cornu o f
Lateral thyrohyoid ligament.
Thyrohyoid membrane
Cricothyroid ligament
Cricothyroid
Recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Oesophagus-
I |||iiiv 4.9. The buccinator and the muscles of the pharynx. (From Gray's
tmitomy, 36th ed., ed. by Peter L. Williams and Roger Warwick, l l>MO. Ktlin
limyh Churchill Livingstone. By permission.)
68
The answ ers are not all in, regarding the m ode by w hich velo
pharyngeal closure m ay be modified. According to Nimii et al. (1982,
p. 253):
T here is general agreem ent that the velum is elevated and
retrac ted prim arily by the levator palatini muscle. . . . The
point of controversy revolves around the putative role of
o th er m uscles in the velopharyngeal port region in bringing
about m ovem ent of the lateral pharyngeal walls at various
levels relative to the point of velopharyngeal closure.
This piece of research concludes:
W e believe th at the levator palatini is the m uscle prim arily
responsible for the m edial m ovem ent of the lateral p h ary n
geal wall from the level of velopharyngeal closure (which
varies with the type of phonetic segm ent produced) to the
superior limit ol that m ovem ent. That the interpretation that
the levator palatini is responsible for both the lateral wall
and velar m ovem ents is a valid one is su p ported by the
data. . . .
How one conceives "I "opening the th ro a t and "placing the
voice" leads directly to specific kinds of m uscle activity in th e velo
pharyngeal area The levator veli palatini (levator palatini), the tensor
veli palatini, the palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus, and the m usculus uvulae (see Appendix III and Figures 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9) respond to
such concepts. The presence o r lack of "resonance in the singing
voice is closely lied to adjustm ents m ade in the velopharyngeal
region. The extent to which the nasal cavities are united with the rest
of the reso n ato r tu b e partly determ ines the perception of "reso
nance. As with the exact c h a ra c te r of velopharyngeal closure itself,
not all the answ ers are clear regarding the degree to which velo
pharyngeal closure m ay be m odified in singing. Additional attention
to balanced reso n ato r ad justm ent th rough the use of consonants
(including the nasals) will com prise the m aterial of o th er chapters.
However, the resonant, w ell-balanced vowel in singing m ust first be
considered.
CHAPTER 5
70
Formation o f
th e
Neutral V owels
[a ]
and
[a ]
I Iir W ell-balanced V ow el
71
72
In the vowel [i], total reso n ato r space has not been diminished,
but rearranged. The acoustic n a tu re of the vowel [i], w ith its con
siderable pharyngeal room , plays a significant role in vocalises
devoted to vowel differentiation and to resonance adjustm ent.
B ecause of the n a tu re of front cavity shape, tongue posture, and
increased pharyngeal room , the vowel [i] is useful in developing the
full tim b re of the voice. It should be noted th a t a n u m b er of
researchers com m ent th a t soft palate elevation is higher in [i] th an in
any o ther vowel (Hirano et al., 1966, p. 377).
73
74
75
I In1 W ell-balanced V ow el
>1 variation in loudness from pitch to pitch and from vowel to vowel
Figure 5.1).
Along w ith low ering the m andible as a m eans of enlarging the
buccal cavity, lifting th e m axillary a re a of the lace finds acoustic
justification in S u n d b erg s findings (1977a, p. 90): "Opening the jaw,
however, is not th e only way to raise the first form ant frequency.
'.Iiortening the vocal tra c t by draw ing back the corners ol the m outh
'.ci ves the sam e purpose, an d th a t m ay be why som e teach ers tell
11it-ir students to smile w hen they sing high notes.
(hoc
FREQUENCY >
I Inm e 5.1. The n eed for a w ider jaw op en ing in the upper rany.e arises Im m
tin l'et that a soprano m ust often sing tones w h ose fundam ental (whli h is
ii lually the low est partial) is far higher in frequency than is IIn* norm al first
Ini mant o f the vow el being sung. When that is the ease, the am plitude ol the
liu u lam cntal is not en h anced by the first form ant, and the sound is there
lin e weak. O pening the jaw w ider raises the pitch <>1 Ilie I iril loi niant. When
Ilie lirst-form ant frequ en cy is raised to m atch llial ol llie lu iu lam enlal, the
lorm ant en h an ces the am plitude o f the luiulam enlal, and the sound is
louder, (From Johan Sundberg, "The A coustics ol llie Sinning V oice, Scien
i(/h Am erican, March 1977, Vol. 236, No. < Hv perm ission,)
76
Group 1 Exercises
i:x i:k c is I '; 5.1
(A) |u, 0, i, 0, c|
(I)) (i. o, u, 0. c)
(I) PRONOUNCE THESE TWO PATTERNS ALTERNATELY, AT NORMAL SPEECH
LEVEL, IN LEGATO FASHION, ALLOWING LIPS AND JAW TO MOVE
NATURALLY, WITHOUT EXAGGERATION. (2) THERE SHOULD BE NO ATTEMPT
TO HOLD ONE POSITION OF LIPS, JAW, TONGUE, OR MOUTH. (3) NO ATTEMPT
SHOULD BE MADE TO DIFFERENTIATE THE VOWELS BY EXCESSIVELY
MOUTHING OR SHAPING THEM. (4) OBSERVE THE LIMITED BUT
DISCERNIBLE MOVEMENT OF THE MOUTH AS THE VOWELS ARE
ARTICULATED. (5) INCREASE TEMPO SO THAT THE VOWELS MUST BE
QUICKLY ENUNCIATED, BUT AVOID SLURRING OR TRANSITION SOUNDS. THE
SAME ARTICULATION OCCURS, REGARDLESS OF SPEED.
77
TT
m
[i
e|
EXERCISE 5.4
H
[a
EXERCISE 5.5
H
[i
Group 2 Exercises
EXERCISE 5.6
<>
e]
[e
3]
EXERCISE 5.7
i- p P P p p p fi
[
fo
e
e
o
i
i
o
e
e
o
i
P..
e
e s
c
i
EXERCISE 5.8
|C
|3
3
C
C
3
3
C
C
3
3
C
C
3
0|
nl
11
.i |
7H
EXERCISE 5.9
jP -t r+ -h----V - -----
..
V
[e
[
a
a
e
e
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
e]
a]
EXERCISE 5.10
[
[
e
a
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
a
e
e
a
CHAPTER 6
Resonance Balancing
through Nasal Consonants
The Influences of Nasal Continuants on
Resonator Adjustment
79
80
Figure 6.1. (a) The position of the vocal organs during the [m] in mat. (b) The
resonance curve of the vocal tract during the pronunciation of the first
sound in the word mat. (From Peter Ladefoged, Elements of Acoustic Pho
netics, 1962. Tenth printing, 1974. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. By
permission.)
81
j V < jT h N ^ 7 T T JT J i
[m a
m a
m a
m a
m]
[ m
m i
m i
m i
m]
Because the lips are closed, and because the m outh, pharynx,
and the nostrils are now connected cavities, distinct vibratory sensa
tions are felt in regions of th e pharynx, th e nose, the m outh, and the
area of the sinuses. The quality of th e sound is nasal. W hen the lips
are parted, no continuance of actu al nasality should be present in
l lu- tone, but th e sam e sensation should pertain in the nasal and
sinusal areas (sym pathetic resonance experienced by the singei
hu gely through bone and cartilage conduction).
The [m] is sung vibrantly, w ithout any pinching of the lips The
longue m ust not be raised to the alveolar litige as in the |n | position,
nor should it assum e any transition posture betw een [m| and |n|.
With singers w ho tend to pull the tongue hack, with the hum , the
longue tip should then rest forw ard on the top ol the lower Iron!
teeth. In any event, the tongue m ust not be pulled back from contact
with the teeth. The teeth are parted behind i loscd lips. It is essential
that the tongue be in contact with (lie lowei leelh without dropping
down lo the floor of the m outh at the roots ol the leelh. Failure to do
82
[m a -(+ )-a
m a -(+ )-u
m u -(+ )-a
m a - (+ ) -a -
(+ )]
[m i-(+ )-i
m i-(+ )-i
m i-(+ )-i
m i-(+ )-i-
(+ )]
BEGIN WITH THE HUM ([m]) AS IN EXERCISE 6.1. ADDITIONALLY, BEATS ARE
INTRODUCED, DURING WHICH TIME THE NOSTRILS ARE CLOSED BY THE
FINGERS (INDICATED IN EXERCISE 6.2 BY THE SYMBOL [(+)]), THEN
ALLOWED TO REOPE.N W IIII NO CHANGE IN VOCAL QUALITY. THIS IS TO
ENSURE THAT T ill VELUM DOI S NOT INTERFERE WITH THE PROPER
COUPLING OF NASOPHARYNX AND ORAL CAVITIES IN THE QUICK CHANGE
FROM [ml TO |u | (OR |i|) BEAT I OE EACH BAR IS DEVOTED TO [m], BEAT 2 TO
|u|; BEAT ' |( I )| ( III ( KS T ill DEGREE. OF RESONANCE BALANCE BY LIGHTLY
PIN<HING THE. NOSTRILS ( I O S ID WHILE CONTINUING TO SING [a]; BEAT 4
RETURNS I'O HIE. UNOCCI UDE.D NOSTRILS. NO QUALITY CHANGE SHOULD
III EXPERIENCED III-TWEEN 111 ,A TS 2, 3, AND 4.
83
()
n .......
---------------- n
^
1-4
- t
[n
[n
m a]
m o]
[n
[n
m
m
a]
o]
[m n m
[m n m
n
n
a m
o m
tfl
a n
o n
i.i
............
a]
o]
85
attem pts. In such cases, an exercise th at altern ates |n | and [d] should
Ik- It ied. It can be quickly noted th at m outh, tongue, lips, and jaw are
in sim ilar positions for both phonem es. (Location ol both [d] and [n]
' .11 ics som ew hat from person to person and language to language, of
. ourse.) Among native Italian singers, w ho tend to touch only briefly
the nasal consonants (unless they a re doubled), | n| in singing is often
only slightly discernible from [d], w hich is indicative ol tin* closeness
ni their postural relationship.
I XERCISE 6.6
.-t..-i j ' H I T i T u
f \,
[da - na - d a ]
[na - d a ,
da - na,
da - na -
duj
Ht)
EXERCISE 6.7
a
X L
p
fm ' i r
V5U
. .1I
su ng [i
------------- -------------m
.... r0 - P .. J
I
i
i
e
i]
87
IEXERCISE 6.9
iJ
[o^jii,
[pi-o,
o-jii,
jii-o,
o-jii,
jii-o,
o-jii,
Jii-o,
ojii-
II
jii|
o]
o-
o-gni
gni
uo-
uo-m o,
mo,
o-
o-gni
uo-m o,
gni
uo-
o-gni
mo,
uo-m o
EXERCISE 6.11
i f "~r~~p f i ^ ^! * i J J J J I
o-
gnijgnu-
do,
o-
gni ignu-
do,
o-
gnijgnu-
do
88
89
CHAPTER 7
Resonance Balancing
through Non-nasal
Consonants
you,
you,
you,
you,
you
90
91
H
new ,
new ,
new ,
new,
Each singer can devise w ords of this sort as aids tem porarily sub
.lituted for syllables th at cause problem s. A particularly helpful vocal
ise that m akes use of [j] is built on the phrase ieri Yaltro, in which the
vowel sequence (w hen sung slowly) is [i e i a o].
EXERCISE 7.3
ie-
ri
lal-tro,
ie-
ri
lal-tro,
----------- 0
ie-
---- 4
ri
----------- 0
lal-tro
92
EXERCISE 7.5
la
la
la
la
la
la
la
la
la
The phonem e [1] should scarcely interrupt the vowel flow. Alterna
tion betw een two notes on one syllable and one note per syllable per
mits the singer to check that the vowel is not truncated and that it
93
j T T r P ila
la
la
la,
f r i'p
la
\ \ J 'P 7 1^
la
u
la
la
la
la
la
la
la
in
lu,
la
ip p fer r
la
la
la
la
tongue co ntact at the upper teeth and the alveolar ridge. N or can the
tongue-point trill be properly executed if th ere is tension in the hyoidal
m usculature. (The larynx is suspended by the thyrohyoid m em brane
from the hyoid bone, to w hich the tongue also is attached. See Figures
4.8 an d 4.9). A nother advantage of the tongue-point trill is th a t it
prevents excessive spreading of the buccal-pharyngeal cavity (which
is occupied by the m ass of the tongue). This is especially the case during
rapid pitch changes within a phrase sung on the sustained tonguepoint trill.
EXERCISE 7.7
SUSTAIN THE SPOKEN SYLLABLE ''HRRR!" DURING ASCENDING AND
DESCENDING PITCHES OF APPROXIMATELY AN OCTAVE, PORTAMENTO
FASHION.
EXERCISE 7.8
If
EXERCISE 7.9
95
<ounds fa] and fa], in which the tongue curls backw ard tow ard the
n ite r of the m outh in m uch of American and som e regional British
Heech, is ever used in artistic singing. The retroflex | r | is heard in
lolk, pop, jazz, soul, rock, and (especially) in country w estern litera11ires; the extrem ely retroflexed r is indicated by ( if It contributes
more to vowel distortion than any other phonem e in W estern lan
guages. Americans w ho are untrained singers rely almost entirely on
the sounds fa-] an d fa1] of regional speech fo r the proper (In speech,
I.u tors of duration and stress, and the degree of retroflex mg, dctei
mine which sym bol is accurate; in singing, these differences lend to
merge.) The so-called "m idw estern r ([[]), prom inent in many geo
graphical regions of N orth America, m akes difficult the execution ol
cither the single tap fr] or the rolled [f].
The uvular rolled [R] and the velar fricative [k], characteristic ol
spoken French and (in som e regions) of spoken German, are avoided
In well-schooled singing in both French and German.
The consonants thus far considered have the dangerous tendency
lo induce on-glides and off-glides (transition sounds) which upset clean
vowel definition. Exercises have been devised as a system atic way of
eliminating such distortion of subsequent vowels. This group of con
onants dem ands quick tongue m ovem ent. Tongue and jaw flexibility
i annot coexist w ith the stationary hung jaw and the overly distended
pharynx. The "setting syndrom e of hung jaw and spread throat tech
niques is corrected through these exercises.
At a later point, benefits to be gained from coupling fl], fr], or fr]
lo other consonants in singing will be considered.
and their voiceless m ates [f] and [s], the tongue need not move from its
acoustic, at-rest posture.
In the production of [v], the lips assum e something of the hori
zontal smile position, avoiding any vertical buccal posture. The ex
tem al orifice is narrow ed, and the laryngeal sound is deflected directly
into the oral cavity. The consonant [v], being a continuant, dem ands no
change in posture within the vocal tract throughout its duration. (The
consonants [v] and [f] are both fricative and labiodental.)
Singers learn a great deal about the process of resonator coupling
w hen [v] precedes vowels. That m outh position, with parted lips,
closely resem bles the posture associated with pleasure and repose. The
physical location of [v] encourages sensations in the masque area of
the face.
EXERCISE 7.10
(1) AT A COMFORTABLE PITCH LEVEL, RECITE THE SYLLABLES [vi-ve-va-vo-vu],
(2) RECITE THE SYLLABLES [fl-fe-fa-fo-fu],
EXERCISE 7.11
AT A COMFORTABLE: PITCH LEVEL, ON A SINGLE PITCH, SING THE SYLLABLES
| vZ-vc-vu v<> vi/1 I I IEN SUBSTITUTE THE CONSONANT [f] for [v].
EXERCISE 7.12
$ p n T 7 p p p~p
[vi[fi [vi[fe-
ve fe fe va-
vafa vava-
ve fe fa fa -
vo - ve fo - fe vi - fi fe - v a -
vu fu vova-
ve
fe
fo
fa
-e vi]
fi ]
vi]
fe]
97
I \IR C IS E 7.13
11) Ml ENTLY FORM THE LIPS IN POSITION FOR THE PRODUCTION OF [b],
I I I IN<; CONSCIOUS OF BUCCOPHARYNGEAL SPACE. (2) SUBSTITUTE [ p ] FOR
|ii| IN THE SAME MANNER. (3) SING [b] and [p] ALTERNATELY, COUPLING
HU M WITH A VOWEL AT MODERATE PITCH LEVEL. REMAIN ON THE SAME
i i IMPORTABLE PITCH, ONCE AGAIN NOTING THE SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF
t ill R f -SONATOR CAVITIES.
I KERCISE 7.14
m m
p
| lie-
pe- be-
pe,
pe-
be-
pe-
pe
be,
be
pc
be]
I'.XERCISE 7.15
T ~ TW p ?j>r
| be-
pc-
be,
pe-
be-
p c|
r
[Z
l[
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ]
EXERCISE 7.17
m = = = q fFl
-I-e -------------EM h ~ )
51*5=1
zazeza-
z az aze-
z azez i-
z azazo-
zazeza-
zazaz e-
zaz ezi -
z az azo-
za
ze
za
99
I Xi:RCISE 7.18
sa zi -
zasi -
sa ze-
zase-
saza-
zasa-
sazo-
zaso-
su
ze
to
I XKRCISE 7.20
c:
t
ai,
thy,
ai- ai,
thy- thy,
ai
thy)
100
p v , ...... \ \
f *
[ai(thy,
Ouithigh,
fluithy,
Ouithigh,
ui]
thy)
Oui
thigh,
Oui
thigh,
Oai
thigh)
EXERCISE 7.22
Oui
(thigh,
Oui
thigh,
101
EXERCISE 7.24
HI IAINING T H E SAM E LINGUAL LOCATION FO R [<J] AS E N CO U N TERED IN
EX ERCISE 7.23, R E PE A T T H E PH R A SE "DA-DA-DA-DA-DA. (M OST INFANTS
MAKE U SE O F T H E PH O N E M E [tf] W H E N LEA RNING TO SAY "DADDY," BEFRK
I III EAR HAS BECO M E CONDITIONED TO T H E HARDER, M O RE PO STERIO RLY
I <>( ATED ALVEOLAR [d] ASSOCIATED W ITH T H E E N G L ISH LANGUAGE.)
102
EXERCISE 7.26
TT
[d a
[te
te
da
da
te
te
da
da]
tc ]
EXERCISE 7.27
EXERCISE 7.28
103
Ib is p r e f a t o r y s p o k e n e x e r c i s e s h o u l d s e r v e as an in t r o d u c t io n lo
o i l i e r e x e r c i s e s t h a t c u lt iv a t e a s e n s e ol o p e n n e s s ( f o l l o w i n g c l o s u r e )
In llie n a s o p h a r y n x , a n d resu lt in t h e g o la aperta
T h e e x e r c i s e s t h a t f o llo w e s t a b lis h an n w a i e n e s s ol llie raised
v e l u m in sin g in g . B e c a u s e ol that a c tio n , th e y m e Ideal loi e lim in a lIng nasality in t h e s in g in g vo ic e.
104
EXERCISE 7.30
ge-go-ge-go,
k e - k o - ke-ko,
gi - ge - ki - k e ,
ga- k a -g a -k a ,
[ge,
[ke,
[gi,
[ga
ge,
ke,
gi,
ga,
g o,
ko,
ki,
ka,
EXERCISE 7.31
gekegekeke-
gi k igokog> -
ge,
ke,
ge.
kc,
ke,
gi ki goko-
gekegekeke-
gi 1
gi 1
gl
ko]
gi ]
EXERCISE 7.32
gi - g e - gi - ge - gi,
g a - k a - g a - k a - ga,
kigi-
k e - k i - k e - ki]
k e - ki - k e - gi]
105
ilt> so rem arkably well. T here is a direct correlation betw een the
Inzers ability to be phonetically precise, even in foreign languages,
md the ability to produce desirable vocal timbre.
Frequently, th e voiceless consonant appeal s to be unfriendly to
(In* singer. L anguages th a t display a high incidence ol unvoiced con
sonants a re som etim es disparaged by singers. Despite (heir lack of
pilch orientation, th ere is no need fo r the voiceless consonants lo be
detrim ental to th e p roduction of a good vocal line. They i an be com
lorlably incorporated in such a way th a t they do not break the flow
ol sound.
The best way to deal w ith voiceless sounds in singing is lo isolate
them and analyze th em phonetically. Later, w hen they appeal
separately o r w hen they group in clusters, even in quickly delivered
irrita tiv e or soaring vocal line, they will be m et as m anageable
.n quaintances.
Drilling of coupled consonants is essential for establishing agile
longue action. The sam e problem -solving principle, of course, applies
10 any "diction difficulty th a t m ay com e up in the vocal literature. If
Ihr tongue stum bles on som e phonem ic com bination, those sounds
may be extracted and m ade into an exercise.
Flexibility of tongue, lips, jaw, and the entire reso n ato r tu b e can
becom e so well ro u tin ed th at the singer has no problem s w ith any
t onsonant com bination. If the singer possesses an articulatory ease
1.11 beyond the norm , tim e should not be w asted in practicing the
i em aining exercises in this chapter. T here are singers w ho sing all lan
guages well. They also have techniques th a t allow them to produce
11 re vocal sounds. The free voice has no diction problems!
The exercises th a t follow are based chiefly on voiced and u n
voiced consonants com bined w ith the consonants [1], [r], and [f]. This
is because of the in h eren t problem of transition sounds connected
with the ap p ro ach of th e tongue to the alveolar ridge. However,
flexible execution of the consonant, w h eth er it has pitch o r is pitchless, can often be the key th at unlocks proper resonator balance.
The suggested useful pitch pattern s m ay be altered, but they oi
others sim ilar in n a tu re should be used to drill com binations ol
coupled consonants, vowels, and diphthongs.
Iattern 2
f
.....-------------------h = r-d
"* ...
r-
Pattern !
0,
r---------------------1--------r
"
Pattern 4
fLwn F = l
-
II
Vowel Patterns
[i]
[e]
[e]
[a]
M
Diphthong Patterns
[uo]
[ou]
[ei]
[01]
[ui]
[o]
[u]
COUPLED CONSONANTS
These consonants are to precede the vowels and diphthongs, sung on
the indicated patterns.
[m l]
[nl]
[81]
[si]
mr]
nr]
vr]
zr]
dr)
[tr]
pr|
tfr]
[gr]
[kr]
[Or]
Sr]
[sr]
[fl]
[Jr]
[vl]
[zl]
[dl]
[tl]
[pl]
[A]
[gl]
[kl]
[61]
107
CHAPTER 8
Until singers m aster the onset, the brief phrase, and the skillful
release, and can sing agilely, (hey will experience cum ulative strain
and fatigue on sustained phrases. If the singer is unable to articulate
vowels w ithout distortion and cannot m anage rapid consonantal
adjustm ent freely, the voi al instrum ent is certain to tire w hen those
factors occu r in sustained phrases.
T here is a body of vocal literature w hose chief characteristic is
sostenuto. Almost none ol this literature is appropriate to th e techni
cally insecure singer. Songs and arias of a sustained character,
coupled with .1 high lying tessitura, m ust be avoided until technique
is relatively stabilized Singing the great sweeping B rahm sian o r V er
dian line is not a logical expectation if the torso periodically collapses
at phrase endings. Many lingering problem s w ith singers can be
traced to introducing sustained literature too early. The best ro ad to
the long sustained phrase is to elongate progressively the breathpacing exercise of short duration (see C hapter 2).
The ultim ate test of technical ability lies in sustained singing.
Energy and pow er are frequently required, b u t these attributes of
the good singer m ust be balanced by freedom . The problem in sus
tained singing is th at prim itive sphincter action, which ordinarily
prevails in such heavy activities as lifting and pulling, is often carried
over into energized singing. D uring pow erful sustained singing, the
larynx is subjected to subglottic pressure. The singer m ust learn to
be schizophrenic, engaging the respiratory m usculature for heavy
duty while not pressing the laryngeal valve. Indeed, freedom at the
glottis can be present in the long phrase only if b rea th em ission is
controlled in the epigastric-um bilical and costal regions.
In attem pting to avoid tensions th a t inadvertently result from
the application of pow er, th ere is the perilous tem ptation to produce
"relaxed vocalism built on b rea th m ixture. B reath m ixture is the
result of inefficient vocal-fold occlusion, which, in turn, is the result
of poor breath m anagem ent.
Often, the m ost precarious part of a m ounting, sustained line is
found not in approaching the clim actic notes, but in descending
from them . Breath energy has been expended im properly on the
109
S ustain in g th e Voice
dram atic high note, w ith nothing left in reserve. M uscular support
should increase following a vocal climax, especially w hen one is
redescending th ro u g h the passaggio zone.
S ostenuto vocalises should be begun as soon as b a sic techniques
have been established. Sustained exercises of progressive difficulty
are th en gradually introduced. At each practice session, sostenuto is
interspersed am ong onset, b rea th pacing, and ability v<>< , discs, (iio
vanni B attista L am pertis axiom (as recorded by Brown, I'M I, p, 41))
m ust always be kept in mind: "Power either builds or destroys
Sostenuto has ju st such potential. W here voicc tcchni(|ue is
founded on system atically acquired skills, sostenuto fills ils role .is a
builder of the instrum ent. Sustaining pow er will increase vocal
stam ina and ensure vocal health.
Group 1 Exercises
EXERCISE 8.1
EXERCISE 8.2
*
[i
[u
[o
e
c
i
J
3
i
c
J
II
u|
'I
110
EXERCISE 8.3
i]
[a
a]
te
e]
EXERCISE 8.4
EXERCISE 8.S
EXERCISE 8.6
~w~
[i
i]
[a
D>
[u
o
o
a]
e]
u]
EXERCISE 8.7
S E
m=
li
|3
fu
i]
o]
u]
11 1
Group 2 Exercises
EXERCISE 8.8
If
[
[i
[u
I
i]
u]
EXERCISE 8.9
[3
i]
[a
[u
3
o
u]
3]
EXERCISE 8.10
EXERCISE 8.11
112
Group 3 Exercises
EXERCISE 8.12
e
e
o
[>
&>
[a
o
i
e
e]
e
o
o
e
3]
a]
EXERCISE 8.13
EXERCISE 8.14
J Jr
Group 4 Exercises
EXERCISE 8.15
#-
~---
0--------- 9---------
[o
[e
e
3
EXERCISE 8.16
o
e
e
3
-------------------
o]
e]
113
EXERCISE 8.17
*
i m i fflHUp i-cL I|i iV/*1" 4M1f _ _ I rj
........>
J
^
*
^
*.
L ,rr- z------------^.
^ 4 , i -r.-------**
&
*
2----- - *
./ c - o
<st
_.
- r
i
-----"--a ..........
"
^ = 4 n
j-
_
6
j j
3 3
?
^ -----------
--- --------*---.
^
1----- ----- .------ 1--- 5 - .... 1^=4
77
?
------ ------- 3-------- a---- s------- S-------- 7
z? -S 5
5V
-------- r-----------_
2>
HJ*
^ = X
# = f
=1=
---
e ---f
?*Jd\
p
-^-J a j
---<
JM
G33S
d
J
*
r
j
<>*7
/
--yy [
,
i
>
*
I
.
1 r
i
J
J
.
u-
IN
Group 5 Exercises
EXERCISE 8.18
*
1
= mt f
--- F
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 8.19
. y j
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 8.20
fg t -W . i r . r r u r T j T i r r T ?
(any vowel)
CHAPTER 9
Unifying theRegisters of
____
Male Voices
REGISTER TERM I N O LO G Y
Register terminology should be carefully chosen. Breaks anti "lills"
may well refer to existing register phenomena in a voice, but psycho
logically they tend to point up the divisions between registers rather
than their unification. Although itisobvious that in the terminology of
the ItalianSchool there are alsoreminders ofdivisions,that terminol
ogy takes on a more gentle implication with its reference to register
transition points as primo passaggio and secondo passaggio, with the
zona dipassaggio (the passage zone) lying between. (Itiscustonary to
use the terms jower^<^aggiQ^and ujpperjjassaggiowhen dealing
with theTemale voice.)Since many musical terms are inItalian,there
seems no reason to avoid these terms in vocal registration. They are
no longer restricted solely to the historic Italian School of singing, but
are by now international in usage. Several decades ago, an attempt
was made by a few American singing teachers to abandon the classic
register terminology of the singing voice and to substitute for it the
terminology of speech investigators, thereby designating only modal
and "loft registers. These terms, however, ignore the subtle dif
ferences in a number of register timbres recognized in traditional
schools of singing. This limiting terminology isless frequently encoun
tered, currently, even in investigative studies of the singing voice
There is a reemergence of interest in historic register phenomena,
because they are a fundamental part of the art of elite voealism.
By placing a hand on the chest of an adult male who isspeaking,
one becomes aware of sympathetic subglottic resonance (largely ol
the trachea and the bronchi). A rumbling sensation is Ifit against tinhand as long as the speaker remains in a comfortable spcei h iany.c. As
the voice issharply inflected upward, the vibratoiv rumble diminishes
or ceases. (The same phenomenon occurs in the lemnle chest voice
voce di petto but women speakers tend not to use that register in
speech with as much frequency as do male speakers.) (For a discus
sion of physical factors in voice registration, see Appendix IV.)
//<>
117
tenorino
Irnore leggiero
Irnore lirico
tenure spinto
Irnore robusto (tenore drammatico)
Ixirilono lirico
haritono drammatico
htisso cantante
Imisso profondo
primo passaggio
secondo passaggio
f4
e 4 ,(e>4)
d4
D 4 ,(C4)
C 4 ,(C4)
B4
Bt4
A3
A>3',(G3)
b >4
a 4 ,(a>4)
g4
G 4 ,(F8 4)
f4 ,(f4)
e4
e >4
D>4 ,(C4)
IIH
119
Falsetto
and early nineteenth century Meatises on singing Ire
are misread with regard to the meaning ol the term falsettoan
Eighteenth
quently
120
i
twas used in a prescientific age. Discussing the history of registers in
the singing voice, Mori clarifies the historical use of the term falsetto
(1970, p. 76):
Every epoch in one way or another has indicated the exis
tence of registers. Singers of the medieval period cite head
voice and throat voice, and the famous Caccini, Tosi, and
Mancini also mention two registers: chest and falsetto. The
falsettoforthem, however, was the head register.But whether
falsetto or chest, they refer to the preponderance of one of
the two cavities of resonance, not lo the exclusive dominance
of one or the other. [Emphasis added] '
Large et al.(1972, p. 19), in discussing head register in the male
singing voice, comment:
The head register in the male singing voice isoften one of the
most difficult vocal adjustments to acquire and to maintain.
Cultivated especially foropera, itshould not be confused with
the falsetto, a much thinner-sounding register. A welldeveloped opeiatu head iexister ("Vollton der Kopfstimme)
is the hall mark of the accomplished tenor, but itis used in
the uppei iaii|
.c,spanning a musical intervalof approximately
a fourth or a filth, by all well-trained male singers tenors,
baritones and basses. Some singers report subjective sensa
tions ol several different adjustments inthe fullhead voice. In
contrast to the more robust-sounding head register, the fal
setto is usually characterized as weak and effeminate and is
used in legitimate Western vocal music culture mostly forspe
cial, particularly comic, effects. [Emphasis added]
Brodnitz, after defining the chest, mixed, and head registers,
comments on the falsetto (1953, p.32):
The male voices have on top of the head register the falsetto,
which even to the untrained ear has a distinctivequality ofits
own. The Italian masters of the early Bel Canto thought of it
as an unnatural and therefore false voice thence the name.
...Ithas less brilliance than the sounds of the head register.
It can be used occasionally, but its continuous employment
gives the voice an effeminate character.
The mechanical action of falsetto isnot identical to that of legiti
mate head voice indeed, it exhibits quite different behavior. The
mechanics of falsetto production are described by Zemlin (1981,
p.214):
High-speed motion pictures of the larynx during falsetto pro
duction reveal that the folds vibrate and come into contact
121
only at the free borders and that the remainder of the folds
remains relatively firm and nonvibratory. Furthermore, the
folds appear long, stiff,very thin along the edges, and some
what bow-shaped.
Brodnitz also discusses vocal-fold function during lalselto: "The fal
setto is sung with only the foremost parts of the cords left free to
vibrate at the margins, the rest being damped.(Brodnil/, l>SV p. 82.)
Mori (1970, pp. 97-98), on the avoidance of the use ol lalselto in
the historic Italian School, presents information to substantiate that
(iarcia(who located falsetto between chest and head) did not intend to
equate falsetto with head. Mori quotes Garcia as saying, "The lalselto
voice constitutes a particular register, different at the same lime Im m
the chest register ...and from the head register.(...la voce tlilal
setto costituisce un particolare registro, diffrente al tempo stesso e
dal registro della voce di petto ...e dal registro di testa. ...
) Mon
comments that the Italian School, from at least Garcia onward, con
siders falsetto and head voice to represent two different principles ol
vocal color. She states that falsetto is an artificial voice in cultivated
singingto be used only therapeutically, or when the voice isvery tired
or in poor condition, or as a specialinterpretative effect of characteri
zation or insinuation. "Per levoci maschili artificioinvia assoluta(it
is absolutely false for male voices). She further mentions that it is
allowable, and was used by some great singers, for effects on an occa
sionalextremely high notebeyond therangeofthesinger,asforexam
ple, the high Dt> (Dt>5)at the end of the cadenza in "Cujus animam
from the Rossini Stabat Mater.
The term falsetto as used by some persons to describe events of
both speaking and singing cannot be carried over to vocal pedagogy
without confusion. In the international language of singing, falsetto
describes that imitative female sound that the male singer is capable
of making on pitches that lie above the normal male speaking range.
With practice, the singer can bring these sounds down into the lowei
range. To term any sound not produced inthe chest voice as lalselto is
to obfuscate pedagogical meaning. To speak of Jussi Bjoerling's ope
raticsound from G 4 and above as falsettoistoconfuse both language
and the practice of vocalism. The beauty of Bjoerling
s 11 illv resonant
head voice is an example par excellence of traditional head voice in
cultivated singing. Because the issue of falsetto versus legitimate head
voice isso often raised in discussions conccrning llu- lenoi voice, i
t is
appropriate to citefurther examples. Alfredo Knuis, in a public maslei
class in Fiesole in June, 1984, stated that he iscompletely opposed to
the practice or use of falsetto. Certainly the ringing sounds ol Placido
Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti (or any othei gient lenor voices ol
122
123
tenore leggiero and alm ost never th ere in the heavier categories of
ten o r o r in the b a rito n e and bass voices. (Rarely, a baritone of lyric
c h aracter will also have this ability as a natural phenom enon.)
Lim ited usage of falsetto m ay be productive, in som e voices, in
the zona di passaggio, betw een the prim o passaggio and Ihe secondo
passaggio. F or m ale singers w ho lack easy en tran ce into upper mid
die voice, vocalises th a t begin in light falsetto mav be |>i acticed, with
the singer increasing b rea th energy, thereby moving into legitim ate
middle voice.
The purpose is not to "blend the falsetto into the legitim ate
sound of th e m ale voice (such a skill has m erit as a colorist ie d e v i c e ,
but fo r th at very reason m ay be a T rojan horse to legitim ate vocal
ism in the upper range), b u t to build on the perception of el l oi l less
ness th at accom panies the falsetto ju st prior to the full vocal Iold
approxim ation th a t then occurs in legitim ate voice.
EXERCISE 9.1
T H E SIN G E R SH O U L D BEGIN DIRECTLY ON T H E P R IM O P A S S A G G IO PIVOTAL
NOTE, IN PIANO FA LSETTO, CRESCEN D O IN G TO VO C E PIENA AND T H E N BACK
TO FALSETTO. (IT DO ES NOT M ATTER IF R E G IST E R TRANSITIO N PO INTS ARE
HEARD.) IMM EDIATELY, A NEW O N SET IN LEGITIM ATE VO ICE SH O U LD BE
MADE ON T H E SA M E PITCH. P R O G R E SS BY HA LF-STEPS (O V ER A PERIO D OF
W EEKS OR M O N TH S) T H R O U G H T H E S E C O N D O P A S S A G G IO PIVOTAL POINT.
EXERCISE 9.2
FALSETTO AND LEG ITIM A TE VOICE ARE ALTERNATED ON T H E SAM E PITCH,
CRO SSIN G BACK AND FO R T H BE TW E EN T H E TW O TIM BRES. BEGIN AT P RIM O
I'A SSA G G IO , AND O V ER A PE R IO D OF TIME, PR O G R E SS BY HALF ST E PS
T H R O U G H T H E S E C O N D O P A SSA G G IO .
124
all male voices. An aesthetic and artistic choice has been made, in
such cases, to develop skillin the falsetto voice in preference to cul
tivation of other vocal registers.Not infrequently, such counter-tenor
singers do not have remarkably beautiful voices in the traditional
male ranges, but are able to produce admirable timbre as falsettists.
Why not? The reason such persons can perform more skillfully in
falsetto isthat falsetto production does not require the subtle regis
ter equalization demanded in the traditional upper male register
involving dynamic muscle balancing.
Almost any musical male can more easily produce running pas
sages and pianissimo dynamic levels in falsetto than he can accom
plish in his full voice in head (voce piena in testa). The vocally unin
formed listeneroften isastounded at the "easeof florid singing dis
played by the counter-tenor. Such persons somewhat naively believe
that the counter-tenor isa rare breed of vocal category with a spe
cial native endowment. Although that is not the case, a number of
excellent male musicians wisely have made the decision to perfect
those skills that aie relatively easily acquired in the falsetto register.
The impressive part <
>1 a line counter-tenor's technique ishis ability
to maintain sustained lines and long phrases, because he must learn
additional breath management skills to compensate for the open
chink tlial characterizes the glottal shape in falsetto singing and
permits a higher rate ol breath seepage than in the non-falsetto
voice. The agility, the ability to decrescendo on very high tones, and
the displays of florid singing are pleasurable, but they do not repre
sent great heights of technical prowess over other male voices. The
counter-tenor often encounters difficulties in the technical area of
breath management, and a good voice teacher should be able to
assist him. There is a literature appropriate to the counter-tenor
voice, and there is an audience for that category of male singer. It
should be noted that several international vocal competitions now
have a separate category for the counter-tenor voice.
The reasons for choosing to sing counter-tenor rather than to
perform the traditional timbres of the male voice are complex and
most often highly personal. They involve considerations that extend
beyond the confines of this discussion. Special techniques of extend
ing the falsetto range and in blending it (in most counter-tenor
voices) with the traditional low male register are required. However,
teaching the counter-tenor voice should be no more difficult than
teaching any other vocal category. One of the most important steps
to be taken in providing proper instruction for counter-tenors is to
lid the voice-teaching profession of the notion that the counter-tenor
instrument is in some way structurally unlike other male instru-
125
monts. A second important step, which might well follow were the
Instto be taken, would be the removal of a certain amount of prejudice against nontraditional vocal timbres. Coimlei lenoring, badly
done, can be vocally hazardous. An understanding of vocal function
isimperativeintheteachingofthecounter-tenorvoice.The systematic
drill of vocalises suggested in the preceding chapters applies to all
categories of singer, including the counter-tenor.
Strohbass
Strohbass (the literal English translation, "straw bass, is seldom
used) isa register that liesbelow the normal male speech range- The
length of the Strohbassregister varies from four or five whole steps
in most males to more than an octave in others. Strohbass is often
cited, together with falsetto, as one of two "unused vocal registers
that must be developed in order to achieve a complete singing
instrument. That assumption should not go unquestioned.
Because the cricothyroids have been thought to show increased
activity in extremely low pitches (Zenker, 1964b, p. 25) as well as in
ascending pitch, Strohbass exercises are sometimes recommended
for the development of the upper range. The faulty assumption that
inging in Strohbass produces extension in upper voice may be due
to (he fact that range normally expands at both extremities of the
voice when proper registration practices are incorporated. In any
case, laryngeal muscle balance in upper register is very unlike the
heavy mechanical action of Strohbassregister.
Just as an occasional falsetto note isintruded in legitimate upper
range for some specific coloration, so an occasional Strohbass tone
may be introduced in the lowest range of the voice. "Straw bass reg
ister occurs in low voice for the same reason falsetto often occurs
in high voice itisthe only secure way some singers have of produc
ing those particular pitches. (Perhaps that literature should be
avoided!) Strohbass, ifused at all, should be used judiciously. Kxcr
iIses for the development of this register phenomenon should be
undertaken only with a teacher, and never for more than a few briel
moments. When the note that seems only minimally present in (In
voice often a phrase end, or a note touched briefly must be iailed
on, a conscious lowering of the larynx beyond itsnormally stabilized
position will assist. This technique should be reserved loi only a lew
occasions. The register should not be drilled as a means of
"strengthening the vocal ligaments." It is haul on the voice, and
Ideally should never be used. However, when a baritone sings an aria
with great ease and beauty of tone but discovei* low Al>,> escapes
126
p-J iJ
------ H
EXERCISES F O R ACHIEVING A N E V E N L Y
REGISTERED SCALE IN L O W E R A N D MIDD L E VOICE
The zona dipassaggio isthe key to the evenly registered scale. Exer
cises should induce light mechanical action in the pivotal area
between low and middle registers. Vocalises should begin in the easy
speaking range of the voice and proceed only slightly above the
primo passaggio; other vocalises should begin just above the primo
passaggio, then descend. Care should be taken that neither chin nor
larynx be raised on the pitches above the easy speaking range. An
increase in breath support, in accordance with appoggio practice,
should be felt in the trunk.
The suggested vocalises (9.4 through 9.11) should be transposed
to accommodate each vocal category. They are to be executed in
series, in neighboring keys, both ascending and descending.
127
Group 1 Exercises
th e exercises indicated for prom oting an evenly registered si ale in
the m iddle and low er voice can also be transposed by hall step pro
gressions into u p p er m iddle voice a n d into the region of the sccondo
passaggio.
I XERCISE 9.4
---------------- 1
[m
a]
EXERCISE 9.5
^ J 'T T F
[m
I XERCISE 9.6
EXERCISE 9.7
I2H
EXERCISE 9.8
?
[m]
[m]
[a]
[m]
[a]
[a]
[m]
[a]
[m]
[a]
[a]
[m]
EXERCISE 9.9
EXERCISE 9.10
p-
..............
(S>-------------------------
|n u i,
jn u u ,
nui,
nuu,
n u i,
nuu,
n a i,
nuu,
n u i]
nuu]
E X E R C IS E 9.il
J
r
If
Ir
_ _
'r\
[me]
[me]
[no]
[m e]
[no]
[m e]
i !___ St
All voices are not at the sam e level of facility with regard to easy
en tran ce into the zona di passaggio. In general, th e m ore ro b u st the
in stru m en t (with the g rea ter probability of professional potential), the
m ore problem atic is entry into m iddle voice. Som e singers, p a rticu
larly the late adolescent of college age, will require a considerable
period of "ironing o u t the passage from low er to m iddle voice. Yet
m iddle voice m ust be freely produced before the singer can find
ease in the upper voice. However, it is disastrous to avoid upper
voice entirely until all the problem s of m iddle voice have been
solved. Although it is tru e th a t the upper range m ust be "built upon
m iddle voice, functional differences betw een the tw o are largely a
m atte r of degree. The dynam ic m uscle balance needed to ensure
en tran ce into upper range can be acquired only by singing pitches at
129
the upper end of the zona dipassaggio. To work at parts of the voice,
lather than to use the total instrument, isto misunderstand unity of
Iunction. Nevertheless, much work must take place in balancing
upper-middle voice before any remarkable results can be expected
in the upper voice.
EXERCISES F O R ACHIEVING A N E V EN L Y
REGISTERED SCALE IN UPPER A N D MIDD L E VOICE
In successful vocal registration, head voice isof one substance with
the rest of the voice, yet sensations experienced above the secondo
passaggio are in considerable contrast to those felt below the primo
passaggio. Sensations of the lighter mechanical action (decrease in
activity of the thyroarytenoids and increased action of the cricothy
roids) are very apparent commencing at the primo passaggio, becom
ing more prominent at the secondo passaggio. In reverse direction, in
the descending scale, there is no sudden chest sensation below the
primo passaggio, because the muscular coordination that determines
pitch does not jump from one static state to another, but isa gradu
ated process (there isno feeling of changing gears)
.Indeed, some
leeling of "head must always be present throughout the scale of the
male voice, regardless of vocal category, whether one begins or ends
in lower voice.
Exercises 9.12 through 9.21 (Group 2) are recommended as a
systematic approach to equalization in register transition. Some of
the vocalises begin below the primo passaggio and extend into the
area of the secondo passaggio; others deal more directly with the
passage from voce intermedia into upper voice. These exercises
should be transposed to accommodate any category of voice. The
exercises are executed in half-step progressions, in series fashion, in
several neighboring keys, both ascending and descending.
Group 2 Exercises
EXERCISE 9.12
[
<
=
]
[i]
[3]
||
M
|l|
130
EXERCISE 9.13
[
i
]
[e]
[o]
[o]
EXERCISE 9.14
-J- J-
e
[e]
[a]
c/ c r iig ^ j
[e]
to]
EXERCISE 9.15
m m
(;i single vowel)
EXERCISE 9.16
_
_
_
_
_
_
7& h 51 M
9-f- _
-|
9
N =
(a single vowel)
EXERCISE 9.17
[
i
]
[o]
M
[e]
t>]
[>]
[e]
[o]
[u]
EXERCISE 9.18
Ai
i
[il
[e]
D>]
M
[i]
M
[Cl
M
131
EXERCISE 9.19
EXERCISE 9.21
[i]
[a]
[O]
te]
[e]
[3]
[o]
[i]
[U]
CHAPTER 10
S tru ctu ral differences in m ale and fem ale adult larynges are obvious,
even externally. The m ale larynx grow s considerably m ore during
puberty, roughly 30%, than does the fem ale (Kahane, 1978, pp. 11-20;
Titze, 1980, p. 20). The adult m ale has a m em branous portion of the
vocal fold th a t is longer than the adult fem ales, while the cartilagi
nous portion of the m ale fold is proportionately sm aller th an hers.
The m ore radical events of puberty cause the m ale to speak largely
in chest voice. Fem ale chest is less extensive in speech, especially in
voices of a light, lyrical quality. Decisive change in th e size of the
male larynx in early adolescence often results in uncertainty of pitch
control; nothing com parable is experienced by the fem ale larynx.
(For a discussion of physical factors in voice registration, see
Appendix IV.)
R egister pivotal points do not directly correspond in the scales of
fem ale and m ale voices. In the low er fem ale vocal categories, chest
voice docs not have the sam e extension as in low m ale vocal catego
ries; m iddle registers of m ale and fem ale voices do not have exact
range correspondence. It is coincidental th a t the passaggi fo r certain
fem ale and m ale voices o ccu r at sim ilar pitches, as for example, the
passaggi of the soprano lirico and the tenore lirico (an octave apart).
The fem ale is capable of m aking a shift in registers from chest to
head, in th e low er range of h e r voice b u t she can n o t produce the
m arked transition sound from m iddle voice into head voice th at the
m ale can m ake through the use of falsetto.
It is confusing to describe as falsetto all of the sounds of the
fem ale voice not sung in chest, particularly if the term falsetto is at
the sam e tim e used to designate the legitim ate m ale head voice. The
upper register of the fem ale voice does not correspond functionally
with the im itative fem ale sound th at m ale singers are capable of
m aking. F u rth e r confusion results from calling the flageolet voice
"fem ale falsetto, o r from term ing the laryngeal whistle the "fem ale
falsetto. Zemlin (1981, p. 216) rem arks:
High fem ale voices do not exhibit a falsetto, however, but a
laryngeal whistle, which is not produced by vibration of the
132
133
/</
Upper (secondo)passaggio
D 6 Flageolet A 6
G5
Upper C 6 (C*6)
w
Cs
Upper Middle
Lower Middle
G3 Chest
Fs
C5
E ^4
_A
F
Upper (seconda)passaggio
C (Bh)Flageolet
(and above)
F, (F*,) Upper
C4
Upper (secondo)passaggio
A5 Flageolet (seldom
developed)
E >5 Upper A>5
Upper
B ^4 Middle D5
Lower
F4 Middle A4
(primo) passaggio
Figure 10.3.Contralto passaggi mid KryUln /uifn
Lower
135
OPEN CHEST
The term chest (voce di petto) includes several distinct tim bre
possibilities within the fem ale singing voice: open chest and chest
m ixtures. Open chest is characterized by a certain masculinity,
because its execution is sim ilar to production of th e m ale chest
voice: heavy action from the thyroarytenoid muscles; w ider am pli
t u d e of vibration; thicker and sh o rter folds. Open chest tim bre
should be completely avoided in pitches above the prim o passaggio.
CHEST MIXTURE
Chest m ixture avoids the vulgarity of tim bre often present in open
chest; in skillful singing, it is a tim bre m ore frequently encountered
in low register in the fem ale voice than is open chest.
Som e of the vocal literatu re w ritten especially for fem ale voice
takes into account the tim bre know n as chest m ixture. The need for
vocal coloration associated w ith chest m ixture extends to the
soprano, as well as to the mezzo and contralto voices. It is usually the
lighter soprano voice th at lacks this im portant tim bre.
A soprano w hose voice is of fair size will m ost probably never
n eed to sing any open chest sound in the low er range; she m ight well
be m ore useful in perform ance if she has the ability to sing som e or
all of th e pitches below Et>4 in chest m ixture. Inability to use chest
m ixture is an indication th at the singer m ay suffer from hypofunction of the thyroarytenoids on those pitches, w ith a corresponding
hyperfunction of the cricothyroids. Chest m ixture will strengthen the
so p ran o s low er-m iddle range. Almost every fem ale can m ake som e
chest tim bre sounds, no m atte r how insecure, in the lowest part of
137
EXERCISE 10.2
M
[e]
[u]
[0]
[o]
[o]
[e]
[u]
[o]
[a ]
lu ]
I il
[1]
[u]
[o]
[a ]
[>]
EXERCISE 10.3
- 4-A,
wr\-r
<
L*
&
(a n y vow el)
(1) SIN G PIT C H E S 5 AND 3 IN H EAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE . (2) SIN G PITCH 5 IN
HEAD, 3 AND 1 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE . (3) SING PITCH ES 5 AND 3 IN HEAD, 1 IN
C H E S T M IXTURE. (4) SING PITCH ES 5, 3, AND I IN HEAD.
139
EXERCISE 10.4
(a n y vow el)
(1) SING PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTURE. (2) SIN (, l'I l( III S
8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 AND 1 IN C H E S T M IX T U R E . (3) SING PlTCIIIvS ANI> IN
HEAD, 3 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE , 1 IN O P E N CH EST. ( 4 ) SING PITCH I. S H. S, I, AND
(IF PO SSIBLE) 1 IN HEAD. (5) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 IN C ll l .S I
M IXTURE, I IN O P E N CHEST. (6) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN H EAD, 3 AND I IN
C H E S T M IXTU RE . (7) SIN G PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTUH I
EXERCISE 10.5
A
r
lM
--- J
(a n y vow el)
(I ) SING T H E PA TTERN (ON ANY VO W EL) IN HEAD. (2) SING PIT C H E S 8, 5, 3,
AND 2 IN HEAD, 1 IN O P E N CH EST. (3) SIN G PIT C H E S 8, 5, 3, AND 2 IN HEAD, 1
IN C H E S T M IXTURE. (4 ) SIN G PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 2 AND 1 IN C H E S T
M IXTURE. (5) SING PIT C H E S 8, 5, AND 3 IN HEAD, 2 IN C H E S T M IXTU RE , AND 1
IN O P E N CH EST. (6) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 AND 2 IN C H E S T
M IXTURE, AND 1 IN O P E N CHEST. (7) SIN G PIT C H E S 8 AND 5 IN HEAD, 3 IN
C H E S T M IXTU RE , 2 AND 1 IN O P E N CHEST.
EXERCISE 10.6
Y - n - i ---- ;---tJ
5 ^
^-------
(a n y vow el)
( I ) SING T H E PA TTERN (ON ANY VO W EL) ENTIRELY IN III AH, II I'OSM III I (2)
NIN<; PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1 IN C H E S T M IXTURE, S IN III AD. I IN 0 / 7 N i I I I ./ H
IN HEAD. (3) SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1 IN C III'S I MIX I V U I , "N IN III AD, I IN
C H E S T M IXTURE, 8 IN HEAD. (4) SIN (i PITCH H IN III Al>, I IN < >l'l N I I I I ' . I ' IN
HEAD, I IN O P E N CH E ST, 8 IN HEAD. (5) IF POSSUM I SING I III l'A I I I' UN
ENTIRELY IN HEAD.
140
EXERCISE 10.7
^ p l j j ^ H l F * 1
(any vowel)
(1) IF POSSIBLE (ON ANY VOWEL), SING THE ENTIRE PHRASE IN HEAD. (2)
SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1IN OPEN CHEST, PITCHES 5,4,3,AND 2 IN HEAD, 1 IN
OPEN CHEST, 3 IN CHEST MIXTURE, AND 8 IN HEAD. (3) SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD,
IIN CHEST MIXTURE, PITCHES 5 AND 4 IN HEAD, 3 AND 2 IN CHEST MIXTURE,
1 IN CHEST, 3 IN CHEST MIXTURE, 8 IN HEAD.
EXERCISE 10.8
(any vowel)
(I) I
l POSSIHI I (ON ANY V()WKI,), SING THE ENTIRE PHRASE IN HEAD. (2)
SINd PITCH N IN IIIAt), I IN OPEN CHEST, 5 IN HEAD, 3 IN CHEST MIXTURE, 5
IN IIIAD, IIN OPEN (IIIST, 8 IN HEAD. (3) SING PITCH 8 IN HEAD, 1IN CHEST
MIXTURE, 3, , a n d . IN / / / , !/>, I IN CHEST MIXTURE, 8 IN HEAD. (4) SING
PITCH H IN HIM), I IN CIIKST MIXTURE, 5,3,AND 5 IN HEAD, 1IN CHEST
MIXTURE, 8 IN HEAD.
H E A D M I X T U R E IN F E M A L E L O W E R R A N G E
Mixture describes any timbre that is neither entirely head nor
entirely chest; the shade of mixture in any pitch depends on laryn
geal action. Breath management and resonator response are not uni
formly experienced in all ranges of the voice. In the lowest range of
the voice, a lack of head sensation accompanies chest timbre. A
limited amount of head sensation is present in chest mixture. Head
mixture in lower-middle voice produces a somewhat "headier feel
ing than is felt in chest mixture. An increase in "headiness charac
terizes upper-middle voice. An even more decisively heady sensa
tion occurs above the upper passaggio. In allof these sensations, with
the exception of pure chest, some elements of the light mechanism
are operative.
x!
Unifying the Registers of the Female Voice
141
EXERCISE 10.9
[i]
[e]
[e]
M
[o]
[U]
o
[i]
[e]
[e]
[o]
[u]
EXERCISE 10.11
J iJ
[i]
[c]
[e]
[3]
[o]
[u]
[i]
[c]
[e]
[3]
[o]
[U]
[i]
[e]
[c]
M
[0]
[U]
EXERCISE 10.12
I fJ j 1r j J 1J r h
[i]
[']
[e]
M
[]
[cl
fo]
[]
I1
[cl
[1
142
H E A D M I X T U R E IN F E M A L E MIDDLE R A N G E
The action of the heavy open chest mechanism should terminate rela
tively early in the ascending scale. However, itis confusing to term
everything that lies above the primo passaggio "head voice;head
voice should be identified as the range lying above the secondo pas
saggio. The long middle register that lies between the lower and
upper passaggi should then be termed mixed voice, head mixture, or
simply, middle voice. This middle register is more extensive in the
female than in the male because of laryngeal structural differences.
In the lyric soprano, middle voice extends from El>4 to FJ5 . Al
though the lyric soprano may be able to carry chest mixture above
the Et4 pivotal point, she should rarely do so, for reasons of vocal
health.
Many sopranos expei ience an additional pivotal point midway in
the long middle register, around C^s, with lower-middle register
lying below ilia! pin h, and upper-middle register above it. Some
times the entire long middle register is identified as voce mista
(mixed voice); at limes, voce mista designates the predominant head
sensation Iront CB. to IB The least confusing terminology identi
tiesthese two divisions of the long middle voice as lower-middle and
uppei middle. Ileavier voices have a more distinct midpoint division
than do lighter voices. These differences result not only from struc
ture but also from speech habits, factors that vary among vocal
categories. Some coloratura and soubrette singers perceive no tim
bre or resonance changes at all at any point in the middle register,
between chest and head.
EXERCISES F O R INDUCING H E A D M I X T U R E IN
MIDDLE VOICE
The following group of vocalises issuggested for achieving resonance
balance in head mixture:
EXERCISE 10.13
143
EXERCISE 10.14
e
e
i
o
EXERCISE 10.15
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 10.16
m_m.
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 10.18
Ma
mpd J
.ms
aft
p
(any vowel)
F E M A L E VOCE D1 TESTA
A distinct head sensation is felt at the ID. transitional point loi the
lyric soprano. The gradual thinning of the vocal lold etly.es, whic h
has taken place gradually over the ascending title, imw becomes
pronounced; much less vocal-fold mass Is ftvulltlble It) oiler resis
tance to subglottic pressure.
144
EXERCISE 10.19
4_
rf
r.
M
[a]
[9]
[e]
l
e
]
.r
j.
-- m
i-- rW
r-- p=t=ii
EXERCISE 10.20
ft? .
i
[e]
[o]
w
[a]
[e]
[e]
[o]
[e]
[o]
[o]
[e]
[e]
[3]
EXERCISE 10.21
Ifl
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 10.22
4 *
(liny vowel)
.
.
f
t
.
_
. ..
=!
F f
1-1 J
J.
145
EXERCISE 10.23
r
J . |f
CJ *
?r * f - H
[e]
M
[i]
[o]
[a]
[u]
EXERCISE 10.24
=3
[e]
M
[O]
EXERCISE 10.25
' V ..
*
"
iJ.
f .. r . r.
.
. 7M n.
EXERCISE 10.26
p
----- ---
P '
y
^ -----=
.u. ... . .
1=^
(any vowel)
^ =
EXERCISE 10.27
(any vowel)
a Lf U
LT
146
EXERCISE 10.28
=1
NN i
y
-j5>-----
F=lN
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 10.24
S
>
---y(
In]
Iml
t"l
[v]
[a]
[a]
[a]
[m]
W
[v]
[a]
[a]
fa]
| m|
EXERCISE 10.30
EXERCISE 10.31
[m]
M
M
--- !
147
EXERCISE 10.32
EXERCISE 10.33
(a n y vow el)
EXERCISE 10.35
(a n y vow el)
FLAGEOLET REGIS.R
Above upper voice (voce di testa) lies n rogUlei with n distinctive
tim bre. This register has acquired dcNirlptivc nam es In several Ian
148
(any vowel)
EXERCISE 10.38
149
CHAPTER 11
Vowel Modification
in Singing
aggiustamento
T here are no tim bre dem arcations in the scale of a good singer,
unless introduced for coloristic purposes; the skillful singer appears
to have b u t one register. N either the dem ands of articulation n o r the
search for resonance sensations m ust be p erm itted to fragm ent the
scale. Appelm an ( I >67, p. 90) cites vowel m odification as an aim of
the bel canto period:
One of llie objectives of the singers of bel can to was the
developm ent ol a voc al scale th at was pure, unbroken, and
uninterrupted. The transition of registerseither up or
down the scale dem anded a m odification in th e tonal color
d I the topm ost notes to prevent them from becom ing dis
agreeable and harsh and to preserve the quality of the vowel
sound as well as an even tonal line.
The front vowels (singers often call them "high) have form ants
that produce brilliance and "ring. Back vowels (singers frequently
term them "low ) have low er form ants and strike the e ar as being
less brilliant (see Figures 4.2 and 4.5). The com bination of rising pitch
and high fo rm a n t vowel in singing results in spectral p attern s th at
produce "open or "white quality.
To c o u n te rac t the tendency tow ard "open sound, fro n t vowels
m ay be m odified in rising pitch so as to red u ce the incidence of
higher harm onic partials. Pedagogical opinions vary as to how
aesthetic dem ands can be m et by this m odification. Som e singing
teachers locate a spot in the ascending scale of each category of
voice at w hich the tone m ust be "covered.
"Covering encourages fundam ental changes in the m echanical
function of the larynx, and alteration of the shape of the resonators,
accom panied by a sensation of additional spaciousness in the
pharynx, by a high velum , a low tongue, and a low ered larynx,
thereby increasing "depth" in the tone. These actions alter the
harm onic spectra, and the tone is darkened by the heavier m echani
150
V ow el M odification in S inging
151
cal action of the entire vocal instrum ent. Pedagogies that already
tend tow ard overuse of the heavy m echanism recom m end "heavy
and early cover." P ronounced "cover m ay be dangerous.
Brodnitz (1971, p. 36) com m ents:
Singing w ith p ro n o u n ced covering requires m ore air under
increased pressure, and it involves considerable mu.scului
tension. M oderate use of covering is part of the necessary
and not harm fu l technique of the dram atic singer. Unforlu
nately, it is often used in excess, particularly by singei s who
try to sing d ram atic parts w ith basically lyric voices. In that
instance it is very dangerous and m ay lead to a perm anent
deterioration of the voice.
T here can be little d o u b t th a t in desirable "closed voice (voce
chiusa), a tim bre th a t should prevail th ro u g h o u t the singing voice
regardless of range, as opposed to "open voice (voce aperta), there
is a stabilized laryngeal positionrelatively lowand a som ew hat
widened pharynx. These conditions to g eth er w ith proper vowel m od
ification (aggiustamento) produce the so-called "covered sound of
the upper range.
However, because of the tendency to m ake too m uch of a good
thing (overcorrection is a m ajor pitfall in th e teaching of singing),
and because of the diversity of m eanings attached to the term
"cover, it m ay prove useful to avoid the term and to speak of vow el
modification ra th e r th an "cover as the passaggio zone is reached.
Som e understand ing of the underlying physiologic and acoustic fac
tors of such m odification certainly will help in rem oving no n m atch
ing tim bres in the vocal scale.
O ften teach ers of singing assum e th at "openness characterizes
all good singing, w hen in fact, the low ering of the epiglottis m ay be
part of the "covering action. No extensive study on the contribution
of the epiglottis to covering has yet been undertaken. However,
fiberoptic observations seem to indicate th at w here th ere is the
om ega-shaped epiglottis (the so-called "infantile epiglottis) there is
frequently an inability in the adult m ale to achieve voi r copcr la
("covered voice) w ith ease. It is probable that limited paitli ipatlon
of the epiglottis (at a nonproprioceptive level, ol com sc. just as is (In
case in vowel differentiation) is necessary to lillei out the strident
tim bre traditionally associated with vocc aperta (\'oir Inaiim) Som e
low-voiced m ales w ho exhibit the om ega cplgloltlt slim lure seem
never to negotiate the upper regions ol Ihe volte In satisfactory
m anner. Before definitive conclusions cun be i eat lied, a lai ne nuinbei
of subjects m ust be studied.
152
V ow el M odification in S inging
153
154
155
shaped; the descending larynx, via the hyoid hone, pulls down on the
root of the tongue, an action which has been termed "the downward
pull of the yawn;the pillars of the fauces (which connect with both
the tongue and the palate) are stretched, an action thought to be an
asset inasmuch as muscular tension may contribute in producing the
right kind of "twang in the timbre.
Can this logicwithstand the test of freedom ol ;u lion, ol him
tional efficiency? Do such techniques correspond lo wli.it is known
about the action of the articulatory mechanism? Can the demands ol
language, agility, ease in breath management, and (lie dyiiumic
events of registration be accomplished with freedom? Wli.it .n< tInresults of this vocal philosophy?
In the male voice, trained by the premises just outlined, sik l
i
heavy throat adjustments as a means of "covering produce ;
idm k
vowel sound already at the primo passaggio (see chapters on reps
(ration); by the secondo passaggio, vowels have been modified to a
neutral condition, or to a back vowel, even ifthey are front vowels.
For example, a baritone trained in this "heavy production, when
singing an arpeggio on [a]in the key of El,may well have "covered
the vowel to [o] by the time the fifth pitch of the scale (Bt>) is
reached, and may be singing something close to [u] or even [u] on
arrival at the top of the arpeggio at Et>4,producing an effect of [a, o,
o, u, o, o, a], although the vowel [a] is indicated throughout the
passage.
In contrast to this radical phonemic shiftin vowel structure and
mechanical adjustment in the pharynx, in the historic Italian School
concentration is on graduated vowel modification. Flexible adjust
ment of the vocal tract must be permitted in order to define all
vowel form. In the best singing of the international school, adjust
ment of acoustic postures defines vowels at any level of pitch.
The sole purpose of aggiustamento isto modify the formation of
ascending vowels so that upper pitches may match the over all tini
bre of the unified scale; adjustment of the vocal organs necessary to
rising pitch (and power) automatically occurs when the ueouslli
laws of vowel differentiation are allowed to function without
mechanical falsification of the vowel.
156
upper harm onic partials in the sound, and is not an acceptable qual
ity in any vocal range.
Voce aperta (open voice) indicates a general im balance am ong
resonance factors in all ranges of the voice, especially apparent in
upper-m iddle and upper voice. Voce bianca contributes to voce
aperta
Voce chiusa (closed voice) describes a tim bre in all parts of the
range w ith a desirable balance of low and high harm onic partials.
Voce chiusa produces the chiaroscuro (light-dark) tim bre in which
both brilliance and depth are present in any area of the vocal scale.
Voce coperta (suono copcrto) occurs in rising pitch w ithout
engendering m echanical changes associated with Deckung, and
w ithout the kind of m echanistic action represented by som e uses of
th e term "cover. Although copertura might literally be translated as
Deckung, o r "covering, the physiological events a re not necessarily
identical. Deckung, or "covering," as it is som etim es understood,
cannot be m anaged without introducing heavy thyroarytenoid activ
ity in parts of the vot ai range w here o ther m uscle balances should
prevail A healthiei and nu n e aesthetically pleasing alternative (of
com s e , not l o e a r . lli.il l i a v c been culturally conditioned otherwise)
mav be found in a l m o s t im perceptible m odification, at the prim o
pa.s.saggio, whit li does not com pletely neutralize th e vowel at the
,secondo pas.saggio pivotal point (Miller, 1977, pp. 82-83).
Voce coperta is part of the voce chiusa concept and avoids voce
aperta through aggiustam ento of the vowel. Such copertura form s a
major technical accom plishm ent in artistic singing. As m entioned, it
is not eq uatable with som e uses of Deckung (or "covering). It is also
in accurate to translate directly the term s gedeckt and "covered as
voce coperta The aggiustam enti of copertura, a technique also
know n as arrotondam ento (rounding), are m uch m ore g rad u ated in
the historic schools than in som e other tw entieth-century systems.
Aggiustamento is of m uch im portance for high pitches (le note acute)
of the voice.
Som e singers tend tow ard an open quality of sound because
they lack the proper energization and physical involvem ent needed
to achieve unified tim bre in the m ounting scale. On reaching upper
voice or encountering the secondo passaggio, they suddenly "cover,
producing a m arkedly "woofy sound. Therefore, although avoiding
the perils of early Deckung, they violate function as the scale rises;
they then force sudden adjustm ents on the larynx, and dark, unsup
ported tone results. To ignore vowel m odification (aggiustamento)
throughout the ascending scale is to lay the ground for unw anted
register dem arcation.
157
(more closed)
(more closed)
Mm k Vo we l *
Iront Vowels
(more open)
( m i n e <*|< 11)
158
159
els
[e]
[e]
h]
[o]
[e]
h]
[o]
[e]
hi
[0]
[o]
hi
hi
h]
[u]
I.XERCISE 11.2
ft #
fl
m m
---- 0 ---
-to ]
[3]
[e]
[e]
[e]
[>]
[i]
[i]
[a]
hi
[a]
I.XERCISE 11.3
<m j r \fP f
|e]
fi]
hi
hi
hi
[e]
hi
l>]
[cl
to]
f
M
l* I
hi
M
i" i
hi
1
hi
IN )
EXERCISE 11.4
[e]
[i]
[e]
M
[e]
[o]
[o]
[a]
[u]
[u]
M
M
[e]
[a]
JP$i
f
t
m
r
n
m
J
m
,
-
' -0 i
UJ UJ
^-----
i1
f r
[o]
M
M
[a]
tl
toi
(Cl
EXERCISE 11.5
[e]
[e]
[i]
[i]
[o]
lu]
[3]
[O]
[]
[o]
[e]
[U]
D>]
[]
EXERCISE 11.6
T
O fT cTL my
[a]
[e]
[u]
>----
# p
F f = f = r ~ n
- e -----
b]
[o]
[e]
[u]
[e]
[o]
b]
CH A PTER 12
For each category of voice there are rather precise range cxpeeta
lions. Singers must restrict themselves to literature of a speulic
vocal range, determined by their category (termed Fach in the into
national language of the theater). On the other hand, a limited raille
within a category is a serious disadvantage to a performer. Inability
lo negotiate the full range of the voice has halted some promising
careers. The topic of range limitation is a much more pressing one
than the general silence that prevails on the subject indicates.
Some female singers have the curious problem of being able to
sing pitches that encompass the ranges of both mezzo-soprano and
coloratura voices. Unfortunately, an extensive range isnot a primary
determinant in evaluating a voice quality is.The agile nightingale
voice, with fantastic range extension but small in size, isnot uncom
mon; sometimes it is uninteresting. Such instruments fall into the
"normal soprano category. Unless some highly individualistic facet
of artist imagination or vocal timbre is characteristic, such a voice
will remain undistinguished from hundreds of others, despite techni
cal facility.
The opposite problem may plague the individual with every
thing but the top voice.A successful singer must be able to perform
most of the rangy literature of the Fach; short voices are seldom
given a chance at major professional assignments, regardless <
>l
other positive attributes.
However, more than one singer has been disturbed to lend that
a professional singer ought to possess a performing range ol thin
octaves. A look at the literature for the singing voiic, m an evening
at recital or the opera, reveals that this isalmost ncvci the (use An
interesting experiment may be made by taking a vot al score (opeia,
oratorio, or song literature it makes no difference which), leallug
through itpage by page, and tabulating the numbei ol notes that lie
either above or below the staff (bass 01 treble)- An ama/inglv high
percentage of all vocal writing for any category ol singei Is con
ttiined within the range of a tenth. II so happeim, however, in most
161
categories, that the notes lying on either side of that tenth are exactly
the pitches needed at the few moments of emotional and dramatic
impact (yet, almost never encompassing three octaves).
Conventions of vocal composition reflect physiological fact;
range demands for the light soprano, for example, generally are
considerably greater than for any other vocal type, and logically so.
Anatomically, the lightsoprano larynx isslight,sometimes being only
two thirds the size of the lower female larynx. By using the possibili
ties of the flageolet and chest registers, the light soprano voice may
extend from G 3 to G 6 with, in some cases, a few additional pitches
on either end. There is no need for astonishment at those additional
pitches that lie above High C, when it comes to the light soprano
categories. They are routine, and, ifnot present, technical deficiency
is the probable cause. Many highly successful professional light
soprano voices do not have all of those pitches (three octaves) in
their publicly performable range.
Most factual material presented on singing ranges is of little
value in helping singers make judgments about their own profes
sional qualifications, because such material isoften without differen
tiation "I sulu alc^oi ies within the over-all Fach. Ranges shown in
encyclopedic sources are often repeated from source to source
without real verification.
Equally unreliable, in general, are the charts included in some
works on singing, showing the "normal range-extent of a particular
vocal category; professional voices often do not correspond to such
indications, frequently exceeding them on both ends. It is not un
usual, for example, to encounter tenor voices of lyric as well as of
dramatic proportions (but seldom leggierior tenorini, of course) who
have many pitches below C3 .Tenor voices appropriate to the opera
house often negotiate a low G 2)with good quality and with compar
ative ease. Knowing this to be the case, more than one tenor has
been amused at the continuing awe expressed down through the
years by some critics and vocal aficionados for Caruso
s muchpublicized feat of singing the bass aria Vecchia zimarra, senti,from
the last act of La Boh'eme, during an onstage performance. Although
itisclear that no other tenor would manage the unique Caruso tim
bre in that or any other vocal range, almost any current professional
Rodolfo could sing Collines aria very successfully, inasmuch as it
extends only from C3 to Eb4, a quite manageable range for the
tenor voice. The incident is remarkable not because Caruso "had
such a strong low voice that he could sing bass arias," but because
his native timbre permitted him to do so with such good results that
some members of the audience assumed his bass colleague was
actually singing.
163
R A N G E A N D VOICE CATEGORIZATION
Ability to negotiate range has an obvious relationship to vocal struc
ture and to categorization, but much care isneeded injudging which
limitations are truly congenital and which are technical. In recent
decades, methods for determining the probable range (and therefore
vocal category) of a voice by mechanical measurement have gained
some limited acceptance. Although such correlations are of interest,
i
l is doubtful that any pedagogically useful information lies in that
direction. Voices are housed in physiques that to some extent dictate
categorization, but general vocal environment and the specific vocal
training a singer encounters will provide the decisive factors in
determining voice category and range. A fair case may be made in
support of the hypothesis that cultural attitudes serve as crucible in
many vocal matters, and that national preferences in vocal quality
may at times provide the essential factor for determining voice
classification.
When range is allowed to serve as the chief consideration in
vocal classification, many potential professional voices of one cate
gory are mistakenly classified early as belonging to some other cate
164
gory. The ten o r w ith full, resonant low voice, th e soprano with the
tem porarily short top, the singer w hose range is lim ited because of a
lack of energy, often m islead as to tru e vocal category, especially
with reg ard to range expectation from the respective categories.
The events of register dem arcation serve as indicators of vocal
categorization; if these events are overlaid w ith technical encum
brances, range m ay be curtailed. The upper range is highly vulner
able to such lim itation. Discovering the passaggi pivotal points of the
voice, and avoiding classification based chiefly on how high or how
low a singer can sing at som e early stage of vocal developm ent, is
wise procedure.
The w orld is full of singers who possess phenom enal high notes,
b u t w hose tim bre below the upper ledger lines bores the listener.
Few opportunities are then forthcom ing to display those rem arkable
high pitches. They take on the c h a ra c te r of a circus act, or a parlor
trick. (Incidentally, shining high notes on top of an otherw ise dull
instrum ent usually indii ale a technically handicapped instrum ent in
need of resonator adjustm ent.)
Mui'h ol the work of extending and stabilizing the vocal range
lias to do with easting aside certain attitudes and replacing them
with othei m ore positive ones. Most of o u r vocal experiences as
singers are lied to word symbols, which construct a continuing
pattern ol perform ance responses for us. Very often if we substitute
one set of symbols for another, we help change the physical
response. Isnt this pure empiricism? Of course it is, and it is fine as
long as it is based on an understanding of free physical action. (Cer
tainly no singer should ever a ttem p t to perform only m echanically, in
any ran g e of the voice!) The singer m ust be certain th a t th e w ord
sym bols th a t are chosen incite the correct physical responses. M uch
of the im agery of vocal pedagogy is directed tow ard localized con
trol, which inhibits freedom in singing.
F urtherm ore, it is precisely in the area of physical function that
all singing experience m ust rely on psychological climate. Appro
priate w ord symbols (imagery!) th at create a prevailing psychological
au ra (or at least give it verbal utterance) can be intelligently
expressed only in response to w hat has actually been experienced
physically.
Success in developing acceptance of the physical possibilities of
the top voice (in the healthy instrum ent) is often achieved by a tte n
tion to several concepts:
I. Continuity. Within the extensive range requirem ents of vocal
literature, nearly every clim actic note in the upper range of the voice
Range E xtension a n d Stabilization in Sinning
165
lias one or m ore connecting notes that unite it with the rest of the
voice. The high pitch belongs to the rest of tlie* phrase.
2. Unity of the Musical Phrase. Not only is tlieie the physical con
nection of one pitch to an o th er delivered by a ......sti lim ent skilled in
legato, th e re is th e concept of singing through a phrase, ol m corpo
rating every note w ithin the phrase into one w h o le N o note is iso
lated, regardless of its pitch o r its duration; it is co n stan th moving
w ithin the sw eep of th e phrase; the pitch on which il happens to
o ccu r becom es im m aterial w hen attention is riveted on diiet tiny, the
phrase, pointing it ahead. (Legato as an expressive device in i om m ti
nicative singing will be discussed in C hapter 15.)
3. Centeredness (also centering). C oncerns about high and low
pitch can be replaced by a feeling of cen tral location of all pi It h,
pitch is in co rp o rate d into a sense of collected focus, a m ental and
physical process. T here is an elim ination of "up and dow n, and there
is no sense of shifting location of either pitch o r attention. (With
som e singers w ho have been accustom ed to think in term s of high
and low, a decisive shift to horizontal thinking and feeling m ay be
helpful.) O ut of this centering com es com pactness of energy and
concentration, of both the body and the artistic im agination. The
singer should consciously cultivate a sense of physical and m ental
well-being. (This is exceedingly h a rd to do if the poor singer is trying
to yawn, achieve the idiot jaw , m ake space in the pharynx, distend
the abdom en, etc.!) This centering can be acquired, it can be p rac
ticed, and it can becom e a hab itu al w ay of thinking and perform ing.
11 is, w ithout doubt, closely related to ancient exercises of both East
and W est th a t unite m ental and physical responses (m ind and body).
Function. Physical actionthe functional p a rt of singingis best
controlled th rough indirect suggestion, b u t it m ust be efficiently
established b efore freedom can be expected to occur. Behind all ol
the artistic-psychological (the spiritual, perhaps?) lies the physical
and acoustic instrum ent. The determ ination of pitch throughout ihc
voice, including th e extrem es of high and low, is fundam entally a
functional m atter. Alteration of pitch in the hum an von c depends on
physical factors w ithin the larynx. Yet, this "function1' Is closely
related to several ideas already presented. It is the result ol the <oot
dinated m echanism , and it is one graduated met hunk al process, No
sudden new action is ever introduced into tiny urea ol the voice,
including the top voice (centeredness need not be Htibjei led to any
sudden disruption). M astery of the technical lucidly ol angiusta
inert to is a functional m atte r dictated by the ucsthetli dem ands ol
the ear.
4.
166
167
168
EXERCISE 12.1
| j ' j J J ir
(liny vowel)
r r i ii
EXERCISE 12.2
5
f
9------ p.
S L
M
fi
(any vowel)
P = 7." -x..
= 4 M
169
EXERCISE 12.4
F = ) = = ^ | 1=11
F=^
(a n y vow el)
EXERCISE 12.5
Q.____0t
(a n y vow el)
EXERCISE 12.6
(a n y vow el)
EXERCISE 12.7
1 1
(a n y vow el)
i in T T r.
EXERCISE 12.8
(a n y vow el)
r r
170
EXERCISE 12.9
CHAPTER 13
171
172
B reath adm ixture becom es the hallm ark of som e singers w hen they
attem p t piano singing. (Just as unfavorable is the unm itigated loud
dynam ic level of certain singers w hose ears seem to dem and feed
back a t high am plitude at all times. They m istake dynam ic level for
"resonance.)
The sam e character of tone should be possible for the singer in
both loud and soft passages, unless there is purposeful intent to
change the tim bre for coloristic reasons. The traditional international
school adheres to such tim bre consistency. (The belligerent bellow
ing of insensitive singers who are convinced th a t a constant fortis
simo is appropriate for operatic literature is best ignored.)
B reath adm ixture, in som e other pedagogies, is adm ittedly
appealing in that it requires less energy, and less tim e and skill to
acquire. Then why not do w hat is easiest? B ecause w hen exam ined
in the light of the freely coordinated instrum ent, "soft, sighing piano
is an enem y that enters the citadel of vocal technique to erode its
foundations bv literally rem oving its supportive pillars. It introduces
into vocalism .1 num ber of destructive possibilities. Sustained piano
singing should cause neither a higher m ixture of b rea th in the tone
nor. an increase in glottal pressure as a device fo r dim inishing
volume. Dynamic variation should not be dependent on sudden
shills in vocal tim bre caused by a series of static adjustm ents.
Dynamic equilibrium , not static settings, produces the capability for
contrasts within the basic tim bre.
Bouhuys (1977, p. 275) reports th at in tests com paring trained
and u ntrained singers, the frequency spectra of the trained singer
suggest th at the air pulses th rough the glottis have a sim ilar w ave
form in soft and loud tones. In the u ntrained singer, louder tones
show excessively high frequencies, producing shrillness and a m ore
peaked glottal air pulse. The untrain ed singer has a decisive air leak
th rough th e glottis th a t is not in evidence in the trained singer. On
the o th er hand, the untrained singer tends to m ake m ore efficient
use of the airstream in louder passages than w hen singing softly.
The u ntrained singer is unable to adduct the vocal folds completely,
o r nearly so, w hen he sings softly. This results in a b reath y c h a ra c
ter of these soft tones (Bouhuys, 1977, p. 275).
It is clear th a t a good singer uses efficient, low er airflow rates
when singing softly th an does the u ntrained singer. The "sighing,
yaw ning piano perm its high airflow rates because the vocal folds
are not efficiently approxim ated. "Building on the soft, and concen
trating on the soft onset, a re concepts th at produce high airflow
rates. M echanical efficiency in singing, Bouhuys (1977, p. 278) and
S chutte (1980, pp. 147-162) assure us, is dependent on skillful breath
173
m anagem ent, w hich reduces breath leakage I ' m cssive b reath pass
ing over th e vocal folds is the m ark of die pool sinnei The balanced
onset is essential at all dynam ic levels.
Messa di voce is th e classic device f o r arhievinc m a .le r y o f a
wide range of dynam ic contrasts. One begins at piamv.nni l< \ 1 with
a sustained tone, crescendoing to fortissimo, then det n m e n d o iu y
back to pianissim o while m aintaining uniform lim ine I<l> illv d u
whole dynam ic range of messa di voce should be puv.ihlt mi i \ n s
pitch w ithin the entire vocal com pass, yet it is doubt I ill that m o n
th an a h andful of g reat singers have ever achieved that g o a l, in am
generation.
J =60
p
[3
i
i]
[i
o]
[o
e
e
mm
H i
TT
TT
i]
a]
II
O
I
II
174
acquired. The aspirated onset and the glottal plosive m ust both be
avoided or the exercise will not prove beneficial. Above all, there
m ust be no point within the phrase at which "softness is replaced by
"kernel; the core" of the tone m ust be present from the start. No
"entering w edge should be audible, as has som etim es been sug
gested (V ennard, 1967, p. 213), and th ere m ust be no sensation th at
as you crescendo, drive in the wedge.
D uring the course of any sustained phrase, m aintaining a steady
epigastric-um bilical balance requires increased attention to breath
m anagem ent. In messa di voce th ere should never be sudden con
scious increase in b reath pressure; a sense of grad u al energization
w ithin constant stability of tim bre should be experienced as the
dynam ic level changes. The concluding pianissim o will require the
highest levels of control. Such control is the result of having earlier
developed the sensation of b reath suspension discussed in
Chapter 2.
The m ale sinner should avoid the tendency to reso rt to falsetto
as the messa di voce technique is extended upw ard into m iddle voice.
(Although the falsetto may be used in a lim ited way u n d e r the circum stances described in C hapter 9, it m ust not norm ally m ake its
appearance in the messa di voce exercise. Falsetto encourages faulty
vocal fold appr oxim ation and an increase in airflow th a t the messa
di voce is intended to correct.) The fem ale singer m ust never indulge
in the tiny adolescent sound th at reduces am plitude b u t vitiates
tim bre.
It m ust be m entioned em phatically th a t the suggestion to "go
from chest voice to head voice' in the messa di voce exercise is to
be avoided at all costs (although recom m ended in som e pedagogies).
The ability to crescendo is not related to registration of the voice. No
fundam ental altering of m uscle participation occurs at som e precise
m om ent during sustained pitch; messa di voce involves no ab ru p t
change in cricothyroidal-thyroarytenoidal balances. (How could
such action possibly be considered appropriate to a sustained note in
the upper region of the voice, for example?) S udden drastic shifts in
m uscle balance am ong the internal adjustors of the vocal bands are
to be shunned. Stability is the key.
The view point th a t messa di voce vocalises are exercises in su d
den alternation of the heavy and the light m echanism s of reg istra
tion on a single pitch is not in line w ith the traditional concept of that
skill. Indeed, messa di voce can be accom plished within any register
tim bre. However, its m ost valuable contribution consists in unifica
tion, practiced in all but th e m ost extrem e ranges of the voice. It is
not solely an exercise in dynam ic control.
175
EXERCISE 13.2
176
EXERCISE 13.3
J =60
pp
ff
|y
* -
PP
i l ------ :
jo
? _____ ::
(any vowel)
177
178
the d ram atic soprano who has delivered E lektra thrillingly for m any
decades does so at such a high dynam ic level, and why does she not
sing certain o th er literatures as does the "sensitive recitalist who
"floats h e r tone? These exam ples arc draw n from life, and illustrate
th at it is som etim es difficult not only for the sheltered voice teacher
(who easily grows accustom ed to dealing with the college-age
singer), b u t for the supposedly knowledgeable critic to recognize that
all of those subtle sounds so m usically appealing in the voice studio
and the sm all recital hall m ay be m ore readily achieved by voices of
lighter category, and u n d er limited acoustical circum stances. To
expect the sam e vocal style and behavior from a dram atic in stru
m ent is to show ignorance of the several categories of the singing
instrum ent. As Titze has noted (1980, p. 20), th ere a re sprinters and
long-distance ru n n ers am ong singers as well as am ong athletes.
Inform ed contest judges expect the late-adolescent fem ale to
possess m ore technical polish than her m ale contem porary, particu
larly with regard to dynam ic control. (Anyone who judges contests at
college level ought to be aw are of the m atu ratio n continuum of the
male and fem ale instrum ents.) Those who adjudicate should dem and
that soubrettes, coloraturas, and lyrics display characteristics of their
respective Idclicr, attrib u tes th at are by no m eans identical to those
expected of the dramatic fem ale categories. Vocal adjudicators who
serve on panels heavily weighted with instrum entalists som etim es
w atch a coveted prize go to a small soprano voice of lim ited profes
sional potential, singing literature th at for h e r category is by no
m eans dem anding, while a dram atic voice loses b ecau se it does not
yet exhibit the sam e degree of dynam ic control. These statem ents
m ust not be m isunderstood as an endorsem ent of th e all-toofrequent practice of entering young students in contests with litera
tu re m uch too dram atic for their years and skills, no r of th at unin
teresting howling th at som etim es passes for dram atic singing in
vocal com petitions. H ow ever, teachers of singing easily becom e
enam ored of singing th at is "m usical and dynam ically varied, but
w hich actually is m annered, lim ited vocalism. Professional potential
should never be overlooked.
This m ay be an appropriate place to insert an encouraging w ord
for the young m ale singer w ho regards his tw enty-one-year-old
fem ale c o u n te rp art (particularly if she is a so u b rette or a coloratura)
with aw e for h er technical ease. He should realize th a t if his fem ale
friend does not sing considerably m ore skillfully th an he at this
developm ental point in h er career, she is probably th e possessor of a
problem atic voice. Despite technically rough edges, his own instru
m ent may later prove to be the superior one of the two.
179
M any teach ers of singing, w hen candid, adm it that teaching the
fem ale voice a t the college- and university-age level is far m ore
satisfying m usically th an dealing with the mule voice of a co rres
ponding age, simply because vocal skill is inevitably linked at that
age w ith laryngeal history (her voice is 21 years old, I n s onlv 7- f ive
or tak e a year). The teach er of the potentially professional male voice
in this age category should be extrem ely cautious about covering up
lack of skill th ro u g h the use of quick solutions, such a s dependence
on voce finta, falsetto, or breath-m ixture practices, liach p a s s i n g ve.u
(each passing six-m onth period, in fact) will bring greater m aturity Io
the m ale voice, w hich at college age still exhibits strong m utational
signs. (Som e m ale voices, especially those of the lighter categories,
have physical grow th well behind them at age 2 1 . Late m aturation is,
however, the rule for the sturdy m ale voice.)
The problem s of dynam ic variance becom e acu te with young
m ales w ho have an appreciation for the subtleties of vocal art, who
are musically, linguistically, and interpretatively well equipped to do
highly advanced vocal literature, and w ho feel a need to perform
publicly (they a re rare, b u t they do exist). T eacher and pupil have to
face facts, recognize w hat is feasible (and resist vocal coaches who
have little -aw areness of the m atu ratio n continuum of singers), and
strike a com prom ise as to w hat is acceptable p erform ance literature.
The com prom ise should avoid vocal gimmickry, w hich m ight tem
porarily perm it a w ider range of literatu re than w ould free vocalism.
Excellent vocal litera tu re exists for any healthy voice w ithout
resorting to the alm ost impossible dem ands found in som e parts of
the literatu re (both operatic and song). B ecause of physical m a tu ra
tion differences, it is m uch easier to find appropriate study m aterial
for the young fem ale th an for the young m ale voice.
On the o th er hand, if the young singer, m ale or female, is incap
able of negotiating som e fair am ount of the less-dem anding song
litera tu re by th e tim e those req u irem en ts are to be m et in eithei
academ ic o r professional program s, it m ay be necessary to conclude
th a t singing talen t is not sufficiently present to justify continued pro
fessional hopes. Som e young m ale voices arc of potentially proles
sional caliber, b u t th eir vocal developm ent is slow er than the ........
If they have the tim e, the m oney, and the em otional loi tltude, it may
be advisable to keep at it. Yet it is part of the responsibility ol the
voice tea c h e r to give frank appraisal of the probability ol proles
sional success and to weigh it against o ther lile Inlet e s t * ol the young
singer. (T hroughout this discussion, the "young ulngei tele rs to the
late adolescent of roughly 18-23 years ol age.)
Let us re tu rn to o u r young male singei ol uveiuge develop
180
181
singing. Every voice m ust accom plish the lull dynam ic range appro
p riate to its size and w eight if the dem ands of professional skill are to
be m et. (But don't ask th at of every m ale singer at ay.e 21!)
Messa di voce vocalises, taken together will carefully selected
passages from th e vocal literature (always appropi laie lo Ilu- singers
capabilities at th e c u rre n t stage of developm ent), ai e Ilu- best m eans
fo r acquiring dynam ic control in the singing voice.
The m atu rin g young artist and the seasoned professional should
re g a rd the messa di voce vocalise as an essential part ol eat li day's
technical work. Y ounger singers should not attem pt that skill until
they have acquired a thorough grounding in vocal technique
CHAPTER 14
Vibrancy in Singing
Vibrato and Vocal Timbre
V ibrancy in Singing
183
184
8.
1X5
V ibrancy in Singing
and if they can inhibit other neural pathway- l<> other struc
tures of the vocal tract.
A nother w ay to produce vibrato would be to h.ivc .in
external force applied to the abdom inal wall and iheieby
rapidly change th e driving force at the saint i alt W* vr ill
seen peoples tongues m ove a t th at rate, we'vt . . u |,m
shake at th a t rate. The pharynx an d the larynx imn< up ami
dow n at th a t rate. I w ont m ake a judgm ent as to win tln-i ill
this is good o r b ad technique, b u t I think the point i tliai u
does rep resen t failure to be able to inhibit certain i If.......
certain n eu ral pathw ays of this norm al physiological i n ......
to allow it to com e th rough others. (Emphasis added)
In answ er to th e question as to w here, anatom ically, vocal vihi ntn i
generated, Shipp (1983, p. 132) responds:
It seem s reaso n ab le to suppose th a t th e singer thinks ol a
note in term s of absolute o r relative pitch, not as the two
pitches bounding th e targ et note. The sin gers brain, or
m ore specifically a m o to r n eu ro n pool, organizes a neuro
logic im pulse pattern to contract the cricothyroid muscle by
an am ount that the singer has learned w ill cause the vocal
folds to vibrate at the target frequency. This p a tte rn is sent
dow n th e m o to r pathw ay to th e involved m uscles. At som e
point along this transm ission line, perhaps at the cerebellar
level, this relatively steady impulse pattern is m odified to a
rhythm ic undulating one that causes the m uscles to contract
and relax so that the vocal folds vibrate at frequencies just
above and below the trt'll '^ 'tc n t'o trnsoscation is
m onitored by the singer th ro u g h the auditory pathw ays
principally, an d voluntarily adjusted to the extent of the
vibrato ran g e from "straight" tones to exaggerated vibrato.
(Em phasis added)
Shipps com m ents point out tw o significant facts. V ibrato has a m u
rological source w hich activates th e cricothyroid muscles, ami
vibrato involves a relaxant principle in laryngeal action
186
V ibrancy in Singing
187
188
189
Vibrancy in S inging
-A 4 -
---
V
[i
u]
[u
i]
190
Vibrancy in Singing
191
* r r
[i]
[a]
g r ......
[e],
[a]
[i]
[e]
[0]
[o]
192
193
Vibrancy in S inging
194
195
Vibrancy in Singing
196
tenor.)
M uch of c u rre n t u nearthing of bel canto operatic literatu re of
the first half of the nineteenth cen tu ry has b ro u g h t the trill to the
fore; the operatic m ezzo-soprano, in particular, w ho lacks trill will
not be able to sing th at florid literature acceptably. On the other
hand, bleating or shaking on a pitch is not legitim ate trilling.
A cautionary w ord is in order. Practicing the trill should not
occupy large am ounts of time. Trill is not of such im portance in m ost
categories of voice th at valuable hours should be spent on its acqui
sition. In addition, too m uch oscillatory action m ay produce undesir
able results in other areas of the singing voice. Trill should be studied
cautiously, and only a fter the basic techniques of the singing voice
have been secured.
The wide variance am ong vibrato rates, it should be added as a
final consideration, is the result of physical practices th at differ from
one technique to another. Obviously, som e of these techniques are
functionally m ore efficient th an others, producing g rea ter freedom
in the singing voice. T here is a direct correlation betw een clean
onset, efficiently m anaged breath, and a vibrant tone. A too-slow o r a
too-rapid vibrato rate is an indication of unhealthy function.
CHAPTER 15
Coordinating Technique
and Communient ion
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
CHAPTER 16
Pedagogical Attitudes
The Aesthetics of Vocal Timbre
C onsiderable atten tio n has been directed in the pasl low aid Ihr
assessm ent of individual m usicality w ith reg ard to the ways in whli li
the elem ents of m usic are perceived, b u t little study has brcn
devoted to how one develops the aesthetic ju d g m en t to discrim inate
am ong the varieties of quality in h eren t in a m usical sound, eithci
in stru m en tal or vocal. Such ability is the m ost essential of all musi
cianly skills. The reason for its neglect is perfectly clear. Aesthetic
ju dgm ents lie outside the purview of science and are d ependent on
the peculiar genius of individual personality. T here is, at least, a cer
tain uniform ity of opinion as to w h at constitutes th e o u te r b o u n d
aries of beautiful, and ugly, tone.
Som e singers have m any of the tools required for successful
singing, b u t lack a viable concept of beautiful vocal tim bre. Fine
singers have a concept of sou n d in th e ear. This concept of tim bre is
the result of cultural conditioning. Techniques of singing can be
identified according to cultural preferences, at least to som e extent.
Physical m aladjustm ent has not played a role, traditionally, in
determ ining the criteria of "The B eautiful in the W estern world. We
have never bound the feet to inhibit growth, m echanically stretched
the neck, striated the face, or put rings through the nose (although
we have p erm itted rings in the earlobes, at least as early as 3000 in ,
and we have rem oved h air from th e face and body for a com pai able
period of time). T attooing is an a rt originally im ported Im m ih<
South Pacific, and was at one tim e perm itted only t<> sailoi . who had
ventured so fa r from W estern ports. Although this a rsih rlii mav In
u n d e r review b ecau se of th e impact of non W rstri n inllnriu e*., the
functionally com plete specim en who can en^anc in phy.u ul .u lion
with a physically optim al body continues to rep risen t I he ailistii
norm in art and action in the W estern world, Voctil tlin b ie that
results from the well-form ed, well coordinated Insli imicul, wlllioul
m aladjustm ent of any of its physical parts or function*, 'lands the
best chance of qualifying under the artistic crltei ia Im tonal beauty,
as found in W estern culture. The hum an body Is the vot a! Instiu
ment; its most freely produced sounds (the lesull ol fm ntlouallv
206
207
208
209
210
general ideas will filter clown into the singers consciousness if m usi
cal and interpretative m atters rem ain param ount. Such teaching can
be of benefit if for no o ther reason than th at the attention is tu rn ed
away from the physical events of singing, perm itting n atu ral coordi
nation a fre e r hand. M uch of th e success of the coach-accom panist
(in addition to m usical and stylistic advantages) results because the
singer is finally free of the overly technique-conscious voice teacher.
Interpretation-oriented pedagogy w orks well w ith the naturally
coordinated singer (is an estim ate of 1% of all w ho sing too high?)
who already negotiates the technical dem ands of the voice in an
adm irable way.
It m ay be com m endable, if you are a n aturally coordinated
animal, never to give tho u g h t to the b rea th ("You do not think about
b re a th w hen you are not singing, so why w hen you sing? ) o r to any
o th er aspect of singing technique. Inasm uch as singing is a physical
as well as an artistic act (and p a rt of its artistic strength lies in the
degree of physical freedom displayed), the teaching of voice chiefly
from the text and the m usic is m ostly inadequate. A n u m b e r of
small, m anageable voices are capable of putting together a pasticcio
of vocal colors and expressive devices th a t often sm acks m ore of
gim m ickry than of technical control, not because they are incapable
211
212
PEDAGOGICAL BALANCE
The ideal tea c h e r of singing m ost probably will rem ain an ideal.
Voice teachers deal w ith a centuries-old a rt in which a lim ited
n u m b er of persons have excelled w here others have failed, reg a rd
less of m ethodology. It is n ot easy to assess the im pact of the voice
teacher on the successful artist. A final accounting sheet on the
result of pedagogical efforts in professional singing careers m ight
not prove to be as favorable as the voice teaching profession m ight
wish. It cannot be doubted th at som e voice teachers are m ore su c
cessful than others, however, regardless of actual teaching aptitude.
T here m ust be reasons.
213
3.
214
TEACHING ONESELF
I tau g h t m yself how to sing is a claim occasionally heard from
som e professional singer of stature. The statem en t should surprise
no one, because all singers m ust be their ow n teachers. Learning to
sing involves unification of the musicianly ear, the controlled body,
and the creative intelligence, an act of artistic integration th a t cannot
be superim posed on the singer from the outside. In this sense, no
tea c h e r teaches anv singer how to sing. One of th e m ost serious p er
ils for the student ol sinking lies in the expectation th a t a fine teach er
will build a technique lor the pupil. The singer m ust have tru st in the
ear of the teaehet and in the school of technique being presented,
but neither ol these positive factors is sufficient. Only th e singer can
put together physii al and artistic inform ation in such a fashion th a t
it can In- personally experienced again and again (that is, be given
technical expression). The work of the teach er can only be to point
the way (an essential service).
II the advanced singer continues to need th e controlling h a n d of
the teach er in technical m atters, following som e few years of study,
the tea c h e r has not done a proper job. Good teaching produces inde
pendent singers, capable of trusting their ow n ears and their own
bodies. All professional singers m ust eventually becom e their own
daily teachers, although they should never dispense w ith an occa
sional outside ear. If anyone else know s the singers voice b e tte r than
the m a tu re singer, the technical foundation of th at voice is
incomplete.
Intelligent singers will take a representative group of vocalises
built on th e categories presented in this book and give them selves a
voice lesson every day. Any tim e th e m outh is opened for singing, the
ear and th e intelligence should be involved in a process of m onitor
ing, the m ost basic form of teaching. After the singer has becom e
aw are of th e b eau ty of th e functionally free voice, th e singer is the
best teach er of th at instrum ent!
D uring the form ative years (usually passed in th e conservatory,
the school of music, the g rad u a te school), when technique is being
form ed and p erform ance attitu d es established, the singer should be
215
216
hatting averages of m ajor league players over the past th ree decades,
and for the popular TV personality to be acquainted with the m ost
m inute details of the c areer of "The Desert Fox, it is not uncom m on
for the professional singer to seek som e new and interesting perso n
ality dim ension to present to the public. (If the singer c a n t think of
one, the agency will.) Thus we have the "I ju st fell into singing m ore
o r less by accident motif, with psychology, ballet, pre-m ed o r "pre
law (the latter tw o academ ic program s general enough to go unques
tioned) p resented as the m ajor field of study. Indeed, if the n u m b er
of professional singers who gave up careers as "concert violinist and
"concert pianist w ere tabulated, one would trem ble for the artists
who dom inate those fields, had the singers not opted for their c u r
ren t perform ance m edium.
A close look will reveal that, while alm ost any professional singer
m ay have profited from a wide spread of intellectual and artistic
interests, the technique of singing has been seriously studied for a
n u m b er of years. The public image of som e contem porary singers
should not confuse the young singer; learning to sing is a dem anding
discipline, and no one should pretend th a t it is not, n o r is th ere any
reason l<> apologize for pursuing it.
In sim ilar vein, som e professional singers intrigued by the selfm ade image, which is so coveted in o u r culture, have a problem
adm itting the debt they ow e to som eone else (that som eone else is
often an early teacher w hose nam e is not nationally or internation
ally known). On the o th er hand, som e singers a re collectors of prom
inent teachers, "studying a little w ith anyone w hose n am e will add
prestige, particularly if the tea c h e r has a pupil, or several, currently
in the public eye.
H esitant to adm it the need for continued technical work, som e
singers euphem istically rep o rt th at they are "coaching with som e
well-known teach er of singing. Frequently, the te a c h e r who was
largely responsible for the em ergence of the singers c a reer is then
relegated to an "early-training-took-place-w ith category, if m en
tioned at all.
P erhaps m ost saddening of all is the prom inent professional
singer who develops obvious vocal problem s b u t is unwilling to face
them , because of belief in the copy of advertising writers, which
places the singer at the pinnacle of the profession; if you are the
em bodim ent of bel canto, you cannot very well adm it to a developing
passaggio problem unless you are a very objective person. Too proud
to seek help from a voice teacher, m any an artist has had to accept a
tru n cated c a re e r unnecessarily (or the term ination of the c areer is
the result of the singer trying to find a tea c h e r with "tricks that will
217
CHAPTER 17
Healthy Singing
H ealthy S inging
219
its condition. Little w onder th at the singer seem s never to forget the
physical statu s of the instrum ent.
M ost of the m easures taken by singers to rem ain healthy are of
dubious value, even psychologically. The n u m b er of throat lo/.enges
consum ed by singers is incredible and has very little effect on
bettering th e voice, inasm uch as lozenges reach the esophagus, not
the larynx, a fter contributing considerably to dental caries The
gallons of tea, w ith honey o r lem on, or even both, poured forth Iroiu
the ubiquitous flask in the green room , if taken all togcthei, must
surely produce an eighth sea, while the antihistam ine tablets and
vitam in pills dropped into th e stom achs of singers, if placed one on
top of the other, w ould c reate a tow ering m onum ent to hvpo
chondria. Nasal sprays, gargles, sinus m asks, lotions, and neck salve .,
to g eth er w ith pre-p erfo rm an ce diet fads (an egg in a jiggei ol
cognac, a can of pineapple juice, a h ead of lettuce, a serving ol
beefsteak tartar, are a few of the perennials), fu rth e r attest to the
plight of the m usician w hose in stru m en t depends on top-flight
condition of the physical m ass in w hich it is lodged.
The poor singer, w hen faced w ith an upcom ing perform ance
and an oncom ing cold, can hardly be blam ed for searching for som e
m agic potion th a t will resto re lost facility. It is a terrible feeling to
know th at w hat one can norm ally do so well m ust be attem pted
w ithout the full cooperation of th e carefully train ed and wellp rep ared instrum ent, and to be aw are th a t audiences and critics
m ake no allowances.
There are singers w ho even u n d e r optim al physical conditions
are caught in a w eb of psychological encum brances; th e g rea ter the
accum ulation of these circum stances "essential for singing well, the
less probability th a t they can all be fulfilled. Thus, the singer with the
few est p erform ance fetishes is psychologically the healthiest, regard
less of physical condition.
Many tim es th ere is nothing to be done during periods ol nu .1
pacitation except to fall in with o n es fate. Particularly, howevei, in
the case of th e singer, preventive m edicine is the best medli Inc
(Several sources th a t contain inform ation regarding the health "I tin
singer a re heartily recom m ended: Friedrich H rodnitA K r r f t V w i t
Voice Healthy (1953), N orm an P u n ts The Sinyrt \ mul A1 l<n I IihmiI
( l >79), and a series of articles by Van Luwrence on the r a te ol the
singing voice, LaryngoSCOPK, The NATS Ihillrlln, In-ginning with
Jun/F eb, 1981.) Are there ways of living sanely, without ioiotlanl
apprehension about physical condition, which the Intelligent, liable
singer an adopt?
220
221
H ealthy S inging
PERFORMANCE-DAY ROUTINE
Singers should never com pete w ith the strident voices of extroverted
Iriends u n d e r any circum stances, especially on a perfo rm an ce day.
I he sam e caution regarding speech at high dynam ic levels should be
exercised w hen riding in cars, subways, airplanes, buses, and railway
coaches (they still exist in Europe). An h o u rs ride from the airport to
the rehearsal hall while talking above th e m otor noise in an attem pt
to satisfy the curiosity of th e m usic enthusiast w ho picks up the
singer for the local opera or sym phony society, is not condin ive to
m aintaining good vocal condition. A simple explanation tli.it talking
is to be avoided on reh earsal and perfo rm an ce days is geueralK ill
that is needed to rem ove this hazard.
On a perform ance day, or a general rehearsal dav, no slnyi'i
should be tem pted into long conversations, eithei in pei son o i o n 111<
telephone, with spouse, hosts, local friends, newspupei oi t e l e v i s i o n
Interviewers, accom panist, or colleagues. A m a j o i iole o i a leeilal
m akes physical dem ands that ought to be taken lulls I n t o ,u i o m i t li
Is foolish to throw away long hours ol vocal i ondllioullig slmpls In
o ilier lo respond to the good intention ol p riso n s who lliemselvi s
do noM iave to stan d on the stage before thousands o f pm pl. lotallv
dependent on vocal-fold f unction.
222
H ealthy S inging
223
224
H ealthy S inging
225
226
WHAT TO SING
Equally difficult for the artist is the decision as to w hat roles, and in
w hat com binations, can be successfully un d ertak en over th e course
of a season. The m aturing young soprano w ho could very success
fully sing D onna Anna in th e production at a m ajo r m idw estern
school of m usic as a g rad u a te student m ay have to learn th a t as a
professional she should not take on that role at the sam e tim e she is
required to sing several o ther heavy roles. S tam ina in singing, as in
athletics, is built through involvem ent, b u t determ ining w hat is
excessive is not always easy.
B eyond th e problem of die cum ulative effect of specific roles
perform ed within brief periods of tim e is the problem of outright
m iscasting. The artist, one w ould assum e, should be able to tru st the
judgm ent of voice teachers, conductors, and general m anagers.
W hen it com es to role assignm ents, it is exactly in th a t a re a th a t
incom petence even in positions of authority seem s m ost prevalent.
This situation has been sagely com m ented on by one critic of the
operatic scene (Hum e, 1977, pp. G-5):
These questions, however, should not really com e up. If the
people in charge of opera theaters knew their business as
they should, they would not w ant to cast m ezzo-sopranos as
Selika in M eyerbeer's "L'Africaine for the best of all re a
sons: because it w ould not sound th e w ay M eyerbeer
intended it to. Lyric sopranos w ould not be given heavy
d ram atic roles, and exquisite tenors, w ho often need to be
saved from them selves, w ould not be perm itted to sing roles
w here vocal dem ands quickly rob their voices of the velvet
cushion they need to keep on singing for years.
The sam e source concludes:
T here is a serious shortage of really fine operatic voices
these days. It is com pounded by teachers w ho do not know
how to teach, singers who refuse to adm it th at th ere is any
thing they cannot sing and opera directors w ho think every
soprano can sing every soprano role, every ten o r take on the
entire ten o r repertoire, every baritone launch into the whole
b arito n e list. If the situation is not altered, the present p rob
lem s of casting Aida, T rovatore and T urandot will quickly
multiply.
In E uropean opera houses (w here m any A m ericans still find
their livelihood), singers have som e protection against the problem of
m iscasting, and of too m any public perform ances, yet m ost persons
F
H ealthy Singing
227
228
THE TEACHER-PERFORMER
Not to be forgotten in this consideration of the healthy p erform er is
th e te a c h e r-p e rfo rm e r w ho has to use the vocal in stru m en t to teach
a full schedule, fly out, o r drive long distances, for a w eek o r w eek
end of rehearsal and perform ances, deliver in on-cam pus opera pro
ductions, oratorio and recital appearances, present m aster classes
here and there, and still show up for com m ittee duties. ("Have you
published anything recently?" "W hen do you plan to finish your
DMA?) Increasingly, a large share of m usical life in Am erica takes
place on the college aiul university cam pus. Resident faculty m em
bers are active pci form ers as well as dedicated teachers. It is u n fo r
tunate that academ e has not given m ore tho u g h t to flexible solutions
to accom m odate the teacher-perform er. S tate legislatures (im bued
with the 40 hom week m entality) and boards of regents (trustees)
are seldom able to determ ine the im portance of perform ance contri
butions by faculty artists, looking instead at teaching credits and
enrollm ent figures. Som e iidm inistrators (may their tribe increase!)
un derstand the phenom enal feat of such com bination careers and
try to m itigate circum stances w henever possible. (In general, the
m ore vision in such m atters, the stronger the school of m usic th at
adm inistrator heads.)
Any activity th at involves phonation for long periods of tim e will
eventually tire the vocal instrum ent. Teaching singing is no excep
tion. W hereas piano and violin professors m ay talk all day w ithout
tiring their instrum ents, the teach er of singing m ust constantly use
the instru m en t during teaching (even if not a single note is modeled).
H abitual w ays of using the speaking voice m ay well determ ine the
continued vocal health of the singing teacher. Singers (especially
those who teach) should learn to "support the speaking voice with
as m uch skill as they do the singing voice, being certain th a t pitch
level is neither too low no r too high, and th at am plitude is at a level
to perm it ease of production. (The controversial doctrine of optim al
pitch is not here the question.) H arm can be done to the speaking
voice by attem pting to spare it o r protect it through low, breathy,
unenergized speech (a cu ltu ral developm ent within the past decade
o r so, p attern ed a fter the intim acy and "sincerity of the talk-show
H ealthy S inging
229
230
231
H ealthy S inging
DRY THROAT
Singers som etim es com plain ab o u t th ro a t dryness during perfoi
m ance. Can anything be done ab o u t this com m on condition? First ol
all, the singer should recognize th a t dry th ro a t accom panies situa
tions of anxiety. D uring singing, dryness is largely a side effect of
perform ance nerves. The b e tte r prepared, technically and musically,
the low er the incidence of dryness. Biting the blade of th e tongue
(gently!) and taking th a t last backstage sip of w ater give som e
m om entary relief. M ost im portant, how ever, is the psychology of
p erform ance attitudes. R egard the audience as people w ho are in
need of y o u r services; accept the responsibility th a t you are th ere in
front of them to share som e m usical and artistic insights.
M any singers discover th a t th ro a t dryness dim inishes con
siderably w hen little o r no salt is tak e n in food n e a r perform ance.
Deliberately drinking m ore w ater during the course of perform ance
days (or in general) m ay som ew hat alleviate th e tendency tow ard
dry th ro a t during singing.
Chewing gum and sucking lozenges seldom assist in providing
m ore th an a tem p o rary saliva flow, followed by an even gieatei
sense of dryness. Chewing and swallowing a section oi two ol i Hi us
fruit betw een entrances o r groups may be a som ew hat bellei I d e a
Above all, th e cultivation of a happy and positive pet loi man* i envi
ronm ent will do m uch to elim inate "dry throat.
232
233
H ealthy S inging
CHEWING
Is th ere a practical exercise the singer can use w hen tension and
strain caused by excessive p erform ance have taken theii toll, 01
w hen tem porary physical condition interferes with optim al vocal
production?
F or several decades, som e speech therapists and laryngologists
have expressed interest in the relationship betw een chewing and
speech. Chewing, u n d e r certain circum stances, m ay im prove voice
by finding an association betw een prim itive vocal sound and speech.
(It does not, therefore, follow th a t as singers w e m u st atte m p t to
rediscover the prim itive noises th a t resem ble the chattering of the
rhesus m onkey, or th a t we should im itate "pre-speech sounds as
som e few m odern vocal pedagogues w ould have us do.)
Emil Froeschels (1952, p. 427), w ho pioneered in the therapeutic
use of chewing, rem ark ed th at "The chew ing m ethod is not a relaxation m ethod, b u t a m eans of bringing forth the still-present original
association of voice and speech. How ever, a distinct sense of vocal
relaxation is often experienced by singers w ho call on this associa
tion th rough chew ing-speaking exercises. Froeschels explains his
discovery as follows:
Since one can chew food and talk at the sam e tim e, and
since th e nerves, th e m uscles, and even the cen ter in the
an terio r cen tral convolution are the sam e, the chewing and
speaking (articulation m ovem ents) must be the sam e Sim c
I cam e to this conclusion (1934) several X ray lilms hav<
proved it to be correct. If the patient is taught to think ol
chew ing while speaking, th ere is no overconliai lion ol 1 11<
m uscles concerned in speech (and voice).
Froeschels suggests the use of "ham ham h am as the kind ol nylla
hie appropriate, and fu rth e r advises that "l .xpei lent e shows that II It
best to practice tw enty tim es a day, each tim e loi a lew second*
only, but alw ays with the guiding idea ol the i eal ( hewing while they
are thinking of w hat they are saying.
234
H ealthy Singing
235
236
237
H ealthy Singing
238
239
H ealthy Singing
APPEN D IX 1
Laryngeal Structure
ana Function
242
make known our wants and needs. Indeed, speech is so much a part
of human behavior, it might well be considered a "second order
biological function. Regardless of the stand one may take, there is
no debating that the larynx functions as a sound generator only
when it is not fulfilling the vital biological functions. . ..
Complementing the earlier views of Negus, Zemlin continues:
The human larynx is especially well-equipped for sound production.
The vocal folds are long, smoothly rounded bands of muscle tissue
which may be lengthened and shortened, tensed and relaxed, and
abducted and adducted. In addition, there is good evidence that the
tension of the vocal folds may be varied segmentally as well as
grossly. Compared with less we 11-developed animals, the human
arytenoid cartilages are quite small with respect to the total length
of the valvular mechanism. This means that the muscular, vibrating
portion of the vocal fold is quite long and well suited for sound
production.
Singing is an extension ol the nonbiological function (or the "second
order function) ol the larynx. At least a rudimentary understanding of the
physiology ol the larynx is essential in determining functional efficiency in
singing Kenyon
|> 428) has suggested that the physiological larynx
should be del lut'd as the entire m echanism on which vocal fold m ovement
depends Nul only is the laryngeal box suspended, but the box is movable
only as part ol the total mechanism that moves the hyoid bone; this m echa
nism ini hides the base ol the tongue, the floor of the mouth, and the lower
jaw.
The structure and Iunction ol Ihe larynx provide a logical starting point
lor even a brie! examination of the mechanics of the instrument of voicing.
C A RTILA G IN O U S S T R U C T U R E O F T H E LARYN X
The larynx is situated at the top of the trachea, occupying a somewhat cen
tral position in the respiratory tract that extends from the nose and lips to
the bronchioles in the lungs (see Figure 2.1). The cartilaginous framework of
the larynx is m ade up of a total of nine cartilages: three single (unpaired)
cartilages, and three paired cartilages of lesser dimension, all connected by
ligaments and membranes. The cartilages are subject to movement by a
number of muscles (see Figures A 1.1 and A 1.2).
T h e S in g le o r U n p a ire d L a ry n g e a l C a rtila g e s
The shield-shaped thyroid cartilage is the largest of the laryngeal cartilages,
often quite prominent in males. The laryngeal prominence or "Adams apple
(pomum Adami) is formed by the laminae of the thyroid cartilage (sec Fig
ure A 1.1 a), which join in front and diverge like the covers of a slightly
243
epiglottis
hyoid bone
thyroid cartilage
arytenoid
cartilages
cricoid ca rtila g e
------- tra c h e a ----------
hyoid bone
epiglottis
superior
horn
anterior
prominence
'
oblique
line
thyroid
ca rtila g e
inferior
horn
cricoid
cartilage
trachea
Figure A l.l. C artilages of th e larynx. (The in ferior co rn u <>1 llic llivm ld . iilil.ip
articulates w ith th e cricoid cartilage. This synovial joint p e n n il. i Imwintl m Inn l>
w ard rocking m ovem ent.) (From M eribeth Bunch, DvHtimh s of llu SIny.lii)' Vn(n
1982. New York: Springer-Verlag. By permission.)
opened book. A t the back (posteriorly) ol the tlivmid iiiiI|Iii|m m e In. ,iicd
on each side, an upper and a lower horn (sec I iguic*. Al I uni Al ,) .u li
upper horn (superior cornu) is attached lo Ihi- hvuid hour, Ilit- Imwi limn
(inferior cornu) extends downward po.slci iorlv ovci the *.idr nl llir iilio ld
cartilage, articulating with the cricoid I v menu* ol n Im r t on tin h iiIiim ol
the tip of each horn (see Figures A 1,1c and AI
)
244
opening
into
larynx
thyro
hyoid
membrane
thyro-arytenold
(vocalis) muscle
crico
thyroid
muscle
crico-thyrold m.
(cut)
cunlform tubrcl
cornlculatir tubri ( Ic
outline of
arytenoid
cartilage
posterior
crico
arytenoid m.
lateral crico
arytenoid m.
posterior crico
arytenoid muscle
Figure A 1.2. Intrinsic m uscles of th e larynx. The paired lateral cricoarytenoids (a) are
attach ed to th e lateral an d superior portions of th e cricoid cartilage, and th e tips of th e
vocal processes of th e arytenoid cartilages. The in terarytenoid m uscle (b) is attach ed
to the posterior su rface of both arytenoid cartilages. The cricothyroid m uscle (c) is
paired and attach e d to th e an terio r portion of th e cricoid cartilage and th e inferior
horn and inner an d o u te r edges of th e low er b o rd er o f th e thyroid cartilage. The
paired thyroarytenoid (a) m uscle consists of tw o parts: th e internal thyroarytenoid or
vocalis, w hich form s the body of th e vocal fold, and the external thyroarytenoid,
w hich is lateral to th e vocal fold an d th e vestib u lar fold; often som e of its fibers a re
found in th e vestibular fold. The p osterior cricoarytenoid (b) is paired, and attach ed to
the posterior portion o f the cricoid lam ina and th e posterior su rface of th e m u scu lar
process of each arytenoid. (From M eribeth Bunch, D ynam ics o f th e S in gin g Voice,
1982. New York: Springer-Verlag. By permission.)
245
Located at the top of the trachea, the cricoid cartilage, the lowest of the
three single unpaired cartilages of the larynx, has a shape suggesting a signet
ring with the seal portion located posteriorly and Ihr arch anteriorly; it
forms the lower part of the front and side walls ol Ihr I,it viih and much of
its posterior wall (see Figures A l.l and A1.2). On cadi side <>l tin- arch, small
oval facets provide articulation with the lower horn (in ln ioi <mini) ol the
thyroid cartilage. Shallow depressions mark the origin ol Ili puslnlm i ii
coarytenoid muscles. The cricoid cartilage is attached antciioilv and lain
ally to the cricothyroid m uscles (see Figures A l.l and A1,2).ancl |><>sln Im K to
the inferior constrictor of the pharynx.
A third single cartilage, the epiglottis (see Figures A l.la .lv ), h a s I n
quently been described as having the shape of a bicycle seal, m a Irai, wit Ii
the broad end swinging upward and hanging free; the narrow inln Im pm
tion of the epiglottis is attached to the thyroid cartilage by ligaments, and In
the arytenoid cartilages by the aryepiglottic folds.
T h e P a ire d L a ry n g e a l C a rtila g e s
Of the three sets of paired cartilages of the larynx, the arytenoids, to which
are attached the vocal ligaments and the internal muscles of the larynx (see
Figures 1.1 and A l.l), are the m ost important. Each arytenoid cartilage is
pyramidal in shape, with three surfaces, a base, and an apex (see Fig
ures A 1.1 a and A 1.1b). The base of each arytenoid cartilage is concave,
presenting a smooth surface for articulation with the cricoid cartilage, and
each of these paired arytenoid cartilages is located on top of the posterior
laminae of the cricoid cartilage. Projecting laterally, the rounded muscular
processes afford insertion for the posterior cricoarytenoid m uscles in back
(see Figure A 1.2a) and to the lateral cricoarytenoid m uscles in front (see
Figure A 1.2a). The horizontal transverse arytenoid is a single m uscle that
extends from one arytenoid cartilage to the other and covers the posterior
border of each arytenoid cartilage. The oblique arytenoid muscle pair criss
crosses the transverse arytenoid m uscle from the base of one arytenoid car
tilage to the apex of the opposite arytenoid cartilage in an X-like fashion (scr
Figure A1.2b). These muscles, the single horizontal transverse, and Ilu
oblique pair, are som etim es described as two parts of the same miisi l< tin
arytenoid muscle. The pointed vocal processes of the arytenoid <ailllngi
project forward, providing attachment for the vocal ligaments (se< I ip
tires 1.1 and A 1.2a).
Through its backward and medial eurvalute, the apes ol <m h ai mi mild
cartilage articulates with a very small conical elastic milting! tin- i mini n
late cartilage of Santorini.
The cuneiform cartilages of W risbcig ate Iwo small pain il rlastli i aitl
lages that support the aryepiglottic fold. Vcnuaid ( I>r7, p M) gn < a i nlm
Ini description of their function: "Stiffening lliest |aiyrplglnllli | lolil llki
whalebone in the collar of a wom ans dress, at e the i at tllngi s >! Wi Islirtg
246
247
Posterior th y ro h y o id
ligam ent
H yothyroid m em brane
Ilyoid hone
I plglolll
Al yr|>l||lullk
i'lit
(Juuili ii ii||tilii i
111c 1111 I HIM'
T hyroid
cartilage
Piraform
sinus
Cricoid
cartilage
Pharyngeal wall
Appelman (1967, pp. 47-48) succinctly details the structure and function
of the conus elasticus and the cricothyroid membrane:
The conus is slit along its upper edge, and the upper borders of Ihe
slit form the vocal ligam ent.. . . The posterior and superior portion
of the slits are attached to the base of the vocal process nl em Ii
arytenoid. The arytenoids in their gliding articulations open and
close the slit (the glottis). The anterior portion o! die com I......is
the cricothyroid membrane. The conus elustlcus is m veied with
muscle and tissue, which are loosely allai lied lo II As lin divin
arytenoid muscle contracts the conus becomes Him
Several additional ligaments should be mentioned, al least in pavane 1
forming part of the complex laryngeal mechanism
The thyroepiglottic ligaments connei I the epiglottis anil tin thwnld
cartilage.
248
249
( H v lii|iy ii|i|n i|
M
I IHHIHI 111(1111 Ill'll
|I|i11<II II Hill
C artilago epiglottica
(. mi | mi . I- I iv m I i I mI
I lUlllMMIII ll ll l II I >11 II I H III
<11*11111 m u l l ......
l l l l l . , t H im . i.m ti III
h i in ill i n |i|< (
M . I l u iM 'li | n id i II
I-lllll llll1Ill HIM l i n | t m )(
u l o l l l i lllll
Cnrtlliiun iln
Plica vocalis
Labium vocale
M . eternoliyoldnii*
C avum laryngis
M . cricothyriMildiMiN
Isthm us glandulae
thyreoidae
Figure A 1.4. The interio r o f th e larynx. (From C. L atim er Callander, S u rgical Annlnniy
1948, 2d ed. Philadelphia: W. B. S au n d ers Company. By permission.)
The extrinsic m uscles have at least one attachment outside Ilu- l.u vni, iliev
offer the larynx structural support and often help li.x il in punition
Extrinsic Muscles
Suprahyoid Muscles (Laryngeal Elevators), The -iiipi ulisold iihim li ihIm
the larynx.
The digastric m uscle has its origin in two loi niions ilir pii'ilciltii lirllv
from the temporal bone at the mastoid notch; llir nnleiim belly lim n the
fossa of the mandible (see Figure AI ,ft) llolh pm Is ill ilih puli cil niun le .n e
D o rsum of tongue
E piglottis
Epiglottic tu b e rc le
V allecula
V ocal fold
V e s t i b u l a r f ol d
Piriform recess
V en tricle o f la rynx
C uneiform tubercle
A r y e p i g l o t t i f o ld
C o rniculate tu b e rcle
Vocal p r o c e s s o f a r y t e n o id ca rtilag a
R ings of t r a c h e a
Figure A 1.5. Laryngoscopie view ol the cavity of the larynx during m oderate inspira
tion. The rim a glottidis is widely open. (From C u n n in g h a m s M an ual o f P ractical A n at
om y, 13th ed., Vol. 3, ed. by <i I Romanes, 1967. London: O xford U niversity Press. By
permission.)
Digastric
ftiyloglottiU
T ra n sm is procsst nf atlas
Nplsnius jKHl
Stylohyoid
Mylohyoid
Hyoglossus
Fascial loop routul
digastric ttmdon
Jjongus capUis
Sternocleidomastoid
Levator glandulae
thyroideae
Levator scapulae
Sternohyoid
Omohyoid
Trapezius Jm
Scalenus
medius
Cricothyroid
Scalenus posterior'
Scalenus anterior
Sternothyroid
Figure A 1.6. The m uscles o f th e fro n t of th e neck. On th e right side of the su b ject the
sternocleidom astoid m uscle has been rem oved. In this subject, th e origin of th e scale
nus m edius extended up to th e tran sv erse process of th e atlas. (From Gray's Anatom y,
36th ed., ed. by P ete r L. Williams an d R oger W arwick, 1980. E dinburgh: Churchill
Livingstone. By permission.)
250
251
I hi
252
muscle inserts along the oblique line of the thyroid lamina and lowers the
larynx by pulling the thyroid cartilage downward. The sternothyroid tilts the
thyroid cartilage down and forward, thereby enlarging the pharynx (see
Figure A 1.6).
The o m o h y o i d m u s c l e has an inferior and a superior belly, the first aris
ing from the upper border of the scapula and the suprascapular ligament,
the second extending upward from a tendon under the sternocleidomastoid
muscles. These bellies insert into ihc inferior border of the body of the hyoid
bone. In contracting, the omohyoid muscle depresses the hyoid bone. The
hyoid bone is steadied by the omohyoid. The omohyoid can retract and
depress the larynx (see Figure A1.6).
The t h y r o h y o i d m u s c le appears to be an extension of the sternothyroid,
originating from the posteru >i surfaces of the oblique line of the laminae of the
thyroid cartilage. The thyrohyoid has ils insertion in the lower border of the
hyoid bone, and in tin- gi eatn horn. When the thyroid cartilage is fixed, the
thyrohyoid depresses the hyoid bone and the larynx. When the hyoid bone is
fixed, the thyrohyoid musi le elevates the thyroid cartilage.
Intrinsic Muscles
l.ai vnj'i ul mum le 11 itii lion as abductors (openers), adductors (closers), ten
sor., .nul le la x n s ol the voeal folds. The arytenoids are separated by the
abducloi m usclc. .i( inspiration, and the abductors are opposed by the
addiii lm , which close the glottis for phonatory function and for protection.
The vocal Iolds are lightened and elongated by the glottal tensors. The ten
sor muscles are opposed by (lie relaxers, which shorten the vocal folds.
The t h y r o a r y t e n o id m u s c le (see Figure A 1.2a) is a complex paired mus
cle of two parts: the t h y r o m u s c u la r is (also e x te r n a l t h y r o a r y t e n o id ) and the
t h y r o v o c a lis (also in t e r n a l th y r o a r y te n o id , or simply v o c a lis ) . The t h y r o m u s
c u la r is is bound by and attaches to the lamina of the thyroid cartilage. Its
fibers have their origin in thelower half of the thyroid cartilage at the angle,
and are inserted into the anterolateral surface and the muscular processes
of the arytenoid cartilages.
The i n t e r n a l t h y r o a r y t e n o id (v o c a lis ) has its origin in the posterior sur
face of the angle of the thyroid cartilage and inserts into the vocal processes
and the lateral surfaces of the arytenoids. The v o c a lis muscle (see Fig
ure A 1.2a) forms the medial portion of the complex paired thyroarytenoid
muscle, and provides the main mass of each vocal fold. Vocalis muscle fib
ers adjoin the vocal ligaments and attach to the inferior and lateral surfaces
of the vocal ligaments. Appelman (1967, p. 46) states:
Som e of the fibers of the vocalis muscle are short and do not extend
to the vocal process of each arytenoid cartilage. The fibers, attached
to the vocal ligament and conus elasticus . . . perform the refined
tasks of controlling the conformation of the vocal fold in its various
states of thickness and thinness during changes in pitch.
253
R elax and shorten the vocal ligam ent by draw ing the aryte
noids tow ards the thyroid cartilage for the singing ol low
pitches.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
R ender a portion o f the vocal fold ten se w hile the rem aindei is
relaxed.
254
IplyloHli
G r e a te r hyo id cornu
I # m p i hyold c ornu
T h yro id notch
O b liq u e lin e
C ric o th y ro id
(pars re c ta )
Cricothyroid
(p ars o b liq u e )
Tra c h e a
(b)
Figure A 1.7. (a) S ch em atic view o f cricothyroid m u scles and associated laryngeal
structures; (b) photograph o f cricothyroid and associated laryngeal structures. (From
W. R. Zemlin, Speech and Hearing Science, 2d d., 1981. Englew ood, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
Inc. By perm ission.)
255
has its origin on the posterior su rface o f the cricoid cartilage; its fibers insert
into the m uscular p rocess o f the arytenoid cartilage (see lig u r e A 1.2b). The
superior fibers o f the posterior cricoarytenoid rotate the arytenoids, so that
the vocal processes are pulled apart and the glottis opened.
Figure AI.K. Means by which the uk o lh v ro id nmy him thin to h i! .* iln vim >il hiliU
(l'iom W. R. Zemlin, Speech a n d Hearing Scfam r,
<I I'M I Im^I whim I < lili Nl
f'rcnticc-Hull, Inc. By permission.)
256
Slr.illlied squamous
epithelium
MUCOSA
EPITHELIUM
Cover
LAMINA PROPRIA
Superficial layer .
Intermediate layer
Deep layer
VOCALIS MUSCLE
Transition
] Body
Ciliated columnar
epithelium
Figure A 1.9. (a) S ch em atic cross-section o f vocal fold sh ow ing body, transition, and
cover. The d ashed line and upper arrow sh ow th e kind o f sliding m otion that is p ostu
lated to occu r b etw een cover and body. The possibility o f a vertical force on the cover
is ind icated by th e arrow at th e bottom , (b) A frontal section o f a hum an vocal fold at
the m idpoint o f the m em b ran ous portion, schem atically presented. (From Vocal Fold
Physiology, ed. by K enneth N. S teven s and M inoru Hirano, 1981. Tokyo: Tokyo Univer
sity Press. By permission.)
257
258
o f the respiratory m uscles. W hen the vocal cords, w hich are actu
ally sm all folds o f m u scle and cartilage in th e larynx, are together,
p ressure is built up beneath them . If this pressure is big enough, the
vocal cords m ay be forced apart and the lung air released. This
su d d en release of air under pressure acts like a sharp tap on the air
in the vocal tract, which is accordingly set vibrating.
W aveform s are generated. "Each o f these dam ped w aves is produced by the
vibrations o f air in the vocal tract, which recur every tim e there is a pulse
from th e vocal cords (Ladufogcd, 1962a, p. 90). The num ber o f vocal fold
vibrations and p uffs of air per second determ ines the fundam ental fre
q uency o f the sound (for exam ple, A,( 440 Hz).
S ou n d production is the result o f the m uscle activity just described and
the filtering processes o f the resonating cham bers.
APPENDIX 2
T H E T H O R A C IC CAGE
The bony cage o f th e thorax is com p osed o f sternum , ribs, and v n li'b iu i
(see Figure A2.1). T he ch ief organs o f respiration are h oused and prolet led
within th e thoracic cage. The cage is som ew h at cone-shaped, with tin- l.n p
end o f the con e situated inferiorly.
B ecau se th e thorax is lightly covered in front and on the sides by rela
lively flat m uscles, its topography m akes it on e o f the areas of the body m ost
easily su bjected to su rface observation. Certainly the physical action o f the
thorax during singing can be better view ed than can that o f th e laryngeal
area, and can provide inform ation to the voice teacher.
T H E R E G IO N O F T H E ST E R N U M
The sternum (breastbone) lies in the upper m iddle o f the thoracic ca g e and
,u ls like the hub o f a w h eel in its structural relationship to the costae (ribs).
I lie upper seven pairs o f ribs are true or sternal ribs, in that they attach in
Iront to the sternum . All tw elve pairs com plete the cage in back (see Fig
ures A2.1 and A2.2). Each rib is bony, and, in the ca se o f the upper seven
pairs, is attached to th e sternum by a short section o f cartilage. T h ese costal
i aitilages form the sternocostal joints.
W hat singing teach ers often call th e false ribs, the eighth, ninth, and
tenth pairs, are m erged w ith the sternum through the cartilage ol the
seventh pair, w ithout being directly joined to the sternum (see Figures A, I
iiiitl A2.2.) This rib con vergen ce d efines a triangular area just below the
sternum that is o f in terest to m any singers and teachers o f siiifiiiK An .ulili
llonal tw o pairs o f ribs, the eleventh and tw elfth (often ei roncouslv In m ril
"floating ribs) are shorter and are not joined to the sternum Kiev u < il
Inched posteriorly to the spinal vertebrae (see Figure A2.2),
If on e raises the sternum , the entire region ol Ilie tin mix Is Inllui'iu rl hv
Ilull action. Alternately, if the sternum is dropped, the i elation ship ol the i lb,
lo Ihe organs o f respiration h ou sed within the llioi ax i lu m p s I he pi till Ion
Ing o f the sternum , therefore, occu p ies a place ol prime Im poilniit r In ><s s
In n s o f breath m anagem ent in vocal insti ut lion
B e ca u se ol th e relationship ol the slei not leldomaMold must 1rs hi 11it
su p p o rtiv e s t r u c t u r e o f the larynx (the Metnot leUlomuslold mum I d u nul
ol course, directly affect the action ol extrinsic laryngeal m ust Its), aiitl
259
260
Figure A2.1. Frontal view o f the thoracic cage. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas
der Anatomie des Menschen, 13th ed., Vol. 2, 1932. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
261
V e rte b ra tlioracalis I
D )* *
V ortebra
tlioracalis
X II
V o r te b ra
lu m b a l i s
t lu l t l
ut i lr
( I ........ W .
iim i
**
262
T H E D IAPHRAGM
Many tech n iq u es o f singing attem pt con sciou s control over the diaphragm .
T eachers o f singing w h o urge diaphragm atic control m ay only be using such
term inology loosely to indicate other possible m uscular controls around the
diaphragm atic region. The diaphragm is incapable o f providing sensation
regarding its precise m ovem en ts or its exact position w ithin the torso. It m ay
play a com p letely different role in breath m anagem ent from that assigned it
by som e teachers. W yke (1974, p. 297) m aintains that
Contrary to the view s o f m any professional teachers of singing . . .
th e d ia p h ra g m is relaxed d u rin g th e w h o le o f th e p h o n a to ry process
associated w ith s in g in g . . . except d u rin g each in te rp h ra se in sp ira
tion, and therefore m akes no contribution to the so-called support
o f the voice. [Em phasis added]
Luchsinger and Arnold (1965, p. 149) express a sim ilar viewpoint:
The diaphragm is inactive during expiration, be it silent or phonic.
S in ce it lacks proprioceptive sensation, the m ovem en ts o f the dia-
263
<>*liyilhlfi
Iliyn
Inl'lIIIV
11
ill'0fit
in I n ,i il,i
III VI: h y u lil
N p f t r t n le u i ln,
Mi iP H lfiti mm/
N . p h r e n ic u s d e x t.
tin
li b r a e fa s c i a e c o lli p r a e v e r te b r a lis
c u p u la e p le u r a e a f f i x a e
A . m a m m a r ia i n t . d e x tr .
N. v a g u s d e x t. e t n . r e c u r r e n s
d e x t. c ir c u m a r t. s u b c la v . s e
v e r te n s
A , iniiinmni hi In i tin
S h i n s rtn lo m i'iH in l
an I. alii,
( ila n d u la th y m u s
P ars costalis
d ia p h r a g m , e t
a . m u sc u lo p h r e n ic a
lig u r e A2.3. H yoid bone, larynx, trachea, rib cage, sternum (partly cut iiwav), prrl
i m ilium . (From O. Schu ltze, Topographische Anatomic, 4lh el oil by Wilhelm
I ubow h, 1935. M unich: J. F. Lehm anns Verlag. By perm ission, Nprlngri Vet lug,)
PP 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 )
264
the breath cycle, with attention to the relationship b etw een the diaphragm
and other m u scle groups both in sp eech and in singing. B o u h u ys study is
quoted here at som e length b ecau se o f its con sid erable sign ifican ce for the
interpretation o f conflicting pedagogical view points about the role o f the
diaphragm in singing:
D uring speech, EMG recordings indicate inspiratory m u scle activity
(external intercostal m uscles) at high lung volum es. As lung volu m e
decreases, inspiratory m uscle activity decreases, w hile that o f the
expiratory m uscles (internal intercostals) increases. Even though
considerable inspiratory force is required to p rod uce soft tones at
high lung volum es, EMC', recordings suggest that the strongest inspi
ratory m uscle, the diaphragm, d oes not contribute to this force. The
diaphragm rem ains electrically silent, w hile th e external intercostal
m u scles sh ow marked I1MG a ctiv ity .. . . Fortunately, sin ce the
m echanical interaction betw een the intrapleural and intra-abdom i
nal pressures regulates (lie position o f th e diaphragm , contraction
o f the diaphragrtt is not needed to regulate subglottic p ressu r e.. . .
The elasticity of the external abdom inal wall provides the primary
support loi (lie vis era l ire diaphragm is subject to an upw ard pull
exerted by the negative intrapleural pressure. H ence, lung elastic
recoil lend s lo pull the diaphragm and the abdom inal viscera
upward. I hr. lender icy is cou n teracted by the w eight o f th e abdom
inal vist ei a, an opposing force w hich is greater the larger the
liydroslatii pu-ssure gradient, a pressure exerted uniform ly and
pei pcndli ularly lo all surfaces in the abdom inal cavity. H ence, the
opposing Ion c increases w ilh elevation o f the diaphragm. A person
w ho begins lo sing a soft tone near TLC [total lung capacity]
expands the rib cage by contracting inspiratory m u scles and relax
ing the abdom inal m uscles. Although the negative intrapleural pres
sure pulls the diaphragm upward, this force is ch eck ed by the
w eight o f the abdom inal contents, w hich tends to pull it downw ard.
In this way, the w eight o f the abdom inal viscera replaces active co n
traction o f the diaphragm with a passive inspiratory force and
m akes possible the production o f soft sung tones at high lung
volu m es w hile the diaphragm rem ains relaxed. Analysis o f intra
abdom inal (intragastric) and intrapleural pressures suggested that
this m aneuver required an elevated rib cage and relaxed abdom inal
m uscles. D irect m ovem en ts o f rib cage and abdom inal w all dis
placem ents during singing h ave confirm ed this conclusion.
Spinal an esthesia m ay inhibit m ovem en t o f the rib and abdom inal m u s
cles, yet the patient can breathe and exercise control over respiration
through com pensatory m eans. It w ould appear that so m e independence o f
diaphragm positioning is possible. H ow ever, excercises for "singing with the
diaphragm , or for "supporting th e v oice with the diaphragm are tech
niques for training the entire thoracic, diaphragm atic, abdom inal com plex.
W atson and Hixon (1985, p. 120) com m ent that
The singing folklore is rich in m isconceptions concerning the trans
form b etw een body biom echanics and artistic perform ance. . . . The
265
m yth o f singing from the diaphragm, for exam ple, has persisted for
about as long as has the history o f vocal p erfo r m a n ce .. . . [M]yths
are alive in even highly trained singers, on e co n seq u en ce being that
subjects w h o sing in relatively sim ilar m anners i an i m ile lo co n cep
tualize their perform ances in dram atically different wavs,
Until various m eth od s o f breath m anagem ent loi singing have been
separately investigated by researchers, the question ol how mut li <In eel eon
trol over th e diaphragm can be achieved by the singer mnv lem .iin mi
answered. R adiographic research undertaken by Miller and Itianeo <I*>HS)
lends to confirm that diaphragm atic m ovem en t during singing vain-. Im m
one b reath-m anagem ent techn iqu e to another. Diaphragmatic ast enl i\ i on
iderably slow er (and therefore m ore desirable) during the expii aloi v pl.i- <
<il Ihe breath cycle w hen the appoggio technique is used.
The dom e-sh aped m uscle called the diaphragm is a m usculom em b i an
ous structure that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdom inal cavity
( d ra y 's A n a to m y, 1980, pp. 549-550; se e Figure A2.4.) The thoracic su rface ol
the diaphragm form s the floor o f the ch est cavity and is in contact with the
pleurae (m em branes that surround the lungs) and the pericardium (the con
irai sac that en clo ses the heart and the root o f the great blood vessels) (see
I i^ure A2.3). The abdom inal su rface o f th e diaphragm is covered in part by
the peritoneum (the m em brane that lines the cavity o f the abdom en). On
Inspiration, the diaphragm p resses on the abdom inal viscera through a
dow nw ard and forw ard m ovem en t (see Figure A2.3). The abdom en, in
icsp o n se to that action, sw ells outw ard. W hen the limit o f this d escen t is
accom plished, th e abdom inal viscera serve as a fixated part for the central
lendon, from w hich th e ribs are elevated by m u scle fibers. G ray's A n a to m y
( l >K0, p. 550) observes: The central tendon, applied to the abdom inal
viscera, thus b eco m es a fixed point for the action o f the diaphragm , the
effect o f w hich is to elevate the low er ribs and through them to push for
ward the body o f th e sternum and the upper ribs. The con e-sh aped curve
m oves dow nw ard in this fashion, causing th e lungs to expand. Luchsingcr
it ltd Arnold (1964, p. 4) report that during su bsequ en t relaxation, "The dia
phragm reverts to its d om e-shaped form , pushed upw ard by the con ten ts nl
Ihe abdom inal cavity. The lungs are also pushed upward, expelling the .m
content as they are com pressed. This m echanical action involves slintil
lan eou s m ovem ent in both abdom en and chesl, .serving to allei i lies! , ,n i|y
volu m e and, subsequently, the volu m e o f the lunns, all being the InnIIul>li
lesult o f ch est wall activity (sec Figure A2.5). This m ovem ent Is pmtinllv
observable externally; if a singer places the hands ill tin- liollom ol (lie illi
t ne, the lateral outw ard m ovem ent ol the low ei i lbs i mi lie lell I Ills i osinl
m ovem ent, although less com plete and less obvious, also o i i u i s with the
u p p e r ribs. T h e possibility o f expansion, bnlli al llie Hunk'....... al lln lei el u!
Ilu* upper libs, has proved a fertile field loi vhiIoiin system s ni illi ai lion
within several vocal pedagogic*.
S u c h possibilities of flank a n d rib m o v e m e n t have also given i h e in lln
ni les of essential d iffe ren ce s in the b r e a th m a n a g e m e n t d u rin g sinning lot
266
Foramen venae cavae
Pars costalis
diapliragmatis
Hiatus
oesophageus
P ars lumbalis
diaphragmatis
Hiatus aorticus
Arcus lumbocostalis
medialis
Arcus
lumbocostalis
lateralis
Gras
laterale
diaphragmatis
Crns
modinlo
diapliragmutlN
M. quadratus
lumborum
M. obliquus
internns abdominis
M. obliquus
extem us abdominis
M. iliacus
M. psoas major
M. psoas m inor
Corpus vertebrae lumbullH V
Figure A2.4. The diaphragm . (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas der Anatomie des
Menschen, 13th ed., Vol. 2, 1932. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
267
It is tru e that so m e fem ale singers are given to high-chcst breathing, but
the ob jective teach er o f singing can attest to the large percen tage o f m ales
w ho also are high-chest breathers. There w ould appeal to be a correlation
betw een upper pectoral respiration and livelihoods that involve limited physi
cal exertion, regardless o f the sex o f the singer. When not en gaged in
effortful activity, m ost persons habitually breathe shallowly, regardless of
their sex. R ather than to search for physiological reasons based on gender,
on e m ight better look to the cultural patterns that have histori ally been
parceled out to the tw o sexes. It is highly doubtful that strut lui al d illei eiu es
b etw een th e sexes p rod uce greatly contrasting m ethods ol breath m anage
m ent in singing.
T H E LU N G S AND T H E PL E U R A E
I he pleurae are tw o closed, independent sacs, each o f w hich en clo se, an
organ o f respiration, a lung (see Figures A2.5 and A2.6). Each pleural cavity
lid' lungs and mediastinal structured are clongiitril. mill the Iiiii)/ *i><iinl in llll lit'
pm e vacated by the mediastinal truiliiiiH mill lu in lri tin .....Ill>i| iln i>u11imIIi
li'i i M r ol t h e p l e u r a . T h e m o v e m e n t s w h i c h lit*- i Iln i i m l r i |m In ln><| >li nil' hi n i I ml
.liu w n ( F r o m Cunningham's Manual o f Prtullail Aniiltimv. 14th n l . l u . I 11 \ i . I
IliiiimneN, Vol. 2, l >77. O x f o r d : O x f o r d t ln lv e i -ill v I 'n I tv pel mlnM'in )
268
V. thyreoid, sup.
N . vagus s
N . phrenic.
V. thyreoid, in f. sin.
V. thyreoid, in f. d extr.
M. scalenus ant.
A . subclav.
anoymae
anonym a
N. phrenic, d exter
Ligam.Botalli
N . phrenicus
Pleura m ediastinalis
A triu m d extr.
pericard. appareils
S inus costomediastin.
Figure A2.6. Interior view o f the neck and the thorax. (From O. Schultze, Topographische Anatomie, 4th ed., edited by W ilhelm Lubosch, 1935. Munich: J. F. Leh
m anns Verlag. By perm ission Springer-Verlag.)
269
The lung adapts itself to the w all o f the chest cavity. A llhough th e lungs are
the m ost im portant organs of respiration, theii m ovem ent is d ep en dent on
the action o f th e m usculatu re around them. I .ling volum e is governed by the
total action o f th e thoracic cage in w hich the limy.s .11 < hoir.rd
The bronchi, right and left, arise from the hot I..........I the li.u lira, divid
ing repeatedly, w ith ram ifications becom in g Ihimiei and .m alin (sec I if
ures 2.1, A2.7, and A2.8). Com roe and associates (l%K, |>, l(>. ) dr ., iih c ihr
reaction o f the tracheobronchial system during inspii alion
If air is to flow into th e alveoli [the sm allest air eavilies <>i 1 elk in
the lung] the alveolar p ressure m ust b e less than alm osphri It dm
ing inspiration. Active contraction o f the inspiratory must I f . rn
larges the thorax and further low ers intrathoracic prcv.iin (imi
m ally subatm ospheric, b ecau se the elastic lung tends lo i n oil
inward, aw ay from th e thoracic cage). The d ecrease in intralhoi at i>
pressure enlarges th e alveoli, expands th e alveolar gas and low er,
the total alveolar gas pressure to less than atm ospheric so that an
flow s into the alveoli.
The frequency and the depth o f breathing for phonation are determ ined
by the breath-energy requirem ents o f th e phrase. The respiratory m uscles
respond to this dem and, and the healthy lung com plies.
O esophagus, T rachea
N. re currens sin .
L a m in a fib r o s a p e rica rd ii
llroncliu s, Vena a p ic a lis lo b i. .
su p . p u lm o n is d e x tri
A ., B ro n c h u s lo b i su p . .
p u lm o n is d e x tr i
B ro n c h i lo b i m ed ii X
p u lm . d e x tri
Sprlnucr-Vcrlun.)
h.
...........
i.m
It It
270
T rach e a
r
The Structure a n d M echanics
of the
271
Breath Apparatus
m astoid pair, w hich provides essential postural support b etw een head and
torso. A sharp turn o f the head to the side clearly reveals litis strong paired
m uscle (see Figure A1.6). The nam e o f the m uscle (often truncated to sternom astoid) describes its location. It runs from the m astoidal area behind the
ear dow n to the m edial end o f the clavicle, and to the s in num . The larynx
and its related m u scles are for the m ost part lodged betw een these tw o sup
portive m uscular pillars.
A m om entary digression will perm it a quick look at the genei ,il .m .iloinv
o f the n eck region and help place th e m u scu latu re ol the net It in i elation to
other system s. In so m e n eck s w ith clearly defined must ulai to n ln m s, a
landm ark is the thyroid gland, w hich lies against the lam inae ol the thyroid
cartilage and the pharyngeal w alls (see Figures A2.3 and A. (>) I In thyroid
gland is m en tion ed here b ecau se any ch an ge in the p ercept........ . its dclini
tion on the external su rface o f the throat during singing m ay be an intiu .ition
o f general throat tension.
If the throat w ere to be cut just across the thyrohyoid space, then Ilit
anterior jugular vein, the superior laryngeal nerve, the superior thyroid
artery, the om ohyoid, the thyrohyoid m em brane, and the inferior consti it toi
m uscles w ould all exp erience division. W ere th e front of the throat cut just
above the hyoid bone, the anterior jugular vein, the m ylohyoid, the hyo
glossal, the genioglossal, the geniohyoid, the lingual vessels, th e hyoglossal
nerves, and the external maxillary vessels w ould be severed (Callander, 1948,
pp. 47; 178) (see Figure A2.9). T each ers o f singing, how ever, m ust restrict
them selves to su rface observation o f this com plex structure.
M
.steM
r.nooth
myorheyooidtdeeuussventercranialis
.............
A, vtrltbralh
A. oarotli flonim. ilt.rlni
A. anonynia, N, i>
uiii
N, recurrtill m l.
N , W f | ,|7
llglliv A2,< A dissection ol the illlterlui <>l tllf m il, it nun <> *ii lllllt / In/rn
urnphische Anatomic, 4th d., ctl I>v Wllln lm I ulim.i h, t'Ji'i Munii li I I I tiiiiiinn
Vt'iliig. By permission, Springer Veil,if I
272
Levator scapulae
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres major
Serratus anterior
I,illinium* dorsi
Serratus posterior
inferior
T h o ra co lu m b a r fa s c ia ,
posterior la ye r
Erector spinae
Obliquus interims
Obliquus extemus
Obliquus intem us
Fascia
Qluteus
Fascia
Qluteus
Qluteus maximus
Figure A2.10. Superficial m u scles o f the back o f the neck and trunk. On the left only
the skin, superficial and deep fasciae have b een rem oved. On the right, the stern ocle
idom astoid, trapezius, latissim us dorsi, deltoid, and obliquus e x te m u s abdom inis have
b een d issected aw ay. (From Grays Anatomy, 36th ed., ed. by Peter L. W illiams and
R oger W arwick, 1980. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. By permission.)
273
M U SC L E S O F T H E U P P E R T O R S O
Running d ow n the back o f the neck, a m uscle pair callcd the levator scapu
lae (see Figure A2.10) arises from the upper angle o f the scapula (the
shoulder blade); as its n am e im plies, levator scapulae pulls up the scapula.
The m ajor and m inor rhomboid m u scles (see Figure A. 10) arise Irom the
upper spine and are inserted into the scapula. The siiftinspiiiiitii.',, the infra
spinatus, th e teres major, and the teres minor (sec Figure A2.1(1) ai e niusi les
that have to do ch iefly w ith sh ould er and arm m ovem ent'. I In Intpmits,
the deltoid, and th e latissimus dorsi m u scles (see Figure A. 10) loi in u powi i
lul enveloping layer over this portion o f the torso. The ed ge ol the li ap e/iu s
m uscle can often b e traced at the sid es o f the neck as it ...........neiillv <rosses
to the rear from th e b ase o f th e skull to the sh ould er and spine (sec
Figure A2.10).
Other m u scles o f the upper torso that som etim es figure in singing let li
niques are the pectoralis major, the pectoralis minor, and the serra Ills mi
terior m u scles (see Figures A2.10 and A 2.11). W hen w e look at the surface ol
the chest, it is u nderstandable w hy the m u scles o f the pectoral area appeal
im portant in breathing. They respond visibly to actions o f th e lungs and the
rib cage. But it should be recalled that th ese m uscles that cover so m uch of
Ihe upper costal region are largely associated with the shoulder girdle and its
related m usculature ( Grays Anatomy, 1980, pp. 567-568).
The pectoralis m inor and the serratus anterior offer assistance in lifting
the upper ribs (secon d through fifth) if th e shoulders are firm ly set. The
subclavius, w hich originates on the low er su rface o f the clavicle and at
taches to the first rib, provides elevation o f that rib if th e clavicle rem ains
fixed.
From its appearance, the serratus anterior (see Figures A2.10, A 2 .ll,
A2.I2, and A2.13) m ight be thought im portant in breath m anagem ent in
singing. B oxers rely on the serratus anterior for help in delivering a knock
out, and the m uscle is som etim es popularly called "the boxers muscle." But
for those m om en ts o f great im pact in th e dram atic vocal literature, the
singer cannot look to the serratus anterior for assistance.
Even thou gh th e pectoralis major, th e pectoralis minor, the serralus
anterior, and the su bclaviu s relate to th e w alls o f the chest anteriorly and
laterally, they serve during singing chiefly as postural m uscles Sonu
teachers assign th e postural m uscles m ajor im portance in cm ilrolling etp li a
lion, but according to Campbell et al. (1970, p, 181): "|()|l all 11< nnr.i lc .
which are generally thought to act as accessory m uscles ol tnspli allon, only
the scaleni and th e stern om astoid s sh ow significant ic s p iia lo n ,n tiviiv
in m an.
T h e large tr ia n g u la r trap e ziu s m u sc le (must le I il>< i . >>1 wlilt h imv ei gt
to w a rd th e clavicle, th e acrom ion, an d the spine ol the si apulai <o n i llu
u p p e r p a rt o f th e b ack (see F igure A. 10). I he ti a p e /iu s sit ailles tin si pilla,
(hereb y d e te r m in in g th e position ol the shouldt-i lo g e th ci with llu lullsul
m u s dorsi (see F ig ure s A 2.10 anil A.. 12), the li tipe/liis is oit en I lion will in In
ol im p o r ta n c e in controlling th e l u e a th cyt le tim in g 'tinging * e itu ln h .is a
274
Figure A 2.11. M uscles o f the right side o f the torso. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas der Anatomie des Menschen, Vol. 2, 1932. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
275
levator scapulae and the m ajor and m inor rhom boid m u scles (see Fig
ure A2.10); th ese are vertebroscapular m uscles that rolnte the scapula, but
they play n o im portant role in breathing.
W hen considering m ethods for breatli m anagem ent ("support) in sing
ing, it should be kept in m ind thato f dorsal and oil i c i ai <essory respiratory
m uscles (see Figure A2.10) including the anterior, m edius, and posterior
scaleni, the sternom astoids, the subclavius, the serrai us p o stn io i, superior,
and inferior, the q uadratus lum borum , and the .sacrospinalis gi uup only the
scaleni and the sternom astoids contribute significantly In n .pii allnn
M. trapezius
Fossa infraclavicularis s
Clavicula .
Acromion
M. pectoralis
m ajor (pars
clavicularis)
M, }MM*lll| m II n
miJoi
M, lilo o p i
lu n d i It
(enput
Itravo)
, litcnps
lien d il l
(t'llpiit
In n g u m )
\l, IrloonN
liiii lilt
(enput
liitnniln)
M, MMI'IUllIM illlllllllll
Imt/
276
M . aerrafcus
a n t e r io r
M. pectoralis m ajor
(pars sternocostalis)
M. pectoralis m ajor
(pars abdom inalis)
Zacke von der
6. R ippe
M.
.
n liiliu iiK ila
V agina m. recti
abdom inis
(vorderes Blatt)
W n ln lillil W ltlul
H p lim lllu o n
u n tn r io r
N ttp o rlo r
Ligam entnm
inguinale
[Pouparti]
Ligam entum
fundiform e
penis
F ossa ovalis
F ascia lata
F uniculus sperm aticus
Figure A2.13. M uscles o f the thorax and abdom en. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas der Anatomie des Menschen, 13th ed, Vol. 2, 1932, Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
277
The con ten ts o f th e abdom inal cavity are protected by the broad flat
m uscles o f th e abdom en (see Figures 2.4, 2.12, and 2.13). T h ese m uscles
exert pressure on th e abdom inal viscera and help maintain Ihe proper posi
tion o f th e internal organs o f th e abdom en. M ovem ents ol Iho abdom inal
m uscles can b e initiated by the respiratory organs and the m uscles o f the
ch est that con trol respiration. The abdom inal m uscles i csponil l o the elastic
recoil o f th e lungs and the chest cavity by pushing up the diaphiagm , The
flexor abdom inal m u scles also assist in m aintaining the lowei llu n a s ami
pelvis in antagonism to the spinal m uscles. Additional lovvei li uni* sli n i f . l l i is
present in the anterolateral area b ecau se the large flat abdom inal must les
cross each other in a m utually supportive fashion m this b o n e h o c an a,
w hich is w ithou t skeletal support. The external oblique (see I'ig u n s
and
A2.13) is the m ost superficial o f the flat m uscles o f the abdom en, it-. Illieis
originating in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs, and descending downw ard
and forw ard in an oblique m anner, as indicated by its nam e. Astraquillo and
associates (1977, p. 504) found that, in singing,
The m ost active o f th e m u scles o f the abdom en is the external
oblique. This m u scle characteristically show s contraction im m e
diately b efore th e production o f sou n d and in a phasic quality
tow ard the end o f articulation, especially in staccato vocalises.
W hen sustained v oice w as produced there w as also sustained
contraction.
At a d eep er level than the external oblique, the internal oblique m u scle
inserts its upperm ost fibers into the low er ribs and into the rib cartilages.
I lie internal oblique m u scle lies b en eath the external oblique, and is thinner
and not as bulky as th e external m uscle (see Figure 2.2).
Yet m ore deeply p laced is th e transversus abdom inis m u scle (see Figiii e 2.2), an im portant abdom inal constrictor. The internal oblique, external
ohlique, and the tran sversus m u scles form th e anterior rectu s sheath (see
f igures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4). The rectus abdom inis (see Figures 2.3 and 2.4) is
attached superiorly to the fifth, sixth, and seven th costal cartilages, and inloi iorly to the pelvis.
If the abdom inal m usculatu re is w ell developed, as it should be with any
singer, on e can readily locate the linia alba (see Figure 2.4) by surface obset
valion. This line extend s perpendicularly from the sternum to the ptibii
legion, and is divided into an upper and low er region by the umhilli us II tin
an lu ce m usculatu re is clearly defined, the rectus m uscles lot in olisei \ able
bands on either side o f this line. The liniae transversae, tendinous Inin si <
Ili ii is, produce depressions that plainly mark oil the segm ents ni tin i n lie.
abdom inis in the m uscular individual.
Com plex interrelationships o f the m uscles ol the abdom inal wall ate
iello clo d externally. T eachers o f singing often have the s l n g n plat hands
mi tin1 abdom en to experience m usculai m ovem ent An o n lin e I" Asha
111llll<> and associates (1977, p. 512),
What the singer "loels" w hen lie puls Ills hands on hi s u p p n alidu
men is the slow contraction ol the abdom inal iiiiim Iis
1 In si
278
m uscles, like th ose o f inhalation, are paired. They are (1) the
external oblique, fibers coursing downward; (2) the internal oblique,
fibers coursing upward; (3) the rectus abdom inis, w hich extends
vertically at th e anterior or forw ard wall o f the abdom en; and (4)
the transversus abdom inis, with fibers coursing horizontally across
the anterior wall o f the abdom en.
T here is, it sh ould b e noted, no universal agreem en t as to w hat form of
abdom inal m uscle activity is best for singing. Indeed, w idely dissem inated
techniques o f singing have been based on assu m ed m u scle relationships that
are patently absurd. S om e brief com m en t about su ch pedagogical system s
m ay help in understanding proper coordination of the m u scles o f the antero
lateral abdom inal wall.
SY ST E M S O F BR EA TH C O N T R O L
Breath control in sinj'.mK h con cern ed with delaying both the collapse o f the
ribs and the reversion ol the diaphragm to its dom e-sh aped posture. Put
another way, tin* must uhitlire o f inspiration offers continued resistance to
the collapsing breath met hanism. S om e teaching m ethods assert that this
resistaiu < <an I t .1 lie at t om plished by pushing dow nw ard and outw ard on
the -abdominal vist c i .i, m uch as in difficult defecation. One can readily find
a inmiltri nl siufnif. m anuals with draw ings o f outw ard and dow nw ard
pi essiu e against the wall (including the hypogastric area), w hich supposedly
will produce h fttei m anagem ent o f the breath. S uch action is com m only
term ed "belly breadline, A related technique prom otes squeezing the anal
sphincter ("squeeze the d im e) and tilting the pelvis. Other teachers falsely
assu m e that by draw ing the abdom inal wall inward, the upward surge o f
the diaphragm can be delayed, resulting in a "fixated diaphragm . Yet another
pedagogy ad vocates "spreading the m uscles in the upper or m iddle back,
actions involving m u scles that are not essential to the m echanics of breathing.
T hese approaches illustrate con fusion about the physiology of breathing. At
tim es they are im aginatively com bined, and m ay call on disjunct anatom ical
inform ation (Miller, 1977, pp. 21-44).
W hen control o f breath em ission is given over alm ost entirely to the
m u scles o f th e flank and low er abdom en, the chest tends to collapse b ecau se
the ribs are not able to m aintain sufficient distention in the p resen ce o f m is
placed abdom inal pressures. W hen the pectoral m usculature is assigned the
task o f controlling the breath, th e lack o f abdom inal m uscle interaction with
the diaphragm results in th e diaphragm s rapid ascent. Any system o f breath
m anagem ent that perm its the sternum to low er will invite collapse of the
thoracic cage. Sternum and rib cage elevation are closely w ed ded to abdom
inal action. Bishop (1968, p. 199) states: "In their respiratory capacity, the rib
cage and th e abdom inal w all m ay be con sid ered a functional unit acting
synergistically to em pty the lungs.
S tu dies o f lung volu m e are concerned with vital capacity, tidal breath,
com plem ental breath, supplem ental breath, and residual breath. S o m e defi
279
nitions are in order: (1) vital capacity: the m axim um breath inhaled follow ing
forced inspiration, com prising the total o f com plem ental, tidal, and supple
m ental breath, being roughly som e 3700 cc., or about 7 to 8 pints; (2) tidal
breath: the am ount o f air exchan ged during a cycle o f quiet breathing; (3)
eom p lem en tal breath: additional air inhaled beyond quiet breathing; (4) sup
plem ental breath: air that can be exhaled beyond that exhaled during quiet
breathing; (5) residual breath (or volum e): air that rem ains h i the Imij'. loi
lowing expiration; air that cannot voluntarily be discharged
The m echan ical problem s involved in com bining rcspii atoi y and phnna
tory control are describ ed in som e detail by S e a ls and N ew som Davis ( I'JfiM,
p. 184):
In phonation the production o f a n ote at constant pitch and inteii
sity requires a con stant airflow through the glottis, and this can lie
ach ieved for up to 90% o f the vital capacity. Yet over this range the
driving force for th e airflow, the subglottal pressure, is influenced
profoundly by the changing, com bined elastic recoil force o f the
lungs and ch est wall. . . . T h ese recoil forces assist expiratory air
flow at high lung volu m es and actually oppose it at low lung
volum es. The relaxation pressure is zero with respect to atm os
pheric p ressure at the m echanical m id-point o f the system w hen the
individual recoil fo rces o f the lungs and ch est w all exert p ressures on
the pleural cavity. . . . Thus, for a con stant subglottal pressure to be
generated at d ifferen t lung volum es, th ese passive forces m ust be
controlled by an appropriately graded activation o f inspiratory and
expiratory m uscles. In order to ach ieve the dem and for a constant
airflow, th e central n ervou s system has to take into a ccou n t not
only the m agnitude o f the load provided by the phonating larynx . . .
hut also the changing value o f the internal load as lung volum e
diminishes.
V ocal-fold approxim ation and subglottic pressure unite in a nonstatic
lelalionship dictated by pitch, power, and phonem e.
'
APPENDIX 3
The upper vocal tract is the articulatory m echanism loi sp en li .mil ,111}.*in
The m ovem en ts o f th e tongue, lips, palate, cheeks, anil m andible u lln the
dim ensions o f the reson ator tract. T h ese m ovem en ts in h im .in partly
determ ined by the fa ce and n eck m uscles. The bones of Ibe laci.il skeleton,
together with the m andible, provide structure for the m uscles ol llie lue
The zygom atic b on es supply th e fram ew ork for the upper pai l ol the
face. T hese bones are highly visible at th e cheeks. The m axillae are lni>>e
bones that form th e upper jaw, provide a ro o f for the m outh, and give form
lo the nasal cavities. T he h orsesh oe-sh ap ed m andible is the largest bone ol
the face. The ton gu e is attached to th e m andible, and the low er teeth are
rooted in the m andible.
M uscles o f th e fa ce (see Figures A3.1 and A3.2) that respond to articula
tory gestures are th e following:
The levator anguli oris, w hich elevates the angles o f the mouth;
the zygom aticus major, w hich draw s the angles o f the m outh upward
and backward, as in laughter;
the risorius, w hich retracts the angles o f the m outh, as in smiling;
the depressor labii inferioris, w hich draw s dow n the low er lip, laterally,
as in an ironic expression;
the depressor anguli oris, w hich low ers the angles o f the m outh as in
weeping;
the mentalis, w hich protrudes and raises the low er lip, as in petulance;
the buccinator, w hich assists chew ing, pushes food onto the teeth, and
w hich alters th e shape o f the cheeks;
the orbicularis oris, w hich com presses, contracts, and protrudes the lip-.,
and w hich is responsible for m any facial expressions;
the temporalis, w hich raises and retracts the m andible, and clem In .
the teeth;
the masseter, which raises the mandible and clnu lies lln teeth,
the pterygoideus m edial is, which elevates the mnndtbli mid pimldi
rotary motion in chewing;
the pterygoideus lateralis, which protrudes lln- inmullhle. mid pmvldi
rotary m otion in chewing;
tin' platysma, which depresses the mandible mid lips, mnl teusi . lln
skin of the neck, as in a grimace,
281
282
F ro n ta l b elly
o f o c c ip ito fro n ta lis
O rb ic u la ris
o cu li
P ro ce ru s
L e v a to r labii
s u p e rio ris
alaeque nasi
Zyg om iitlcu t
m ajor
N asalis
Labial
p art
Ltvntor
h ill
luptrlorli
Zyfom itlcui
m inor
B uccina to r
L evato r
anguli o ris
O rb ic u la ris
o ris
R is o riu s
M asseter
Platysm a
D e p re s so r
a nguli o ris
D e p re s so r labii
in fe rio ris
Figure A3.1. The facial m u scles and m asseter. (From C unningham s Manual of Practi
cal Anatomy, 13th ed., Vol. 3, ed. by G. J. R om anes, 1967. London: O xford University
Press. By perm ission.)
283
A . fro n ta lis
A . e t N . tem porales
p ro fu n d i
M p ierygoideus e xt.
A . dorsalis
S in a s m axillaris
M. orbicularis o cu li
a,11.
A . angular is
A . in fraorbit.
S in . m axillaris
M. stylohyoid
A. occipitalis
Ai. orbicularis
M . digastricus
M. buccinator
M. sternocleidom .
A. labialis infer.
A . thyreoidea sup.
The m outh is the m ost adjustable o f the vocal tract cavities, b eca u se <>l (lie
mobility o f the lips, the tongue, and the low er jaw.
In the articulation o f certain sounds, the nasal cavities (see I''inure*. I I
and 4.4) are join ed w ith the m outh and the pharynx as part ol the resonuloi
tube. Divided into halves by the nasal septum , the nasal cavities eonsisi <t
the vestibule, the olfactory region, and the respiratory region I lie ii. ih "
(nostrils) have an anterior opening, and com m un icate with the plan viih, I In
nasal apertures w iden posteriorly as they meet the iiiisophai v i i h
The paranasal sinuses include tin- frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal .uni
maxillary sin u ses (see Figures A3.3 and A H ). Ilo w rv ei, they plus > negllgl
hie role in resonance, either in sp eed ) oi in singing
T he m o u th a n d th e p h a ry n x ( b u n o phai vng.enl iesmmiiM ) a n . niinei led
by th e o ro p h a ry n g ea l is th m u s (see Figure A IS) Un n n ip liiii\ in eH iemh
fro m th e v elu m d o w n w a r d to th e to p ol tin epiglottis I wo sets ol putted
niches, the palatoglossal a n d the p alato p h a ry n g e al u n i t e s (m i l igutes I I
284
,Torus tubarius
Levatorwulst
P ars nasalis pharyngis
Fornix
pharyngis
Concha
nasalis m edia
Tonsilla phnryngeri
Fascia
pharyngobasilaris
Meatus
nasi medius
Concha nasalis
inferior
Ligamentum
longitudinale
anterius
Recessus
pharyngeus
[Rosenmuelleri]
Plica salpingopharyngea
Meatus nasi
inferior
Cavmn
(hryngis
Corpus
epistrophei
Dorsum
linguao
A ri'im i i I iih m ii | i i i I mI I i i i i i i
Arcus pharyngopalatinus
I'UNMtl Hltpl'ltI(11im I 11II i'I h
I M ini li liu iK iiliirU
TonHillo palatina
I if't 11 A I I S . t111;11 '.(< lion nl the nasal cavity. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas
<lri Amiltiniic <!< Mt'Wit'hvii, I 'ill ed., Vol. 2, 1933. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
and A3.3) are located on either side o f the oropharyngeal isthm us. Tonsils lie
betw een each palatoglossal-palatopharyngeal pair. The palatopharyngeus
m uscles are attached to the uvula and to the pharyngeal wall; the palatoglos
sus (also glossopalatinus) m u scles are attached to the uvula and to the
tongue. The levator palatini m uscles elevate the velum; the tensor veli pala
tini m u scles tighten the velum , or flatten out the velar arch; and the m usculus uvulae m u scles pull the uvula upw ard and backw ard (see Figures 4.7,
4.8, and 4.9).
The nasopharynx lies behind the nose, im m ediately ab ove the level of
the velum , and con n ects with the nasal cavities. The laryngopharynx extends
from the apex o f the epiglottis to the base o f the cricoid cartilage.
The w alls o f the pharynx are form ed by three large constrictor m uscles
(see Figures 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9), w hich are active in deglutition (swallowing)
and alter the shape o f the laryngopharynx. The constrictor pharyngis in
ferior is divided into the cricopharyngeus m u scle and the thyropharyngeus.
Constrictor pharyngis m edius is divided into the chondropharyngeus m uscle
and the ceratopharyngeus m uscle. The constrictor pharyngis superior is
285
frontal
tinu*
opening of
Eustachian tube
10ft palate
palate
uvula
vestibule
posterior wall
of pharynx
mandible
epiglottis
ant, longitud.
ligament
hyoid bone
voca
thyroid cartilage
cricoid cartilage
isthmus of thyroid gluml
I i|Miir A V4. Sagittal secti on ol t he voi ill U m I .mil pm I ni I lie In ml |I i m n Mi'illn lli
Miiik li, D y n a m ics o f the S i n n i n g Vuhe, I'M. Vlenn.i S p i l n p i V l . i p H\ p*mi l .(-ii I
286
'
P alatu m durum
Palatum molle
U vula
[palatinal
Arcus
glossopalatinus
Arcus
pharyngop alatinus
T onsilla
p alatina
Isthm us
faucium
Dorsum
linguae
Schnittflaehe
d er Backe
Figure A3.5. The cavity o f the m outh. (From W erner Spalteholz, Handatlas der Anat
omie des Menschen, 13th ed., Vol. 3, 1933. Leipzig: S. Hirzel-Verlag.)
APPENDIX 4
C R IC O T H Y R O ID ACTION IN R E G IST R A T IO N
Although the shape o f the glottis is ultim ately determ ined by m Hon ni IInm in im i laryngeal m uscles, the cricothyroid m uscles serve .is e sie m .il m u.
i les o f pitch adjustm ent (Zenker, 1964b, pp. 24 . 7) The < i it olh violtl (see
I lj|iii e A l.lc ) spread outw ard and backward from tlicit n n ln loi position on
the cricoid cartilage, to b eco m e attached to tin- lam inae o| ihe iliv io ld i m
Hinge and to the inferior horns o f the thyroid cuitllnge I'he n U o lh v m id
h i i isc Ies pull the thyroid cartilage forw ard mid d ow n w m il Im m Its i sling
position on the cricoid cartilage (see Figm e A4, Id). When the i I li olliyi oh Is
1 mil m et, the vocal folds are stretched mul adjusted to the pm mnetllmi
position.
287
288
A p p ro xim a tio n of
arytenoid cartilages by
transverse arytenoid M.
Figure A4.1. A series o f diagram s to sh ow several positions o f the vocal folds and
cartilages. (From Sir Solly Zuckerm an, A New System of Anatomy, 1961. London:
O xford University Press. By perm ission.)
289
margins.
H eralding the m iddle a.n upper registers, van den Berg (1968b, p. 23)
i ontlnues:
I lie lo n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e s in t h e v o c a l l i g a m e n t s a r e n o l o n g n nenllnl
hie c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e in t h e v o c a lis m u s c le s , b u t ai e ol th e s a m e
o r i l e r o f m a g n i t u d e . T o a c h i e v e this, t h e c o n t r a c t i o n ol th e voi all*
m u s c l e s m u s t b e s u b m a x i m a l , b e c a u s e t h e s e m u s c le s ni r .m l. i /mml ,
lit to t h e c r i c o t h y r o i d muscles w h ic h p assiv ely s l i e l i h tin vim ill
I o ld s a n d t h u s t h e v o c a l lig a m e n ts. T h is u d jiitttm cnt i <p ill ,i
s o m e w h a t s t r o n g e r c o n t r a c t i o n ol t h e i n t n m y ten olil i m r u 1rs .mil >
m e d i a l c o m p r e s s i o n b e y o n d a m i n im a l v alu e, n i h e i w l s i th e (iloltls
h e r o i n e s to o w id e , a n d t h e v o c a l fo ld s i a n n u l lie I hi o w n Into \ 11u a
lio n by t h e air. In th is re g is te r , t h e v i b r a t o r y p a t i n n v I n t n i n n l l a l i
a m p l i t u d e s , an ti s h o r t c l o s u r e ol t h e hIoIIIh i l t n l n y th e t yt It a n
ill I n m i n e d by th e ho tly ol th e voi al lolils .nul by 11H it m m i n r I In
a i l | u s t m e n t a n d t h e p a t t e r n s h a v e a m i x e d lim ai I n
1 .
290
The Physical Factors o f Vocal Registration
291
E X T E R N A L FR A M E FU N CTIO N
I'actors not directly related to internal laryngeal lu nctiou play a role in
determ ining events o f vocal registration. The external structure surrounding
the larynx and con n ectin g the neck to the head and to the torso can be
directed tow ard pitch change. B ecau se the cricothyroid joint is not .it .1 lixed
position, the thyroid and cricoid cartilages have several possibilities ol
m ovem ent in relation to th e spine and to each othei ..........linen, I'ifiK, p HO)
Sonninen, in a study o f th e effec ts o f external fram e musi u la tu ic on pin h
control (1968, pp. 68-89), describes an external m echanism consistai)' of
im ultaneous contraction o f the sternohyoid m uscles and ol the thvroman
dibular m u scles (w hich attach to the thyroid cartilage, to the livold hone,
and to th e jaw); th ese m u scles can pull the thyroid cartilage in .1 lot w aul
direction. In addition, "The cricopharyngeal m uscles act in .1 tlorso 1 1 am . 1l
direction and thus shorten the vocal folds. This occu rs only, how ever, when
the larynx is in a low position and w hen there is n o anterior pull on the
thyroid cartilage. This effect b ecom es w eaker as the larynx is raised (Sopninen, 1968, p. 80).
Other factors that m ay act on the m echan ism s o f pitch are the position
ol the ventricular (false) folds, the position o f th e epiglottis (Zenker, 1964b,
11 28), the extent o f esophageal opening, and the degree o f tracheal bending
(Sonninen, 1968, p. 75). The supportive m u scles o f the neck structure conIrlbute to the character o f vocal tim bre (Zenker and Zenker, 1960, pp. 32-33).
11 lie exact nature of external fram e function as contributor to vocal regis11 at ion should receive further study.)
Individual anatom ical structure and orientation in vocal technique
probably determ in e sp ecific external fram e contributions to registration
practices.
DA M PING
I tamping is an acou stical term that describ es the p rocess by which energy is
lost in a vibrating system through d ecrease in am plitude. As considered here,
dum ping refers to a sp ecific registration phenom en on in which there occut s
a d ecrease or cessation in the am plitude o f vocal fold vibration as a result ol
111 essure exerted on the fold during rapid vibration at high pitch In addition
In vocal-fold elongation and corresponding reduction in mass, dam ping In n
m ethod for pitch adjustm ent.
Ilricss (1964, p. 268) describes what occurs in phonation d in in g ioiuII
l i o n s o f extrem e hyperfunction o f the cricothyroid mum les without piopei
111111 iterpull o f m uscle antagonists. Damping action begin* at Ilit-1 po*leiioi
uds ol the folds, with forceful approxim ation, as pin h ils. the poillu n ol
l i n area that is dam ped becom es greater, pi ogi r s n l n g tin leilo i Iv; all pie*
.m e Increases with increase in dam ping Hi l e s s s t a l e s ihal m u h u u d e n l i u h l i
phonation often is to be found in sei earning 1 lilldi e u and In lem alr ningei s
292
APPENDIX 5
2H
294
less con son an ts than for voiced b ecau se it is essen tial for the glottis to clo se
in voicing and to be abducted in unvoiced consonants.
R egarding intra-vocal tract pressure, the pressure for a voiceless co n
sonant is greater than that for its voiced counterpart, w hich partially
explains the high airflow rate during voiceless con son ant production (Isshiki
and Ringel, 1964, p. 243):
The volu m e o f th e cavity behind the points o f vocal tract closure in
w hich pressure m ounts up is com p osed o f the supra- and subglottal cavities during the production o f voiceless consonants. In the
case o f the production of the voiced consonant the cavity behind
the closure consists o f the supra-glottal cavity. This difference in the
size o f the cavity ("capacity o f condenser, after Fant) m ay also con
tribute to the d ifference in flow rate b etw een the voiced and v o ice
less consonants. Il also appears logical to assu m e that the air supply
from the lungs through the glottis is greater, d ue to the lack o f glot
tal resistance, during the period o f explosion o f a voiceless stop co n
sonant than dm ing similar period o f a voiced consonant. This factor
also influences the Mow pattern o f the various stop consonants.
In all probability, the speed and degree o f release o f th ese points o f stric
ture, suggest Isshiki .mil Ringel, is inversely related to airflow rate. S o m e
consonantal cliiu iu lei istlcs related to airflow rate and to stricture points
have direct m lluencr on resonator adjustm ents for singing, and on that
account nerve teaching purposes.
Several team s ol researchers have con clud ed that th e intranasal sound
pressure for nasal consonants is m arkedly high and that th e pressure for
preceding w aves o f |r | or voiced consonant syllables is considerably m ore
p ronounced in the nasal cavity than in the front o f th e m outh (Hirano et al.,
1966, p. 378). Hirano, Takeuchi, and Hiroto rem ark that internal pressure
d ecreases with the elevation o f the soft palate, and that there w ould appear
to be som e discrepancy betw een the low velum (a ca u se o f nasalization) and
the high level o f intranasal pressure:
H ere it is su ggested that d ifferen ces in intranasal pressure in pro
n ou n cin g vow els are m ainly due to factors other than an elevation
o f the soft palate. . . . [IJntranasal sound p ressure varies according
to different vow els b ecau se o f d ifferen ces in internal im pedance of
the vow el tract for vowels.
(Im pedance is an acou stic term that refers to the ratio o f the pressure to the
volu m e displacem ent at a given su rface in the m edium that transm its
sound.) The sam e source concludes:
The present experim ents revealed a pronouncedly high intranasal
sound pressure for the preceding R /so u n d and voiced consonant
syllables. This su ggests that a nasopharyngeal closure fails to reach
its m axim um w hen the preceding w ave is uttered. During this
period o f speech sound production the vocal tract is obstructed at
295
the articulatory region, e.g., the lips for labial sounds, the alveola for
dental sounds and the palate for palatal sounds. Therefore, it is
understood that energy is chiefly released through the nasal cavity,
resulting in high intranasal sound pressure.
The coupling o f th e front vow el |i| with the misai con tinu ants is com
mon practice in teachin g reson an ce balancing in sinp.iiiK, lom b in ln n the sen
balance
Nations o f th e op en throat (gola aperta) and good le s o i......
(impostazione).
Bhm e et al. (1966, p. 9) con d ucted a series ol investigations un .u I..... ..
of the levator and ten sor veli palatini on the velum . The m tlvltv ol those
m uscles w as sum m arized as follows: "Our investigation show s tlinl i p ic
phonatory phase varying in length occurs in both m uscles. Aniony the vow
els it is [i] w hich sh ow s th e greatest activity o f the tensor veli pnl.itIni In
general a com plex functioning o f Mm. levator and tensor palatini in vowel
production can be dem onstrated from our investigations." The coupling ol
nasal continuant and high form ant vow el, su ch as [i] or [e], so typical ol the
Italian School, is an im portant p rocedure in inducing laryngeal as well as
vocal tract action favorable for vocal tim bre in singing.
Although even slight nasality is produced by coupling the nasal reson a
tor to the oral and pharyngeal cavities, considerable evidence indicates that
vocal-fold activity during nasality differs som ew h at from non-nasal activity.
I lie recent techn iqu e o f flexible fiberoptic exam ination o f the larynx (fiber
optic nasopharyngolaryngoscopy) (Silberm an et al., 1976, pp. 640-646), w hich
permits the vocal folds to be observed during nearly optim al conditions for
inging, supports the assum ption that certain laryngeal configurations
appear to accom pan y nasality. A brief su rvey o f literature sou rces dealing
with possible laryngeal contribution to nasality is offered by Zem lin (1981,
pp. 224-225). Thus the considerable controversy over w hether vocal timbre,
which is perceived by som e singers and listeners as being m arked by nasal
leso n a n ce but free o f "nasality, m ay also depend on laryngeal configura
tion as w ell as on internal vocal tract im pedance.
Reporting on an alog stud ies o f nasalization o f vow els (as opposed to
events that take place in th e nasal continuants them selves), H ou se and Stev
ens (1956, p. 230) co n clu d e that coupling the nasal cavity to the vot ai lia i I
lesults (in all probability) in the following:
I
),
'
various "secondary effects on the spei lin m (notably tin IiiI h h Iiii lion
ol an anti-resonance, the elim ination ol Ilie lliii d loi ninitl .mil li i e^ulni
ities in upper form ants, as well as the possible Inliodm lion ol ailill
lional spectral peaks);
the perc ep tio n of "nasality" w h en the majoi ollet is oil I lie m oti*lli
o u tp u t re a c h a p p r o p r ia te magnitude*.
296
Other reports confirm the effect o f even slight nasalization on form ant rela
tionships, a m atter o f vital im portance in the teaching o f singing. A ccording
to Fant (1964, p. 232):
The effect o f a slight nasalization (velopharyngeal coupling area on
th e order o f 60m m 2) as in norm al sp eech in segm en ts close to nasal
con son ants is primarily the reduction of the first form ant level ver
su s other form ants. There also appear extra form ants and spectral
m inim a. The split o f the first form ant into tw o peaks is a typical
effect.
Fant m en tion s tw o other m atters that may help explain th e v o ice tea ch ers
nearly universal urge to couple nasal continuants with other phon em es as
vocalization patterns for resonance adjustment:
1. The assim ilated nasality on both sides o f a nasal con son ant in con n ected
sp eech affects a larger pari ol the speech before the nasal consonant than
after the nasal consonant. I'.ven unvoiced stops and fricatives m ay be
affected to som e extent without serious effects on sp eech quality as judged
by trained lislenei s
2. The e lic i t ol an extrem ely large degree o f nasalization, in w hich the
velum may ap pioai h the back o f the tongue and the velopharyngeal co u
pling, at ea i n ol Ihe order of 250 mm, is a shift dow n in th e frequ en cy o f the first
loi i ii.n il .ind .i i el. Hi vc dci i ease o f the levels o f the seco n d and third form ants.
An additional ( losing ol the nostrils cau ses an increase in the relative level
ol the IiinI formant (low frequency resonance).
I ant (1964, pp. 223-233), in discussing the degree o f nasalization in n on
nasalized sounds, adds: "A relatively prom inent secon d harm onic, p resum
ably originating from the glottal source, can be apparent in nasalized as w ell
as non-nasalized parts o f the utterance. The several contributive factors to
nasality and to "nasal resonance" (a tim bre perception that is for m ost
schooled listeners not the sam e as nasality) in singing require additional
investigation.
APPENDIX 6
International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) Symbols
'I'hc m ost logical phonetic system is one, developed ovei scv cia l !* .idc'.,
which enjoys universal accep tance. Although not perfect in compiuiiiK
sounds from one language to another, the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) sym bols accurately identify the sou nd s o f speech. The system is ludls
pensable in the vocal studio.
The m ost frequently en cou n tered IPA sym bols are presented here in a
correlative fashion, w ith m odel w ords in English, German, Italian, and
French.
A C O N C ISE C O R R E L A T IV E PR O N U N C IA TIO N G U ID E
I lie close vow el sou nd in non-English languages is in general m uch closer
than sou nd s in A m erican speech. Both close and open vow els in the
K om ance and G erm anic languages are higher than in A m erican English,
Including so-called "Standard Am erican Speech . W hen singing English,
most singers introduce closer vow el sou nd s than w ould be u sed in spoken
I nglish. The sam e considerations, how ever, apply to singing foreign lan
guage sounds.
W ords that serve as pronunciation keys are indicated in the follow ing
list, using sym bols o f the International P honetic Alphabet. No attention has
been given to vow el duration, w hich is a distinguishing characteristic ol
vowel sou nd s in several languages. Although the IPA sym bols show co n v ia
lion betw een English, French, Italian, and Germ an sounds, such corrlation
i . by no m eans absolute.
297
298
IPA SY M B O L S F O R V O W E L S, SE M I V O W E L S, AND F R E N C H
V O W E L SO U N D S
IPA Symbols
English
German
Italian
French
V ow els
[i]
[i]
[e]
[e]
keen
thin
chaos
bet
Liebe
ic
Lcben
Belt, Gaste,
prima
lis
pena
tem p o
t, crier
tes, pre
neige
[*]
[a]
[a]
[D]
fc>]
bat
task
(American)
father
hot (British)
soft, all
Stadt
cam era
ras, ge
Son ne
m orto
[o]
note
Sohn
non
som m e, joli,
votre
beaux,
pauvre,
gros
["1
[u]
1 1
M
[]
[yl
M
101
[ ]
tio< >k
gllll, IlMtl
up
( hi Iiwii) ahead
(approxim ates
(approxim ates
(approxim ates
(approxim ates
Mutter
Mut
uso
ou
parle
getan
|i| plus [u]) m de
111 plus [u]) Glck
jc] plus [o]) schon
|c] plus [a]) Kpfe
dem ain
une,
peu,
heure,
v_es
wish
[ai] nice
[au] hou se
[ei] w ay
[pi] boy
[ou]
la
[ e]
[ao]
Mai, Ei
H aus
[001
Hauser,
Kreuz
lion, pied
pm,
pieno
uom o,
guida
[ai] m ai
[au] aura
[ei] d o v d
[ai] vuoi
so
V o w el S o u n d s P e c u lia r to th e F r e n c h L a n g u a g e
[a]
m
[8]
[]
299
IN TER N A TIO N A L PH O N E T IC A L PH A B ET SY M B O L S FO R
CO N SO N A N T SO U N D S
Pairs of consonants, one voiced and the other unvoicod, a rc e x e c u te d with
similar tongu e and lip positions.
Voiceless
Ini
W
pope
tote
IM
in
mi
ii
coke
fife
think
cease
Sh!
iji
|t / l
ich (German)
ach (German)
ha-ha!
(aspirate)
chase
tsetse
[]
1*1
[HI
Classification
by Formation
bilabial
linguaalveolar
velar
labiodental
linguadental
dental
linguaalveolar
palatal
velar
glottal
linguaalveolar
linguadental
Vain
[b]
|d |
llllll
di'iul
[g]
M
[]
M
[3]
tflu|
[]
[?]
[d3]
Paris (Frcr
uh-oh!
(stroked
jud gm en t
[dz]
adds
valve
the
lone
vision
[6H8]
[sHz]
1JH31
[]-
[] is generally believed lo hr
[h>[?]
[tf]-[d3l
[ts J[d z]
NASAL CO N SO N A N TS
in
In |
|l||
j it j
Ini I
ma
no
SOIljJ
ogni (Italian), onion (English), ugnenn (I h i m Ii )
conforto (Italian)
t illiililiil a m id
lllvtilllM M il 'll
Vi till lllind
imlitinl nn-nl
....... d Uhlo ibhiitl
300
[r]
[f]*
foglja (Italian)
lull
rare (retroflex r, som etim es referred to as
m id w estem r)
very (single tap r, as in British speech)
c a ir o (Italian); Grand (German) (alveolar trill)
'T he sym b ol [r] is u sed in this work, and in m any ph onetic sou rces, to represent the
alveolar rolled r, b eca u se the IPA sym b ol for the trilled r [r], is u sed indiscrim inately in
m any Am erican sources.
Glossary of
Nonmusical Terms
abdom en: that part o f th e body (except i11).>, the bai k) tli.it In . I.. tw een Ihe
pelvis and th e thorax; the cavity o f this pm i ol Ilu lot so, lined I>v the
peritoneum , en closed by the w alls o f the hotly, Ihe dinplii iifm, m i d <011
taining the viscera.
abduction: action by w hich a pai l is drawn away from the m edian line (as
in the opening o f the glottis),
acoustics: the scien ce o f sound, including its production, transm ission, and
effects; the sum o f the qualities (such as reverberation) o f an enclosure
that determ ines the degree of distinctness o f sou nd generated within il.
acrom ion: th e lateral, triangular projection o f the scapula that form s the
point o f the shoulder, articulating w ith the clavicle,
adduction: to draw tow ard a m edian axis (as in the closure o f the glottis),
adltus: a passage for entrance (as in th e aditus laryngis).
adrenaline: a h orm one naturally secreted by th e m edulla o f the suprarenal
glands, w hich generally acts as stim ulant,
aerodynam ics: pertaining to the force o f gases in m otion, to the force act
ing on bodies m oving through gases, and to the forces involved w hen
gases pass over bodies,
ula (alae): w ing-like process or structure, as o f the thyroid cartilage,
alveolar: sp eech sou nd produced w ith the apex o f the tongu e touching the
upper alveolar ridge,
alveolus (alveoli): an air cell of the lungs,
anterolateral: in front and to the side.
apex: the tip, point, or angular sum m it (as the apex o f the tongue),
aponeurosis: thick and d en se deep fasciae that connect m uscle lo bone; a
flat tendon m ay be called an aponeurosis (as in central tendon ol the
tliaphragm).
approximate: to co m e near to, to approach (as in vocal fold approxim ation)
articulate: to join.
articulators: the tongu e, the lips, the teeth, the sol I palnlr and Ilie liai d pal
ate, w hich m odify the acou stic properties ol the voi nl Inn I
nryeplglottlc: m u scles that form the sides ol the collai ol IIn* larynx,
extending from the arytenoids to the sides ol the epIgM tl*
arytenoid m uscles: the transverse arytenoid and llic oblique arvlcnold
m uscles.
arytenoids: paired cartilages to which the voi I l o l d s are allai lied
atm osphcrlc pressure: pressure exerted by the alm osplinr In every direc
tion, approximately
15
Itn
302
B ernoulli principle: air in m otion has less pressure or density than w hen
im m obile, producing suction; if flow is constantly m aintained, air will
speed up at a constricted area, with a d ecrease in p ressure occurring at
that point.
bilabial: con son ants form ed with the aid o f both lips (as in [p], [b], and [m]).
bilateral: having tw o sides,
bronchiole: a m inute bronchial tube,
bronchogram : an x-ray picture o f the lungs and bronchi,
bronchus (bronchi): a subdivision o f the trachea form ed by a bifurcation of
the trachea.
buccal cavity: cavity o f the mouth; oral cavity,
buccinator: thin, broad m uscle form ing the wall o f the cheek,
buccopharyngeal resonator: the resonator system form ed by the m outh
and the pharynx.
cartilage: nonvasculai connecting tissue that is m ore flexible than bone,
caudal: situated in or near the tail; posterior.
central tendon: laige tendon o f the diaphragm; diaphragm atic aponeurosis,
collagenous: pertaining to collagen, the ch ief constituent o f the gelatinlike
protein found in con n ective tissue,
collar o f tin1 larynx: the vestibule o f the larynx; a m uscular ring com p osed
o f the at veplglottk folds, the epiglottis, and the arytenoids.
commlNNiirt': a joint, seam, or closure; an interstice, cleft, or juncture; a
place w here purls ol the body meet,
com plem ental air: ail' w hich can be inhaled in addition to that taken in
during quiet breathing (also known as inspiratory reserve'air),
constrictor m uscles: on e o f three pairs o f m uscles (superior, middle, and
inferior) which form the pharyngeal walls,
continuant: a speech sound that m ay be prolonged during one breath (as in
nasal continuant).
contraction: the shortening and thickening o f a m u scle fiber (or o f the
entire m uscle) w hen activated,
conus elasticus: a cone-shaped structure o f elastic tissue attached below
the upper border o f the cricoid cartilage, in front o f the thyroid cartilage,
and behind the arytenoid cartilages; it includes the vocal and cricothyroid
ligam ents and is also called the cricovocal m em brane,
corniculate: having horns or sm all hom -lik e processes,
cornu (cornua): horn-shaped laryngeal cartilages,
cortex: the ou ter or superior part o f an organ,
costal: pertaining to a rib or costa.
cricoarytenoids: m uscles w hich rotate the arytenoid cartilages on the.cricoid cartilage.
cricothyroids: four m u scles w hich attach to the front o f the cricoid cartil
age and w hich pull dow n on the thyroid cartilage,
cricovocal membrane: see con u s elasticus.
crus (crura): tendinous attachm ent o f the diaphragm to lum bar vertebrae,
form ing the sides o f the aortic opening.
303
cuneiform cartilage: w edge-shaped pair o f cartilages lying in the aryepiglottic folds, know n as the "cartilages o f W risberg.
damping: dim inution in am plitude o f su ccessive oscillations or waves,
diaphragm: organ com p osed o f m u scles and sinew s, IIn- partition betw een
the ch est cavity and the abdom inal cavity (sep a ia les the respiratory and
digestive system s).
digastric: having tw o bellies; applied chiefly lo ..... si les that m e llesliy at
each end with a tendon in the middle,
digitation: a finger-like process (as o f the ribs),
dorsal: directed tow ard the back.
dorsum: the upper side or part o f an appendage (as in tin doi inn ol the
tongue the upper side behind the tip),
dysphonia: im paired voicing.
ectom orphic: o f light body build.
edema: abnorm al accum u lation o f fluid in the tissues; sw elling (as ol ihr
vocal folds).
EGG: see electroglottography.
electrode: either term inal o f an electric source; a plate through w hich d e c
trical current is sent through a body structure,
electroglottography (EGG): process for m easuring ch an ges in electrical
im pedance (resistance) betw een tw o electrodes placed on opposite sides of
the larynx, creating a w ave-form on a visual display,
electrom yography (EMG): a process for recording electrical energy gen er
ated by activated m uscles.
EMG: see electrom yography.
epiglottis: one o f the three single cartilages o f the larynx, located b etw een
t he root o f the tongu e and the entrance to the larynx,
epithelium : a cellular tissu e that covers free surfaces, tubes, or cavities of
Ihe body, enclosing and protecting,
exhalation (expiration): that part o f the breath cycle during w hich breath is
emitted.
expiratory reserve volum e: the am ount o f air w hich can be exhaled Irom
the lungs beyond that exhaled in quiet respiration,
extensors: m u scles w hich extend or straighten a part (as opposed lo
flexors).
external oblique m uscle: the fibers o f the external oblique m u ilnw iiw anl
(in general), and they form layers o f the lateral w alls ol llic . 11<<I.......n, H
fuses with the internal oblique to form the linea alba
extrinsic: external.
hiNcla (fasciae): a sheet or layer o f con n ective tissue 11ini i ovei s, In allies,
supports or binds together internal parts 01 sti in tin es ol tin bod\, ,1 pai
ales m uscle bundles from each other,
f r o m m o u t h to t h e p l i m v i i i iiimIiiI b e t w e e n iln
v e l u m a n d t h e b a s e o f t h e to n g u e ; t h e spa < s m loui nl et ! In tin mil palate,
t he p a l a t i n e a r c h e s , a n d t h e b a s e ol llir l o n g u e , also lei me i l (In i>>iIiiiiii ol
304
Ihe f auces; the pillars o f th e fa u c es are tw o folds on either side, b etw een
which lie the tonsils,
fiber: o f a thread-like character; elongated strands o f con n ective nerve or
m uscle tissue,
fissure: a narrow opening b etw een parts.
flexor: a m u scle that bends a part or limb (as opposed to extensor),
formant: partials of a vocal tone that determ ine the characteristic quality
o f a vow el; partial tones originated by action o f the breath on the reso n
an ce cham bers that have regions o f prom inent energy distribution,
fossa (fossae): a pit, cavity, or depression (as in nasal fossae, or as in the
zygom atic fossa).
frequency: n um ber o f vibrations or cycles per second; the greater the
num ber o f vibrations per second, the higher the pitch,
fricative: a sp eech sound (voiced or unvoiced) cau sed by friction as air
passes through a narrow aperture (as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc.)
genioglossus: pair o f fan-shaped m u scles w ith fibers that radiate from the
chin; th ese fibers insert on the hyoid bone, attach to the sides o f the
pharynx, and insert into the tongue,
geniohyoid: pair o f slender m uscles that arise from the m andible and insert
on the hyoid bone,
glottis: the sp an ' betw een the vocal folds.
harm onic: .111 overtone or upper partial; vibration frequ en cy that is an integial m ultiple ol the vibration rate produced by the fundam ental frequency,
hyoid bone: U shaped bone situated at the b ase o f the tongu e and above
the larynx.
hyothyrold: con n ectin g the thyroid cartilage o f the larynx and the hyoid
bone, as the thyrohyoid m uscle and the thyrohyoid ligam ents,
hyperfunction: u se o f the phonatory (or any) m echanism , or so m e part of
it, w ith excessive tension,
hypofunction: insufficient activity in the phonatory (or any) m echanism , or
som e part o f it.
hypogastrium : the low est o f three m edian areas into w hich the abdom en is
divided by im aginary planes.
Hz: unit o f m easu rem en t o f cycles per secon d (as in 440 Hz); nam ed for
the physicist Gustav Hertz.
ilium: the upper part o f the hipbone,
inguinal: referring to the groin region.
inhalation (inspiration): that part o f the breath cycle during which breath.
enters the lungs,
innervation: the distribution o f nerves in or to a part or organ,
insertion: that part of a m uscle w hich is attached to the bone it m oves,
inspiratory reserve volume: quantity o f air that can be inhaled beyond
what is taken in during quiet breathing,
intercostal: short external and internal m uscles betw een the ribs.
305
internal oblique: abdom inal m u scles w h ose fibers run upward (in general);
they form layers o f th e lateral w alls o f the abdom en, and fu se with the
external oblique to form the linea alba,
intrapulmonary: w ithin the lungs.
intrinsic: on the inside; within (as the intrinsic m uscles ol the larynx),
isom etric contraction: contraction o f a m uscle against .1 strong resistance,
w hich perm its th e m u scle to shorten very little.
jugular:
306
307
30H
309
sternohyoid: pertains to the sternum and the hyoid (as in the m uscle that
extend s from th e m edial part o f the clavicle and the first segm ent o f the
sternum to the hyoid bone),
sternothyroid: pertains to sternum and thyroid (;s in sternothyroid m uscle),
striated m uscle: fibers bound together in bundles and cm losed in a sheath
o f protective tissue,
styloglossus: a m u scle con n ectin g the styloid process and Ilu* lou eu r
stylohyoid: pertaining to the styloid process anil hyoid Ixiiir, Ilu- Mylohyoid
m uscle.
styloid process: a long, slender process found on Ilie lo w ii side ol llir Irm
poral bone.
subclavius: a sm all m u scle extending from the In ! i ih to tin iimli i sut Iat r
o f the clavicle,
subglottic: b elow the glottis,
superficial: on or near the surface,
superior: upper.
supplem ental air: air that can be expelled forcibly beyond what is exhaled
during quiet breathing (also known as reserve air).
supraglottic: ab ove the glottis,
suprahyoid: above the hyoid bone.
suprahyoid m uscles: geniohyoid, stylohyoid, m ylohyoid, and digastric
m uscles.
sym physis: point o f union o f tw o structures (as in the tw o halves o f the
low er jaw).
synapse: the area in w hich im pulses are com m u n icated b etw een neurons
(the synapse is the selective elem en t o f the nervous system ; it d eterm ines
w hether a nervous im pulse will pass through it to the next neuron),
synergy: the w orking together o f tw o or m ore m u scles (or groups) or
organs.
synovia: a transparent, viscid lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial
m em branes of articulations, bursae, and tendon sheaths,
synovial: o f or pertaining to synovia; secreting synovia.
tendon: a band o f dense, fibrous con n ective tissue that provides allai li
m ent o f m uscle to bone,
tensor: a m uscle that ten ses (as in tensor veli palatini),
thorax: that part o f the torso w hich h ouses the organs ol Incalhlii^. mIii
ated b etw een th e n eck and the abdom en, supported l*v the n l> \ l l u i o s l a l
cartilages, and the sternum ,
thyroid cartilage: the largest single cartilage ol the lai yns
thyroarytenoid m uscle: on e o f the tw o m uscles in Winy. below the thyroidal
notch and inserted into each arytenoid,
thyroepiglottic fibers: fibers o f the thyroid vtenolil that i ounei I llie thyroid
cartilage and the epiglottis,
thyrohyoid: see hyothyroid.
lliyroniuscularls: external thyroarytenoid must le
iliyrovocnlls: th e internal division ol the ihyroHi vtenold, also k now n as the
vocalis muscle.
310
tidal air: air exchan ged during quiet norm al breathing (sam e as tidal
volum e).
trachea: the windpipe; the m ain tubular system by w hich air passes to and
from the lungs.
transverse: in a crossw ise direction (as in transverse abdom inis, or trans
verse arytenoid).
transverse abdom inis: deep abdom inal m uscle that w orks synergistically
w ith other abdom inal m uscles in breath m anagem ent; lies just beneath the
oblique abdom inal m uscles,
transverse arytenoid: a single m u scle located horizontally b etw een the tw o
arytenoid cartilages, underneath the oblique arytenoid m uscles,
trapezius: large, flat, triangular superficial m uscle on each side o f the
upper back.
umbilicus:
the navel.
uvula: fleshy pendant lobe located in m iddle of the posterior part of the
soft palate.
velum: a m em branous partition; the m uscular portion o f the soft palate,
ventral: in hum ans, situated anteriorly.
ventricle: a sm all cavity or pouch (as in th e ventricles o f M orgagnithe
laryngeal sinuses),
vestibule: the pm I ol the larynx above the false vocal folds,
vestlglul: refers to som e part o f the body w hich \sv as m ore fully developed in
.111 eai liei stayr, and that may now serve no purpose,
viscera (viseerae): the soft internal organs o f the body, especially those of
the trunk, such as the intestines,
vital capacity: m axim um am ount o f air that can be expired after m axim um
inspiration.
vocal folds: vocal cords, vocal bands; the low er part o f the thyroarytenoid
m uscles; the true vocal cords,
vocalis m uscle: the internal thyroarytenoid.
voiced: sou nd produced by vocal folds that have been set in m otion by
airflow.
xiphoid process:
zygom atic arch: the arch o f the b one that extend s along the front and side
o f the skull, form ed by the union o f th e zygom atic p rocess o f the tem poral
bone w ith the zygom atic bone,
zygom atic bone: a bone o f the side of the face, below the eyes,
zygom atic m uscle: a slender band o f m uscle on either side of the face,
w hich arises from the zygom atic bone, and w hich inserts into the orbicu
laris oris and the skin at the corners o f the m outh.
"cover.
voice.
fioriture: ornam ents, cadenzas, and florid passages
flageolet voice: a register of the female voice offen extending more than a
perfect fifth beyond the normal pilches ol the head voice, the result of
extreme vocal loltl damping.
311
M2
(lollltischlag:
a glottal attack.
light m echanism : a term som etim es used to describe the predom inant action
o f the vocal ligament as opposed to the predom inant action o f the vocalis
muscle; head voice.
lotta vocale (also lutta vocale, and lutte vocale): the vocal contest or struggle.
marking: an international term for the technique of sparing the voice in
rehearsal.
m ask sensations: vibratory sensation in the zygom atic and nasal regions of
the face, through bone conduction.
m elism a (melism at ic); several notes to a single syllable (florid singing).
oscillation (wobble): ill vocal pedagogy, generally refers to a pitch variant of
the vibrato phenom enon that is too slow and too wide.
panNngglo:
passannio).
placement of the voice:
ing singing.
313
vocal fry: considered by som e as a register of the m ale voice; it resem bles a
"frying sound; considered by o th ers to be a prolonged, inefficient vocal
onset.
voce aperta: open, unskillful singing,
voce chiara: clearly p roduced vocal tim bre.
voce chiusa: well-balanced resonance in the singing vole <; avoidance of voce
aperta
voce coperta: tim bre th at is equalized in the uppci laiiyes ihrouyli propei
aggiustamento of the vowel so as to avoid slu ill 01 Mal.ml lim ine
voce finta: feigned voice; a tim bre in the mule volte tli.it avoid-, the votv
piena tim bre associated with the "well supported voli e
voce mista: a descriptive term that refers to llie vo< .il lim ine in the outi
intermedia (zona di passaggio) w here elem ents ol votr ill lc\lti |',n a ll\ mod
ify action of the "heavy mechanism ,
voce di petto: vocal tim bre produced largely by the vocalis .ullvily ol the
vocal folds; the "heavy mechanism .
voce piena: full voice as opposed to voce finta and falsetto; the term does
not refer solely to dynamic level, but rath er to tim bre as well,
voce di testa: the head voice of the classic schools; there is a m arked
dim inution of "chest voice activity in this range.
wobble:
zona di passaggio: that area of the voice w herein a num ber of tones can be
sung by varying register principles; middle voice.
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Subject Index
Abdomen, 10, 12, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 30,31,32, 33,38,41,42, 265,
277-78
Abdominal vibrato, 184, 185, 190, 191
Acoustic at-rest posture, 69, 97
Acoustic energy, 50
Aditus laryngis, 248
Aerodynamics, 2, 20, 22
aggiustamento, 150, 151, 155, 156,
157-60, 165
Agility, 19, 32, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43-47
Air pressure, 2, 20, 23
Airflow, 2, 7, 13, 14, 20, 22, 23, 37, 41, 48,
56, 152, 172, 257, 290, 292, 293
Alveoli, 269
Anal sphincteral closure, 38
Anterolateral abdominal wall, 25, 26, 27,
28, 33, 37, 94, 191, 275-78
Antihistamines, 230, 231
appoggio, 23, 24, 25, 29, 38, 41, 61, 126,
184, 186, 187
arrotondamento, 156, 158
Articulatory system, 48, 52, 53, 69, 293
Aryepiglottic folds, 245, 248
Arytenoid cartilages, 23, 48, 49, 245
Arytenoid muscle, 245
Associative function, 198
Atmospheric pressure, 20
Attack (see Onset)
Auditory monitoring, 198
Axial alignment, 30
Baritone, 117, 119, 123, 125, 155
Bass, 123
basso profondo, 116
Bauchaussensttze, 237-38
bel canto, 150, 194, 196, 216
Bell register (see Flageolet voice)
Bellows analogy, 22
"Belly breathing, 278
Bernoulli principle, 22, 23
Breaks" and lifts, 15, 115, 118
Breath energy, 36, 108-109
Breath management, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23,
25, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 94,
114, 172-73, 270, 278
Breath mixture, 108, 119, 172, 177, 179
Breath renewal, 10, 12, 14, 25, 29, 31, 32,
34, 35, 36
Breathiness, 3, 8, 15, 177
Breathing, 5, 12, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34,
36, 38, 266, 267
B ronchi, 269
B u c cin ato r, 67
B u c c o p h a ry n g e a l p o stu re , SH, V), 60, 64,
74, 94 '
Subject Index
369
Neurologicul so u rce of vibrato, 184, 185
"Noble" posture, 30, 32, 153
Non-nasal consonants, 90-107
Nordic Schools, 152, 153
Nose, 30, 48, 59, 61
Oblique arytenoid m uscle, 245, 253
O m ohyoid muscle, 252
Onset, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12-14, 18,
19,
41
Open chest, 136
Open o r w hite quality, 150, 153
Open th ro a t (see also golti apvrta), 29
O ral cavity, 53, 57, 81, 86, 107
Oral resonance, 65
O ropharyngeal isthm us, 283
O ropharynx, 57, 59, 154, 283
oscillazione, 182, 186, 187, 193
P alatal elevation, 53
Palatoglossus, 68, 283, 284
P alatopharyngeus, 65, 68, 284
Panting, 32, 40, 41
P aranasal sinuses, 283
Partials (harm onic), 50, 56, 155-56
P ectoral region, 24, 25, 29, 273
Pectoralis m ajo r and pectoralis m inor
m uscles, 273
petit registre (see Flageolet voice)
Pfeifestimme (see Flageolet voice)
Pharynx, 48, 49, 50, 56, 58, 61, 65, 66, 67,
80, 107, 152, 285
Physical exercise, 238
piano dynam ic level, 119, 172, 174, 180
Piccolo range (see Flageolet voice)
"Placem ent" (see also im postazione della
voce), 58, 61, 88
Pleurae, 267-68
Posterior and lateral ceratocricoid
ligaments, 248
Posterior cricoarytenoid, 245, 253
Posticus (see Posterior cricoarytenoid)
P osture (see N oble posture)
P rephonatory tuning, 2, 4, 7, 13, 36, l>,
40, 200
prim o passaggio, 115, 116, 117, l l ), 12 ',
126, 129, 131, 133, 136, 155, 156
Psychological control, l (>8 ')'>
"Pushing the voice, 177
Pyriform (piriform ) sinuses, 24H
OuadriuiKuliii mem hi une, ,Mf>
OuudrutuN luinbonim , 275
Kmigr extension, 161 169
Ket Ins abdom inis, 25, 277, 278
Kei Ins sheill,
Rei ill i n il Illi yiiKCtil nerve, 257
370
Regional speech, 95
Register terminology, 115-126
registre de flageolet (see Flageolet voice)
"Reinforced falsetto, 117, 122
"Relaxation," 39, 192-93
Release, 6, 8, 9, 10, 18, 19
Residual breath, 278, 279
Resonator system, 48, 57, 61, 107
Respiratory-phonatory action, 32, 98, 293
Rhinolalia (see Nasality)
Rhomboid muscle, 273, 275
Ribs, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 259,
265-66, 278
Rima glottidis, 248
Ring (see also Singers formant), 56, I SO
Rouladen, 40
Scaleni muscles, 275
Scapula, 273
Schnarrbass, 126
Schwa, 70
seconda passaggio, IIS, 116 I
I.M, I,ft,
Shouting, 118
Singer'll Formunt, 55, 56, 57, 158
Sinuses, 57, 61,81
Skull, 57
Smiling, 75
Smoking, 220-21
soprano lirico, 132
Sostenuto, 19, 37, 40, 41, 108-114
soubrette, 148, 178
Speech, 57, 115
Speech in relation to singing, 95, 132,
133, 137, 152
Speech vibrato, 190
Sphincter action, 38, 108
Staccato, 12-17, 33, 40, 41
Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 259,
270-71, 275
Sternohyoid muscle, 291
Sternothyroid muscle, 251
Sternum, 10, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 38,
251, 259-62, 278
Straight tone, 9, 13, 41, 185, 188, 189-91,
194-95
Strohbass, 125-26
Styloglossus muscle, 65, 67
Stylohyoid muscle, 251
Stylopharyngeus muscle, 67
Subciavius muscle, 273
Nam e Index
371
Name Index
Agostoni, Emilio, 22
Aikin, W. A., 50
Appelman, D. Ralph, 74, 150, 247, 252,
253
Arnold, Godfrey, E., 1, 3, 8, 50, 262, 265,
287, 290
Astraquillo, Corbelita J., 40, 41, 42, 277
Baer, Thomas, 48
Ballantyne, John, 220
Bartholomew, W. T., 56
Beebe, Helen, 234
Behnke, Emil, 266
Bishop, Beverly, 278
Bjoerling, Jussi, 121, 235
Bjorn, E, 80
Bjork, L., 64
Bloomer, Harlan H., 53
372
Faaborg-Andersen, Knud, 2
Fant, Gunnar, 64, 296
Farinelli, Giuseppe, 30, 31
Fillebrown, Thomas, 85
Fritzell, Bjorn, 64
Froeschels, Emil, 57, 233, 234, 235
Frommhold, W., 153
Garcia, Manuel, 121
Gedda, Nicolai, 122
Gigli, Beniamino, 122
Gold, Harry, 232
Gould, Wilbur J., 38
Graham, Martha, 239
Hammer, Russell A., 58
Helmholtz, Hermann, 8
Hering, Ewald, 26, 28
Hines, Jerome, 122
Hirano, Minoru, 72, 93, 25t>, 294
Hiroto, L, 294
Hixon, Thomas J., 2(vl
Hollingsworth, II I ,, .M4
Hoppe, G, 15 <
House, Art hi 11 S , ftV }')*<
Hume, Imil, ,.6
Isslllkl, N n ln ih lk u , 29 I, . 9-1
Junes, I1 W ood, 8(1
Meano, Carlo, 89
Miller, Richard, 60, 156, 158, 186, 193,
204, 278, 292
Minifie, Fred D., 48, 50, 70