GLA Notes

102
2014
,
, ,
, ( 1.1). , .

:
u,
v , ...
1.1: .
, .
. (
, ).

u A
B ,
3
AB. A, AA.

.

u = AB ( )
u
AB.
u
| u |:
|
u | = |AB|
= A B.

u ,

u
u , ( 1.2).
.
1.2: .
, , ( 1.3).
.
u,
v
u k v .
AB, BC, CD
DA M AC BD. ABCD.

( )
1.3: .
1.4: .
ABCD, BCDA, CDAB, DABC, ADCB, DCBA, CBAD

BADC , AC BD. ABCD ABDC
A = B C = D.

( , ., ,
1966). .
1.1 ABCD CDEF ,
ABF E.
1.5: 1.1.

.
, .
1.6: .
.
u = AB, A0
, ( 1.6). A0 B 0
AB A0 , B 0 ABB 0 A0
. A0 AB,
ABB 0 A0 AB A0 B 0
.
CD AB ,

AB CD , AB CD.
.
1.1 ABCD , E AB

F CD AE F C. , G

AD H BC, AG HC.
EGF H .
(: .)
1.7: .
, ,
.

,
u = AB,
v = CD
CD AD0 , ( 1.7).
. D0 A B,

u
v ,
. D0 A B,

u
v ,

.
.
.
,
( ), . O ,
O.
1.8: .

u = OA
v = OB O,

u +
v O
C OACB , ( 1.8).

u = OA
v = OB ,
u +
v
OC, C |AC| = |OB| |BC| =
|OA|.

u +
u

u , .
, .

u = OA a , a R, a
u
O, |a| |
u |
u (|a| a). a u
u
a > 0, a < 0.
.
1.2
u,
v,
w O, a, b R. :
1.
u +
v =
v +
u
2. (
u +
v)+
w =
u + (
v +
w)

3.
u + OO =
u
4. 1
u =
u 0
u = OO
5. (ab)
u = a (b
u)
6. (a + b)
u = a
u + b
u
7. a (
u +
v ) = a
u + a
v
1.9: .
. .

.
u = OA,
v = OB
w = OC,
10
D, E, Z1 Z2 ,
( 1.9):

OA + OB = OD
OD + OC = OZ 1

OB + OC = OE
OA + OE = OZ 2

(
u +
v)+
w = OZ 1 ,
u + (
v +
w ) = OZ 2 .
Z2 OAZ2 E
. OZ 1 = OZ 2 , OAZ1 E
, OZ1
AE. ODZ1 C , Z1 ,
OZ1 CD.
CD AE, ACED .
OCEB OBDA , E D . , 1.1, ACED .
(1) u u + (1) u = OO.

u ,
u .
,
v
u =
v + (
u ).
1.3
, . ,

AB A0 B 0 AC A0 C 0 ,

A0 B 0 + A0 C 0 AB + AC
a R,
a A0 B 0 a AB.
. , ( 1.10), ABB 0 A0 ,
ACC 0 A0 , ABDC A0 B 0 D0 C 0 , ADD0 A0
. 1.1,
ABDC ACC 0 A0 , BDC 0 A0 ,
BDC 0 A0 A0 B 0 D0 C 0 BDD0 B 0 ,
BDD0 B 0 ABB 0 A0 ADD0 A0 .
.
1.2 OBCD, E, F OE =
a OB OF = b OD, b 6= 1. E, C, F
11
1.10:

b
.
b1
(:
.
,
.)
a=
,

.
,
.
.
1.4
u = OA
v = OB ,
a R
v = a
u
12
. ,
u
. a
v
u : a = |OB|
|OA|
v , v = a u , u v , v = a u .

u
v , 1.4,
v = a
u
u + v = (1 + a) u .

.

u
v ,
, ( 1.11).
1.11: .

u
v.
1.5
u = OA
v = OB
,
w , O,
w = OC,
a, b R
w = a
u + b
v.
. C
w , OB, (
1.12).
u,
v , OA A0 .
0
OA
u , 1.4, OA0 = a
u
a R. , C OA,
OB B 0 , OB 0 = b
v b R. ,
13
1.12: .
OA0 CB 0 ,

w = OC = OA0 + OB 0
= a
u + b
v .
u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u n , O,

u 1,
u 2, . . . ,
u n
a1
u 1 + a2
u 2 + . . . + an
un
a1 , a2 , . . . , an .

u 1,
u 2, . . . ,
u n
u 1,
u 2, . . . ,
u n . 1.5 .
,

. , , ,
. .

u 1,
u 2, . . . ,
u n , O,
, i, 1 i n,
a1 , . . . , ai1 , ai+1 , . . . , an
u i = ai
u 1 + . . . + ai1
u i1 + ai+1
u i+1 + . . . + an
un
14

u 1,
u 2, . . . ,
u n ,
1
. 1.4 1.5
,
.
, O
.
O.
1.3 O, A B . C
AB t
OC = (1 t) OA + t OB

= OA + t (OB OA) .

v = OA.
v
. (,
v )

v.
u = OB
v , (
)
u (,
v )
a R
a
v .
u
|v|
|a| = |
u |,
u , a > 0
u
v , a < 0 u v .
OB (OB).
(
u )
u ,
.
1

. ,
u 1 , .
15
1.6 ( Chasles) A, B, C
(,
v ),
(AB) + (BC) = (AC) .
,
u = OA
v = OB.

v . A , A0
. ()
u
v ,
0
2
pr
v ( u ), OA , ( 1.13) .
1.13: .
1.7 .
1. pr
v ( u + w ) = pr
v u + pr
v w
2. pr
v (a u ) = a pr
v u
. 1.14. 1. pr
v u =
0
0
0
OA , pr
v w = OB pr
v ( u + w ) = OC .
B C D. OAA0
OA0
1
(,
v ), .
|
v|
.
2
16
1.14: .
BCD . (OA0 ) = (BD) = (B 0 C 0 ). Chasles

(OC 0 ) = (OB 0 )+(B 0 C 0 ), (OC 0 ) = (OB 0 )+(OA0 ). OC 0 = OA0 +OB 0 .
2 .

0
pr
v u = OA u v pr
u v =
0
OB v u , , , .

.
1.8
u,
v
O,
|
u |(pr
u v ) = | v |(pr
v u ).
(1.1)
.
. 1.13. OAA0 OBB 0
6 0,
, |pr
v u|=
|pr
|
u|
|OA|
|OA0 |
v u|
=
=
=
|
v|
|pr
|OB|
|OB 0 |
u v|
17
(pr
v u v .
v u ) pr

u
v
O
v .
u
v
O
u , pr
u v )
u v u , (pr
.
| v | (pr
v u ) u

v ,
u
v = |
v | (pr
v u ).

u,
v ,
u
v = 0.

1.9
u,
v,
w , O,
a R, :
1.
u
v =
v
u,
2. (a
u)
v = a (
u
v ),
3.
u (
v +
w) =
u
v +
u
w,
u
u.
4.
u
u 0 |
u|=
.
1 (1.1). 2 3 1.7. 4,
pr
u u = u , , u ,

u .
u
u = |
u | (pru
u ) = |
u | |
u | = |
u |2 0.

u = OA
v = OB
[ = , 0 .
AOB
(
u,
v ).
18
1.15: .
, ,
. ](
u,
v)
, < ,

u
v , 1.15.
](
u,
v ) 6= , ](
v ,
u ) = ](
u,
v ).

(pr
v u ) = | u | cos ]( u , v )
u
v = |
u | |
v | cos ](
u,
v ).

E 2 , O
O,
u = OA
v = OB.
u
v
, (,
u ) (,
v ), O.
(, u ), (, v )
(O,
u,
v ), 1.16. O
.

w O,
w = a
u + b
v.
19
1.16: ( )
.
(a, b)

w (O,
u,
v ). a
u , b
v
w (O, u ,
v ).
C , C
OC. OC
( ) C
(O,
u,
v ).
, ,
. , , E 2
R2 = {(x, y) : x, y R}. ,
.
,
.
20

u,
v ,
1
u,
i =
|u|
j =
v .
|v|

, 1.17.
1.17: .
1.10 (O, i , j ) .
(a, b)
w = a i + b j

w :
a=
w i ,
b=
w j
. i i = j j = 1 i j = 0.
, 1.18,
w i = (a i + b j ) i
= a i i +b j i
= a
21
w j = b.
1.18: .
(O, i , j ),
u,
v
O (u1 , u2 ), (v1 , v2 ) (
u = u1 i +u2 j
v = v1 i +v2 j ).
u +
v
(u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ),
u +
v = (u1 + v1 ) i + (u2 + v2 ) j ,
a R, a
u (au1 , au2 ),
a
u = au1 i + au2 j .

u
v:
u
v = (u1 i + u2 j ) (v1 i + v2 j )
= u1 v1 i i + u1 v2 i j + u2 v1 j i + u2 v2 j j
= u1 v1 + u2 v2 .
u
u
|
u| =
q
=
(u1 i + u2 j ) (u1 i + u2 j )
q
u1 2 i i + u1 u2 i j + u2 u1 j i + u2 2 j j
=
p
=
u1 2 + u2 2 .
22

, ,
O. 2 +
3 , ,
. ,
.

.
1.1 ,
1.19: .
1.19. AB A
B. B C,

AB AC, AB + BC,
.
1.2 .

v A
A.
B
u , A
B ,
v
u , 1.20.
, .
1.3
. F1 A, F2
23
1.20: A B.
B. , ;
F1 + F2 .

.
, .

u = AB

u ,
u .

u [
u ],
[
u ] = {
v ,
v
u }.
,
u
v u
v
,
[
u ] = [
v]
u
v .
, [
u ] = [
v ] [
v ] = [
w ], [
u ] = [
w ],
.
24

, .
. :
,
5 341
, 682 .
12 , 24 , 10
1
1
3 ,
2
, 12 + 31 = 36 + 62 = 56 .
, [
u ] [
v ]
, .

[
u ] [
v ]. O OA
u

OB v . , OA + OB = OC.
[
u ] [
v ]
OC,
h
i
[ u ] + [ v ] = OC
= [
w].

h
i [ u ] a
a OA ,
i
a OA
= [a
u ].
a [
u] =

h
i
pr[
[
u
]
=
pr
OA
v]
OB

[
u ] [
v ] = OA OB .
, OA OB.
, .
.
, O0 A0 O0 B 0 ,
00

OA O A OB O0 B 0 , 1.3, OA + OB O0 A0 + O0 B 0 .
[
u ] + [
v ] .
.
25

, . , ,
[ ],
u AB
.
1.4
u ,
v.
1) u + v .
2) |
u +
v | = |
u | + |
v |.
1.5
u ,
v.
1) | u | = | v | u + v = 0 .
2) |
u | < |
v |
u +
v
v , |
u +
v|=
| v | | u |.

1.6 ABC : AB + BC + CA = 0.

u,
v,
w
u +
v +
w = 0,

ABC AB = u , BC = v , CA =
w (
!).
: , ABC O.

AB = OB OA, . , A ,
B AB
u . C

BC v . CA

w.
1.7 (
!)
M, N AB AC ABC
BC BC.
1.8 n {A1 , A2 , ..., An }

A1 A2 + A2 A3 + ... + An1 An + An A1 = 0.
1.9
.
1.10 A, B, C, O G

OG = 31 (OA + OB + OC)
ABC.
26
(O, i , j ), A, B, C, D
(a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 ), (c1 , c2 ) (d1 , d2 ) , 1.21.

AB CD, , ABM CDN
b 1 a1 = d 1 c 1
b2 a2 = d2 c2
(1.2)
v1 = b1 a1 v2 = b2 a2
AB,
v = AB.
1.21:
.
(O, i , j ),
v1 = b1 a1
v2 = b2 a2 ,
(a1 , a2 ) (b1 , b2 )
AB
v . v1 6= 0,
v
v2
= .
v1
(1.2)
.
1.11 (O,
u,
v ) ,
w
z ,
27
(O,
u,
v ), (a, b) (c, d) .
w k
z
a/b = c/d.
P1 , P2 , P . P1 P P P2
, P 6= P2
P 1 P = P P 2 .
, (P1 P2 P ).
( P1 P )
(P1 P2 P ) = ,
( P P2 )
. P1 , P2 , P
,
1.22.
1.22: P
P1 P2 .
P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ) P (x, y),

x x1 = (x2 x)
y y1 = (y2 y),
y=

x=
x1 + x2
1+
y1 + y2
.
1+
(1.3)
> 0, P P1 P2 , P1 P2 : 1.
1.12 (O,
u,
v ), A B
(O,
u,
v ), (2, 1) (4, 1) . C
28
AC ) = 3 .
AB, (ABC) = (
5
(CB )
C.
1.13 X, Y, A, B, A 6= B,
, (ABX) = (ABY ), X, Y AB
, X, Y .
:
ABC, (a1 , a2 ),
(b1 , b2 ) (c1 , c2 ) .
1.23: .
A0 (a01 , a02 ) BC 1:1, (1.3)

a01 =
b1 + c 1
,
2
a02 =
b2 + c 2
.
2
(1.4)
a1 + c 1
,
2
b02 =
a2 + c 2
.
2
(1.5)
B 0 (b01 , b02 )
b01 =
29
AA0 BB 0 OA + `AA0 OB +
mBB 0 . ` m

OA + `AA0 = OB + mBB 0 .

a1 + `(a01 a1 ) = b1 + m(b01 b1 )
a2 + `(a02 a2 ) = b2 + m(b02 b2 )
`, m:
(a01 a1 )` + (b1 b01 )m = b1 a1
(a02 a2 )` + (b2 b02 )m = b2 a2 .
A0 B 0 1.4 1.5, 2,
(b1 + c1 2a1 )` + (2b1 a1 c1 )m = 2b1 2a1
(b2 + c2 2a2 )` + (2b2 a2 c2 )m = 2b2 2a2 .

AA0 , BB 0
.
, ` =
2
, m = 23 .
3
AA0 BB 0 G
AA0 BB 0 2 : 1.
G0 AA0 CC 0
AA0 CC 0 2 : 1. G = G0 .
G:
2
OG = OA + AA0
3
2
= OA + (OA0 OA)
3
1 2 1
=
OA + ( (OB + OC))
3
3 2
1
=
(OA + OB + OC)
3

a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c2
=
,
.
3
3
30
, (O, i , j )
(P,
u,
v ). -
1.24: .
(P,
u,
v )

(O, i , j ). ;
, , ,
.
A , (x, y) (O, i , j )
(x0 , y 0 ) (P,
u,
v ).
OA = x i + y j P A = x0
u + y0
v

P A = OA OP
P (O, i , j ) (p, q),
x0
u + y0
v = (x p) i + (y q) j
(1.6)
i , j
u,
v.
i , j ,
u,
v , 1.25.
31
1.25: .

, = ]( i ,
u)
]( j , v ),
u = cos i + sin j
v = sin i + cos j
1.6,
x0 (cos i + sin j ) + y 0 ( sin i + cos j ) = (x p) i + (y q) j
i j
x0 cos y 0 sin = x p
x0 sin + y 0 cos = y q .
(1.7)
x0 y 0 ,
x0 = (x p) cos + (y q) sin
y 0 = (x p) sin + (y q) cos .
(1.8)
1.7 (x, y) x0 , y 0 , p q,
1.8 (x0 , y 0 ) x, y, p q.
,
, .
,
, 1.8
"
# "
#"
#
x0
cos sin
xp
=
.
y0
sin cos
yq
32
1.14 ( Euler 1747) A, B, C, D

, (AD)(BC) + (BD)(CA) + (CD)(AB) = 0.
1.15
u ,
v ,
2 u + 3 v , 6 u 4 v .
1.16 ABC , a
,
u = AB,
v = BC,
u + 3
v a.
1.17 M AC
ABC. |BM | = |AM | =
|CM |.
1.18 D, E BC ABC .
5
|AD|2 + |AE|2 = |BC|2 .
9
D, E M
BC ABC,
|AD|2 +|AE|2 A
ABC.
1.19 -
v (a, b), A.
:
.
u (b, a)
v.

. B AB =
u , , P
A, B, AP
v.
: A, B P AP =
AB.
. : P
A, B, AP
v.
: AP AP =
u +
v.
1.20 1 2 P1

P2 OP1 =
u1 + t
v1 OP2 =
u2 + s
v2 .
33

v1
v2 ,
.
v1
v2 ;
.
: 1 OP1 =
u1 + t
v1
t 2 OP2 = u2 + s v2
s.
t s
u1 + t
v1 =
u2 + s
v2 .
v1
v2
.
1.21 (), x y,
a1 x + b 1 y = c 1
a2 x + b 2 y = c 2 .
, (x, y)
. ,
, (x, y)
, .
u1
v1
1.20.
.
v1
v2
a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ;
1.22 M AC
ABC. |BM | = |AM | =
|CM |.
: BM ,
BM BM .
2

, . 1 E 2 .
, E 3 .
,
. 1.1 .
,

.
, AB , A0 E 3 ,
A0 B 0 AB A0 ,
B 0 ABB 0 A0 .
, , ,
1.2.
34
35
( 1.2, 2), O, A, B, C , 1.9

OA, OB, OC, 1.1.

, 1.3. A0
A, B, C, 1.10
AB, AC, AA0 .

2.1
u = OA,
v = OB
w = OC
,
z , O,
z = OD,
a, b, c R
z = a
u + b
v + c
w.
. D
z
( ) u
v .
u,
v,
w ,
w
( OC) C 0 .
c OC 0 = c OC.
A0 B 0 OA OB
, a b OA0 = a OA
0
OB = b OB.
2.1:
36
OA0 , OB 0 , OC 0 ,
D, 2.1.

OD = OA0 + OB 0 + OC 0
= a
u + b
v + c
w.
u , v , w ,

u,
v,
w.

, .
,
.
,
u = OA
v = OB.

u
v , pr
v u , u v
:
0
0
pr
v u = OA , A A
OB,

u
v = |
v |(pr
v u ) v u ), (pr
OB
v.
1.8 1.9
.
(
u,
v )
u = OA
[ O, A, B.
v = OB AOB
,
,
.

,
.

u = OA
v = OB,
OA OB, OADB.
37
,
u
v ,
. ,
u,
v |OADB| OADB.
, ,
, .
2.2:

OC OG = OB+OC,
OADB OAEC
OAF G, |OADB| + |OAEC| = |OAF G|,
, 2.2.
,
, . O,
OA OB.
O
. O,
OA OB.
,
. ON , ,
ON
,
ON .

ON ON ,
38
2.3:
ON
.

(OA, OB)
:
OA OB,
, 0 < < , 2.4.
2.4:
39

, (OB, OA), .

, (OA, OB) :

(OA, OB).

(OA, OB)

ON , (OA, OB, ON ) , 2.5. ,

O, ,
u = OA,
v = OB
w = OC. (
u,
v,
w )
C w
ON
(
u,
v ).
2.5:
OX ,
(OA, OB),

OA, OB. OA, OB

OA OB =
OO
OX
OA,
OA,
OB
OB .
40
2.2
x,
y,
z O,
a:
1.
x
y =
y
x
2. (a
x)
y = a(
x
y)
3.
x (
y +
z ) = (
x
y ) + (
x
z)
. 1 2 . 3 , 38.
2.1
x,
y,
z ) O.
(
x,
y,
z ) (
x
y )
z > 0.
2.2
x,
y,
z ) O.
(
x,
y,
z )
( y ,
z,
x ), (
z,
x,
y ) (
y,
x ,
z ).

E 3 O,

O, ,
u = OA,
v = OB, w = OC.

u,
v,
w , (,
u ), (,
v ), (,
w ),
O. (, u ), (, v ), (, w )
(O,
u,
v,
w ).
z O
z = a
u + b
v + c
w.
(a, b, c)

z (O,
u,
v,
w ).
a u , b v , c w z
(O,
u,
v,
w ). D , OD
( ) D, OD
D.
,

, (O, i , j , k )
41

i , j , k 1, ,

( i , j , k ) .
,
z
z :
z = (
z i ) i + (
z j ) j + (
z k)k ,

.
z = z1 i + z2 j + z3 k
y = y1 i + y2 j +
y3 k ,
z
y = z1 y1 + z2 y2 + z3 y3
|
z|=
z12 + z22 + z32 .

, . (O, i , j , k )
, i , j
, 1,
i j = k =j i

j k = i =k j

k i = j =i k .
z
y = (z1 i + z2 j + z3 k ) (y1 i + y2 j + y3 k )

= z1 y1 i i + z1 y2 i j + z1 y3 i k

+z2 y1 j i + z2 y2 j j + z2 y3 j k
+z3 y1 k i + z3 y2 k j + z3 y3 k k
= z1 y1 OO + z1 y2 k z1 y3 j
z2 y1 k + z2 y2 OO + z2 y3 i
+z3 y1 j z3 y2 i + z3 y3 OO ,

z
y = (z2 y3 z3 y2 ) i + (z3 y1 z1 y3 ) j + (z1 y2 z2 y1 ) k .
(2.1)
42
,
3 3 : a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 c1 , c2 , c3 9
, , :

a1 a2 a3

b1 b2 b3 = a1 b2 c3 + b1 c2 a3 + c1 a2 b3 a3 b2 c1 b3 c2 a1 c3 a2 b1 .

c1 c2 c3
(2.2)
, 2.1 2.2,

z y =

i j k

z1 z2 z3 .

y1 y2 y3

x,
y,
z O
,
x,
y z, (
x
y )
z .

x,
y,
z.
, x y

x,
y
. |
x
y |(pr
x
y z ),

z
.
, .
(
x,
y,
z ) ,
( x y ) z , 2.1,
.
(
y
z)
x

y,
z,
x ,
( x y ) z , 2.2.
(
y
z )
x = (
x
y)
z .

x,
y,
z
,
[
x,
y,
z ] = (
x
y)
z .
43

x,
y,
z ,

x,
y,
z . (
x,
y,
z )
(
x,
y,
z ) .
x , y , z , .
2.3
x,
y,
z
,
[
x,
y,
z ] = [
y,
z,
x]
= [
y,
x,
z]
(
x
y)
z =
x (
y
z ).
(2.3)

:
.
b =
x (
y +
z )
x
y
x
z .
| b | = 0, b = 0.
2.3
b b = b (
x (
y +
z )
x
y
x
z)
= b
x (
y +
z ) b
x
y b
x
z
= ( b
x ) (
y +
z )( b
x)
y ( b
x)
z
= ( b
x ) ((
y +
z )
y
z)
= 0.

x,
y,
z ,
x (
y
z ) = (x1 i + x2 j + x3 k )
h
(y2 z3 y3 z2 ) i + (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) j + (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) k

= x1 y2 z3 x1 y3 z2 + x2 y3 z1 x2 y1 z3 + x3 y1 z2 x3 y2 z1

x1 x2 x3

= y1 y2 y3 .

z1 z2 z3
44
2.3
[
x
y
z ] = [
y
z
x ] = [
z
x
y ],
[
z
y
x ] = [
y
x
z ] = [
x
z
y ].

x (
y
z )
y
z ,
y , z .
x (
y
z )

y
z.

i
j
k

x (y z ) =
x1
x2
x3

y2 z3 y3 z2 y3 z1 y1 z3 y1 z2 y2 z1
i (x2 (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) x3 (y3 z1 y1 z3 ))
+ j (x3 (y2 z3 y3 z2 ) x1 (y1 z2 y2 z1 ))
+ k (x1 (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) x2 (y2 z3 y3 z2 ))
= i (y1 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z1 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ))
+ j (y2 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z2 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ))
+ k (y3 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z3 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ))
= (
x
z )
y (
x
y )
z .
=
x (
y
z ) = (
x
z )
y (
x
y )
z

(
x
y)
z = (
x
z )
y (
y
z )
x.
2.4 Jacobi:
a, b,
c
,
c (
a ( b
c ) + b (
a)+
a b)=0
45
2.5
a, b,
c , d ,
a b
c =
a

b c ,
h
h
h
i
i
i
h
a b
c d = d b
c
a +
a d
c b +
a b d
c

a, b,
c ,
d
a, b,
c.
,
u
[ u ]
,
u
.
[
u ] = {
v ,
v
u }.

: , ,
, , .
.

, OC = OA OB,
[OA] [OB]

[OA] [OB] = [OA OB]
= [OC] .

u OA,
v OB
w OC,
[
u ] [
v ] = [
w].

, (O, i , j , k )
(P,
u,
v,
w ),
.
46
2.6:
. (O, i , j , k ) (O,
u,
v,
w ),
2.6
X , (x, y, z)

(O, i , j , k ), X
OX = x i + y j + z k .
(2.4)
(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) X
(O,
u,
v,
w ),
OX = x0
u + y0
v + z0
w.
(2.5)

, i , j , k

u,
v,
w .
i = a1
u + b1
v + c1
w
j = a2
u + b2
v + c2
w
k = a3
u + b3
v + c3
w
2.6 2.4
OX = x(a1
u + b1
v + c1
w)
+y(a2
u + b2
v + c2
w)
+z(a3
u + b3
v + c3
w)
(2.6)
47
= (xa1 + ya2 + za3 )

u
+(xb1 + yb2 + zb3 )

v
+(xc1 + yc2 + zc3 )

w
2.5
x0 = a1 x + a2 y + a3 z
y 0 = b1 x + b2 y + b3 z
(2.7)
z 0 = c1 x + c2 y + c3 z

,

x0
a1 a2 a3
x
0

y = b1 b2 b3 y
z0
c1 c2 c3
z

,
,
1 .

. (O, i , j , k )
(P,
u,
v,
w )
OP = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k ,

P (O, i , j , k ) (x0 , y0 , z0 ).

P X = OX OP
= (x x0 ) i + (y y0 ) j + (z z0 ) k .
(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) X (P,
u,
v,
w ),

P X = x0
u + y0
v + z0
w,

x0 = a1 (x x0 ) + a2 (y y0 ) + a3 (z z0 )
y 0 = b1 (x x0 ) + b2 (y y0 ) + b3 (z z0 )
z 0 = c1 (x x0 ) + c2 (y y0 ) + c3 (z z0 )
1
(2.8)
48

i , j , k

u,
v,
w . ,
u , v , w i , j , k .
2.7:
,
u .
u
(O, i , j , k )
u

i , j , k :
u = (
u i ) i + (
u j ) j + (
u k)k .
, i
u ,
u i
1
u i ,

u j,
u k 2 , 3
u j , k :
u i = cos 1
u j = cos 2
u k = cos 3
(2.9)
2.9 2.6,
a1 = i
u =
u i = cos 1
, a2 = cos 2 , a3 = cos 3 .
u = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k .
(a1 , a2 , a3 )

u (O, i , j , k ).
49
v = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
w = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k

: (O, i , j , k ),
(P,
u,
v,
w ),

(O, i , j , k )
u = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
v = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
w = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k ,

i
j
a1
b1
c1
a3
b3
c3
a2
b2
c2

(O, i , j , k )
(P,
u,
v,
w ). P

(O, i , j , k ) (x0 , y0 , z0 ).

X (x, y, z) (O, i , j , k )
(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) X (P,
u,
v,
w )

x0 = a1 (x x0 ) + a2 (y y0 ) + a3 (z z0 )
y 0 = b1 (x x0 ) + b2 (y y0 ) + b3 (z z0 )
z 0 = c1 (x x0 ) + c2 (y y0 ) + c3 (z z0 )
3

, 2
2
,
, :
, , .
,

.

: . , ,
,
.

,
(x, y). f : R2 R
.
P (x, y) ,
f (x, y) = 0, {(x, y)
R2 : f (x, y) = 0}.
f (x, y) = 0.
, {(x, y) R2 : f (x, y) = 0}
50
51
f (x, y) = 0.
3.1 f (x, y) = ax + by + c.
ax + by + c = 0 (
) {(x, y) : ax + by + c = 0}.
, = a/b y-
c/b.
3.2 f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 r2 , r > 0.
f (x, y) = 0
x2 +y 2 = r2 , r (0, 0).
O r.
3.3 (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 0
P (a, b).
3.4 f (x, y) g(x, y) R2 ,
f (x, y)g(x, y) f
g. f (x, y)g(x, y) = 0
f (x, y) = 0 g(x, y) = 0. ,
y 2 x2 = 0 (y + x)(y x) = 0,
.
3.5 f (x, y) g(x, y) R2 ,
f (x, y)2 + g(x, y)2
f g. f (x, y)2 +
g(x, y)2 = 0 f (x, y) = 0
g(x, y) = 0,
f (x, y) = 0
g(x, y) = 0
, , P (x, y, z).
f : R3 R P (x, y, z) , f (x, y, z) = 0.
3.6 g(x, y, z) = ax + by + c,
f (x, y) 3.1, ,
. ax + by + c = 0
52
P (x, y, z) .
z R, z
f (x, y, z).
z- (x, y)- ax +
by + c = 0.
3.7 C(a, b, c) r,

(x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 = r2
3.8 y 2 +z 2 = 4 ,
{(x, y, z) R3 : y 2 + z 2 = 4},
, x-, (y, z)-
O 2.
3.1
. {(x, y) R2 : 2x 3y + 2 = 0}
. {(x, y) R2 : y = 1}
. {(x, y) R2 : (y 1)(2x y) = 0}
3.2
. {(x, y, z) R3 : 2x 3y = 0}
. {(x, y, z) R3 : y = 1}
. {(x, y, z) R3 : (y 1)(2x z 1) = 0}

()
().
f : R R2 , f (t) = (x(t), y(t)), t R, P (x(t), y(t))
.
53
, f : R R3 , f (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)),

t , (x(t), y(t), z(t))
.
f : R2 R3 , f (s, t) = (x(s, t), y(s, t), z(s, t)),
(s, t) R2 ,
P (x(s, t), y(s, t), z(s, t)) .
3.9 A(1, 2)
B(1, 3) f (t) = (1 + 2t, 3 t).
3.10 (a, b) r , 0 < 2,
f () = (a + r cos , b + r sin ) .
,
.
, x(t) = 1 t y(t) = 2 3t.
.
t t = 1 x t = 2y
3
t
1
1 x = (2 y) ,
3
3x y 1 = 0.

(O, i , j , k ).
3
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) R(x3 , y3 , z3 ) .
X(x, y, z) , P X
P Q, P R. s t
P X = sP Q + t P R
X .

(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) = s(x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 ) + t(x3 x1 , y3 y1 , z3 z1 )
54
(x, y, z) = (1 s t)(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(x2 , y2 , z2 ) + t(x3 , y3 , z3 ) .

.
3.11 (2, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0),
(1, 2, 3)
(x, y, z) = (1 s t)(2, 0, 1) + s(1, 1, 0) + t(1, 2, 3) .

x = 2 s t,
y = s + 2t ,
z = 1 s + 2t .
t
2x + y + s 4 = 0
2x + z + 3s 5 = 0 .
s,
s = 4 2x y
3s = 5 2x z ,
12 6x 3y = 5 2x z ,

4x + 3y z 7 = 0 .
P, Q R : P Q P R ,

P Q P R
X , ,

PX PQ PR = 0.

x x1 y y1 z z1

x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 = 0 .

x3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1
55
A = (y2 y1 )(z3 z1 ) (z2 z1 )(y3 y1 )

B = (z2 z1 )(x3 x1 ) (x2 x1 )(z3 z1 )
C = (x2 x1 )(y3 y1 ) (y2 y1 )(x3 x1 )

Ax + By + Cz (Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 ) = 0 .
, P (x1 , y1 , z1 )
,
n (k, `, m) X (x, y, z)
, P X
n

PX
n = 0,
(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) (k, `, m) = 0 ,
kx + `y + mz (kx1 + `y1 + mz1 ) = 0 .

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .
, A, B, C
. (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0 ,
(x, y, z)
A(x x1 ) + B(y y1 ) + C(z z1 ) = 0 ,
(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 )
(A, B, C) (x, y, z)
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) (A, B, C).
3.1
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
(3.1)
(A, B, C) 6= 0.
56
B = C = 0 A 6= 0,
x=
D
A
i .
O j k ,
Oyz.
A = 0, BC 6= 0,
By + Cz + D = 0
Ox
Oyz By + Cz + D = 0.
D = 0,
Ax + By + Cz = 0
O.
, 0, 0),
ABCD 6= 0, , ( D
A
D
D
(0, B , 0), (0, 0, C ).
, Ox, Oy, Oz , , , 6= 0,
x y
z
+ + = 1.

, (O, i , j , k ).
P (x1 , x2 , x3 ),
a =
(u, v, w) ,
(x, y, z) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(u, v, w) .
(3.2)
,
. s 3.2 , uvw 6= 0,
x x1
y y1
z z1
=
=
u
v
w

vx uy (vx1 uy1 ) = 0
wy vz (wy1 vz1 ) = 0 .
(3.3)
57
w = 0 uv 6= 0, s
vx uy (vx1 uy1 ) = 0
z z1
= 0.
(3.4)
3.3

a ;
3.2

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 .
A1 B2 6= A2 B1
A1 C2 6= A2 C1 .
(3.5)
.
. ,
.
3.5 (A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 )
.
, .
, (A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 ),
u = (A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 ) .

(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 ) ,
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) , :
A1 x0 + B1 y0 + C1 z0 = D1
A2 x0 + B2 y0 + C2 z0 = D2 .
3.5 . ,
A1 B2 A2 B1 6= 0, z0 = 0
A1 x0 + B1 y0 = D1
A2 x0 + B2 y0 = D2
58
x0 y0 :
(A1 D2 D1 A2 )
(D1 B2 B1 D2 )
,
y0 =
.
A1 B2 B1 A2
A1 B2 B1 A2
A1 B2 A2 B1 6= 0
Oxy.

x0 =
3.12
x + 2y z + 1 = 0
2x y + z 3 = 0 .
(1, 2, 1) (2, 1, 1). ,
(1, 2, 1) (2, 1, 1) = (1, 3, 5).
z0 = 0 y0 = 1, x0 = 1.

(x, y, z) = (1, 1, 0) + t(1, 3, 5) .

, Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,
n = (A, B, C). X0 , X1 ,
X1
X0 X1
n.

X 0 X1
n
d = (pr
X
X
)
=
0
1
n
|n|
(x1 x0 )A + (y1 y0 )B + (z1 z0 )C
=
A2 + B 2 + C 2
Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 )
=
A2 + B 2 + C 2
Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 = D,
Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D
.
(3.6)
d=
A2 + B 2 + C 2
d X1

n = (A, B, C), .
3.4
.
59
, OX = OX0 + t
a (x, y, z) =
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(a, b, c), X1 , OX1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ).

X0 X1
a
X1 ,

e = (X0 X1
a)
a
.
X1 X0 X1
e:

e X0 X1

d = |pr
e X0 X1 | = |
e|

|(X0 X1
a)
a X0 X1 |
=
.

|(X0 X1
a)
a|
,

a X0 X1
a ,

|(X0 X1
a ) (
a X0 X1 )|

|X0 X1
a | |
a|

|X0 X1 a |
=
.
|
a|
d =

1 , 2
OX = OX1 + t
a1
OX = OX2 + s
a2
tR
sR
, X1 X2 ,
a1
a2

[X1 X2 ,
a1 ,
a2 ] = 0 .
.
.
u
a1 a2 ,
u =
a1
a1 .
60
X1 X2
d = |pr
a1
a2 X 1 X 2 |

|X1 X2
a1
a2 |
=
| a1 a2 |

|[X1 X2 ,
a1 ,
a2 ]|
.
=
| a1 a2 |
T1 T2 1
2 , : T1 1 ,

OT1 = OX1 + t
a1
(3.7)
T2 2 ,

OT2 = OX2 + s
a2 .
(3.8)
T1 T2
a1
a2 ,
T1 T2 = `
a1
a2 .
(3.9)

T1 T2 = OT2 OT1 , 3.7, 3.8 3.9

OX2 OX1 + s
a2 t
a1 = `
a1
a2 ,
3 ( ) 3
(s, t, `), t, s
T1 , T2 .
3.13 1 2 1
A(2, 1, 0)
u = (1, 3, 1), 2
B(0, 1, 3)
v = (2, 1, 1).

2 2
3

[AB,
u,
v ] = 1 3 1 = 29 .

2 1
1
.

u
v = (1, 3, 1) (2, 1, 1) = (4, 3, 5) ,
61
|
u
v | = 5 2.

| 29|
|[AB,
u,
v ]|
29 2
= =
.
d=
|
u
v|
10
5 2
,

OB OA + s
v t
u = ` (
u
v ),
(2, 2, 3) + s (2, 1, 1) t (1, 3, 1) = ` (4, 3, 5) ,
2s t 4` =
2
s 3t + 3` = 2
s + t + 5` = 3 ,
s t:
t=
1
25
s=
7
.
50

T1 = (2, 1, 0) +
T2 = (0, 1, 3)
1
(1, 3, 1)
25
7
(2, 1, 1)
50
1
29 2
|T1 T2 | = |116, 87, 145| =
.
50
10

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 .
(3.10)
(A1 , B1 , C1 ) 6= 0 (A2 , B2 , C2 ) 6= 0. . .
62
r R
A1 = rA2 , B1 = rB2 , C1 = rC2 , D1 = rD2
,
.
r R
A1 = rA2 , B1 = rB2 , C1 = rC2 D1 6= rD2
: (A1 , B1 , C1 ) =
r(A2 , B2 , C2 ).
A1 B2 6= A2 B1 A1 C2 6= A2 C1 ,
, .
,
.
3.10.

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 .
3.10
,
, !
.
3.3 1 2 ,
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 ,
, , R,
,
(A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 ) (A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 ) = 0
(3.11)
.
, , Ax + By + Cz = 0,
,
A = A1 A2 ,
B = B1 B2 ,
C = C1 C2 ,
D = D1 D2 .
63
. (x, y, z) , A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0, (x, y, z) 3.11.
, . (x0 , y0 , z0 )
. = A2 x0 + B2 y0 + C2 z0 + D2
= A1 x0 + B1 y0 + C1 z0 + D1 ,
(A1 A2 )x + (B1 B2 )y + (C1 C2 )z + (D1 D2 ) = 0 .
(3.12)
1 2 , x, y, z 3.12 . 3.12
.
(x0 , y0 , z), .
, (x, y, z) , A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 A2 x +
B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0, (x, y, z) 3.12.
(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ), , , (x, y, z) 3.12.

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 .
, , , ,
6= 0,
(A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 ) (A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 ) = 0
(A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 ) (A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 ) = 0
, ,
.
. ,
1 2
, .
3.14 3.12.
x + 2y z + 1 = 0
2x y + z 3 = 0 .
64
z . = 1, = 0, = 1, = 1
,
, z 0:
x + 2y z + 1 = 0
3x + y
2 = 0.
x = t y = 2 3t.
z = t + 2(2 3t) + 1 = 5 5t.
(x, y, z) = (0, 4, 5) + t(1, 3, 5) ,

3.12.

, 1 , 2 3 , :
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
A3 x + B3 y + C3 z + D3 = 0 .
(3.13)
1 2
.
1 2 , r R (A1 , B1 , C1 ) =
r(A2 , B2 , C2 ). 3 , ,
, s R
(A1 , B1 , C1 ) = s(A3 , B3 , C3 ).
.
1 2 , .
3 1 , 2 , 1 2
, , 3.3, r, s R
(A3 , B3 , C3 ) = r(A1 , b1 , C1 ) + s(A2 , B2 , C2 ) D3 = rD1 +
sD2 .
65
1 2 , r, s R
(A3 , B3 , C3 ) = r(A1 , b1 , C1 ) + s(A2 , B2 , C2 ) D3 6=
rD1 + sD2 .
1 2 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
3 .
(A1 , b1 , C1 ), (A2 , B2 , C2 ), (A3 , B3 , C3 ) .
66
4
Gauss
,
.

2x y = 1
x + y = 5
(4.1)
.
() .
2x y = 1
: x- 1/2
y- 1.
x + y = 5
x- 5 y- 5.
, , ,
(x, y) .
, (2, 3).
; ,
. ,
2x y = 1
4x + 2y = 0
67
(4.2)
68
. ,
2x y =
1
4x + 2y = 2
(4.3)
: (x, y)
.

:
" #
"
# " #
2
1
1
x
+y
=
.
1
1
5

, x y,
. ,
,
.
; ,
.
, .
, .
4.1 4.2 4.3.
3 .
2u + v + w =
5
4u 6v
= 2
2u + 7v + 2w =
9
(4.4)
().
( 52 , 0, 0), (0, 5, 0), (0, 0, 5).
u- v- ( 21 , 0, 0)
(0, 13 , 0). u = 0 v = 0 0w = 2, .

w-. .
, .
. , (1, 1, 2).
; .
:
Gauss
69
,
,
,
, .
,
, ,
.
,
.
(4.4) ,
5
1
1
2
(4.5)
u 4 + v 6 + w 0 = 2 .
9
2
7
2
u, v w
. ,
R3 . ,
,
, (u, v, w) = (1, 1, 2).
;
, ,
.
.

1
1
1

u 2 + v 0 + w 3 = b.
3
1
4
2

b= 5
7
2

b= 5
6
70
.

. ,
. ,
.
4.2
x + 2y = 2
x y = 1
. .
. .
. x y ,
.
. ( ) ,
.
4.3 :
" #
"
#
" #
1
2
2
x+
y=
1
1
1
, x y 4.2,
.
4.4
.
.
2u + v + w = 5
4u + 2v + 2w = 6
2u + 7v + 2w = 9
.
u + v + w = 2
2u +
+ 3w = 5
3u + v + 4w = 6
Gauss
71
.
u + v + w = 2
2u +
+ 3w = 5
3u + v + 4w = 7
. 1 Rn , n 0.
R0 = {0} Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n} .
Rn , Rn ( ).
x1 , . . . , xn x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn .
, , (x1 , x2 , x3 )
. ,
(0, 0, 0) (x1 , x2 , x3 ). , .
, Rn n- ,
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
, , ,
x=
x1
x2
..
.
xn
,
, , , (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
Rn n , , .
1
9 ,
Cn = {(z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) | zi C, i = 1, 2, . . . , n} .
72

1
2

+
3
,

2
0

=
1
3
2
.
4
x1
x2
..
.
xn
y1
y2
..
.
yn
x1 + y1
x2 + y2
..
.
xn + yn
, , :

2 2
2
0 0
2
=
.
1
2
5
5 2
,
x1
x2
..
.
xn
x1
x2
..
.
xn
, (),
x1 + y1 + z1
x1
y1
z1
x2
z2 x2 + y2 + z2
y2
..
.. + .. + .. =
.
.
.
.
xn + yn + zn
xn
yn
zn
,
,
. ( R3 .)
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ,
x y
x y = x1 y 1 + x2 y 2 + + xn y n .
n n ,
:
Gauss
73
-, 2 Rn ,
n .
,

.
4.5 y1 , y2 , y3
(0, y1 ), (1, y2 ) (2, y3 ) ;
4.6
3
1
2
1 , 1 , 0
2
4
1

. 2.
. 2 2.
. 2 2.
. 1.
;
4.7 :
u + v + w + z = 6
u
+ w + z = 4
u
+ w
= 2.
, ;
u = 1;
.
4.8 , 4 . . . . . .
. . . . . .. , 4
b. (1, 0, 0, 0),
(1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1, 0) (1, 1, 1, 1) b = (3, 3, 3, 2);
, x, y, z, t ;
2
n 1!
74
Gauss
.
Gauss (Gauss elimination),
,
. Gauss
(4.4),
,
, .
2u + v + w =
5
4u 6v
= 2
2u + 7v + 2w =
9
u 0. ,
,
u ,
, 0, u .
2 .
1 (
).
u . 2 1
u .
2u +
v + w =
5
8v 2w = 12
8v + 3w =
14
u .
v 0.
, v
.
1 .
Gauss.
2u +
v + w =
5
8v 2w = 12
w =
2
Gauss
75
v
. w 0
.
.
w = 2.
w , 8v 4 = 12,
v = 1.
v w , 2u + 1 + 2 = 5,
u = 1.
(back substitution).
Gauss u, v w
,
:

,
.
Gauss ,
,
.

:
2
1 1
5
2
1
1
5
2
1
1
5
4 6 0 2 0 8 2 12 0 8 2 12
2
7 2
9
0
8
3
14
0
0
1
2
, , ,
.
n n , n ( ) ,
,
.

, .
76
.
, ,
,
.
u + v + w = a
2u + 2v + 5w = b
4u + 6v + 8w = c
(4.6)
1 1 1 a
1 1 1
a
1 1 1
a
2 2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b 0 2 4 4a + c
4 6 8 c
0 2 4 4a + c
0 0 3 2a + b
, .
. , .
. ,
u + v + w = a
2u + 2v + 5w = b
4u + 4v + 8w = c

2
4
u,
1 1 1
a
1 1 a
2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b
4 8 c
0 0 4 4a + c

. ,
. .
2a + b = 6 4a + c = 7,
3w = 6
4w = 7
. .
2a + b = 6 4a + c = 8,
3w = 6
4w = 8
Gauss
77
w = 2. u
v. u v .
.
4.9
2u 3v
= 3
4u 5v + w = 7
2u v 3w = 5
. u, v, w. , .
. Gauss : ,
u .
. ()
() ,
v . w
v u.
4.10 b ; b ; , x, y, z.
x + by z = 0
x 2y z = 0
y + z = 0
4.11
u + v + w = 2
3u + 3v w =
6
u v + w = 1
. Gauss (
).
. v ,
.
78
4.12
. .
. (x, y, z) (X, Y, Z) , ;
. 25 ,
;
4.13 :
2x + y
x + 2y + z
y + 2z + t
z + 2t
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
5.
4.14 Gauss;
. , 1 3.
. 2 3.
. ,
1 2 3.

. .
-, b.
(4.5),
b = 2 .
9
Gauss
79
, ,
-,
x= v .
(4.7)
w
9 ,
,
2
1 1
A = 4 6 0
2
7 2
(4.8)
3 3.
. m n , m n
mn m n ,
[, ]. m = n .
m 6= n .
, , . n-
n 1 . , . :
# "
#
"
# "
6 5
5 1 + 6 4
2
1 1
3
=
.
+
2
7
2
2
1
2
4 6 0
"
3
2
1 1
4 6 0
"
=
6
3 3
12 18 0
#
.
.
i j aij . m n
A
a11 a12 . . . a1j . . . a1n
a21 a22 . . . a2j . . . a2n

.
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
A=
ai1 ai2 . . . aij . . . ain
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
am1 am2 . . . amj . . . amn
A = [aij ]. ,
A = [aij ] B = [bij ] m n A + B = [aij + bij ].
80
(A + B)ij ij A + B,
(A + B)ij = aij + bij ,
(B)ij = bij .
(4.5) A, 4.8,
x, 4.7. ,
.
. m n A n- x m Ax, i
i- A x, Ax = (y1 , y2 , . . . , ym ),
yi = ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn , i = 1, . . . , m.
mn A, n-
x m- Ax.
4.1
,
1 2
3 0
1 1
3 3 3- 3

12
2
2 + 10 + 0
6

3 5 = 6 + 0 + 0 = 6 ,
4
0
2+5+0
7
2 3 3- 2-,
"
1 2 6
3 0 3
"
# "
#
2
2
+
10
+
0
12

=
.
5 =
6+0+0
6
0
Ax
A x:
1 2 6
2
1
2
6
12
3 0 3 5 = 2 3 + 5 0 + 0 3 = 6 .
1 1 4
0
1
1
4
7
Gauss
81
,
P
:
(Ax)i =
n
X
aij xj .
j=1
.
,
, :
2
1
1
h
i
h
i
2 1 0 4 6 0 = 0 8 2 .
2
7 2
.
.
2 ,

i (4.4).
h
0 0 1 ,
2
1 1
h
i
4 6 0 = 2 7 2 .
2
7 2
0 0 1
. A E:
1 0 0
2
1 1
2
1
1

E A = 2 1 0 4 6 0 = 0 8 2
0 0 1
2
7 2
2
7
2
(4.9)
. m n A n p B.
AB m p , ij
i- A j- B,
(AB)ij =
n
X
k=1
aik bkj , i = 1, . . . , m j = 1, . . . , p.
82
A
B.
4.2 2 2 I
2 3 B:
"
#"
# "
#
1 0
2
3 7
2
3 7
IB =
=
.
0 1
4 6 0
4 6 0
4.3 ,
AB BA:
" #
h
i 2
h i
AB = 1 6
= 8 ,
1
" #
"
#
i
2 h
2 12
BA=
.
1 6 =
1
1 6
4.4
B, P
B:
"
#"
# "
0 1
2 3
7
PB=
=
1 0
7 8
2
"
#"
# "
2 3
0 1
3
BP =
=
7 8
1 0
8
P

8
3
2
7
,
.
4.1 . i- AB
B i- A.
. j- AB
A j- B.
. i- AB
h
(AB)i1 . . . (AB)ip
h P
n
k=1 aik bk1 . . .
Pn
k=1 aik bkp
n
X
aik
bk1 . . . bkp
k=1
.
Gauss
83
4.2 ,
. , A, B m n , C, D n p
E p q ,
.
A(CE) = (AC)E ,
.
A(C + D) = AC + AD
(A + B)C = AC + BC .
.
P

. i = 1, . . . , m j = 1, . . . , q, :
(A(CE))ij =
=
=
n
X
k=1
n
X
aik (CE)kj
p
X
aik
k=1
p
n X
X
!
ckt etj
t=1
aik ckt etj
k=1 t=1
,
(A(CE))ij =
p
n
X
X
aik ckt etj
t=1 k=1
p
n
X
X
t=1
p
X
!
aik ckt etj
k=1
(AC)it etj
t=1
= ((AC)E)ij .
.

4.15 :
1
h
i
1 2 7 2 ,
7
3
h
i

1 2 7 5 ,
1
1 h
i
2 3 5 1 .
7
84
4.16
"
2 1 0
1 2 3
0, 5
/2 ,
2/3
1 0 0
1 6 cos(/6) 7
2
2 ,
0 2 0 3
3
1
1 0 3
/3
1 0 0
1
0
0
1/2 0 .
0 2 0 0
1 0 3
1/3 0 1/3
4.17 Ax
Ax = . Ax = 0;

2
3 6
0

Ax = 0
2 2 1 .
1
1 1 1
4.18 3 3 A B
aij = i j
bij =
1
.
j
AB, BA A2 .
4.19 A aij ,

.
. i1
i
. aij .
. .
Gauss
85
4.20 EA, AE,
"
#
1 7
E=
.
0 1
4.21 n n A c1 , c2 , . . . , cn , n n B -
r1 , r2 , . . . , rn . ci ri n n ( 4.3).
AB .
4.22 ,
P
.
4.23
2 3 3 5 .
4.24 ; .
. A ,
AB.
. B ,
AB.
. A ,
AB.
. B ,
AB.
4.25 .
,
.
. 2 2 A C, 2 1 B 1 2
D
"
#
h
i C
h
i
= AC + BD .
A B
D
86
. x ,
.
x x .. x
x x ... x
...
.
x x .. x
.
x x .. x
.
x x .. x
.
..
.
x x .. x
4.26 .
, CA1
, S.
"
# "
# "
#
I
0
A B
A B
=
.
CA1 I
C D
0 S
4.27 A m n B n r,
AB mnr .
( ). C
r p,
(AB)C A(BC).
4.28 A, B, C, D : A : 5 14,
B : 14 87, C : 87 3 D : 3 42.
ABCD
. (A(BC))D
. A(B(CD))

Ax = b A n n .
A m n .
(4.9), (4.4) ,
.
. 1 0
, . 1
Gauss
87
6= 0 ij i 6= j, 0 ,
, Eij ().
A Eij (), j i A.
A Eij (),
i j A.

4.4, b
.
2
1 1
5
4 6 0 2 .
2
7 2
9
. 2

2
1 1
5
1 0 0
2
1
1
5
0 8 2 12 = 2 1 0 4 6 0 2
2
7 2
9
0 0 1
2
7
2
9
. 1

2
1 1
5
1 0 0
1
0 0
2
1
1
5
0
1 0 2 1 0 4 6 0 2
0 8 2 12 =
0 0 1
2
7 2
9
(1) 0 1
0
8
3
14
. 1
2
1
1
5
0 8 2 12
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
0 (1) 1
1 0
2 1
0 0
1 0 0
2
1 1
5
1 0 0
0 1 0 2 1 0 4 6 0 2
2
7 2
9
1 0 1
0 0 1

0
1
0 , F =
0
1
(1)
A
0
1
0
, E =
0
1
0
0
0 G = 0
1
0
1
0 (1) 1
88
Gauss.
b. Gauss
.
.
.
.
[A .. b] E[A .. b] F E[A .. b] GF E[A .. b] .
, A b
GF E.
AX = b
GF EAx = GF Eb .
. A = [aij ]
0, aij = 0 i > j.
A = [aij ]
0, aij = 0 i < j.
U = GF EA c = GF Eb, U ,

Ux = c
,
.
,
U A: , .
G
(1)
, G1 ,
1 0 0
G1 = 0 1 0 .
0 1 1
1 0 0
F 1 = 0 1 0 (1)
1 0 1
1 0 0
, E 1 = 2 1 0 2
0 0 1
,
E 1 F 1 G1 U = A .
Gauss
89
E 1 F 1 G1 L. A
A = LU .
n n
,
.
.
4.29 L = E 1 F 1 G1 .
L 1
. . L
E 1 F 1 G1 .
G1 E32 (1), 32 =
1 3 2. F 1 E31 (1),
31 = 1 3 1. E32 (1)
E31 (1) , 31 E32
. [1 0 0],
31 3 1 :
1
0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 .
0 1 0 0 1 0 = 0
31 32 1
0 32 1
31 0 1
, E 1 , 21
2 1, .

L = E 1 F 1 G1 = E21 (21 )E31 (31 )E32 (32 )
1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
= 21 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
31 0 1
0 32 1
1
0 0
= 21 1 0
31 32 1
. n n A , n. ( ,
, ).
90

0.
4.3 n n Ax = b
,
A A = LU ,
L , 1 , ij
.
U , .
A = LU .
. Ax = b
LU x = b.
c = U x,

Lc = b, U x = c.
c
Lc = b x U x = c.
,
. 4.4 Lc = b
5
c1
1
0 0
1 0 c2 = 2
2
c3
9
1 1 1
c1
=
5
2c1 + c2
= 2
c1 c2 + c3 =
9
, , c1 = 5, c2 = 12, c3 = 2.
U x = c
2
1
1
x
5
0 8 2 y = 12
z
2
0
0
1
.

:
Gauss
91
4.4 U n n ,
,
Ux = b
.
.
A = LU ,
: U D
, U 0 , 1 ,
A = LDU 0 .
U 0
2
1
1
0 8 2
0
0
1
1
2
0 0
= 0 8 0 0
0
0
0 1
1/2 1/2
1 1/4 .
0
1
( ) , LDU 0 ,
4.33.
4.30
( ).
3 3,
.
4.31
"
#
3 1 1
1
2 1
, 1 3 1 , 1
8 7
1 1 3
1
L U
1 1
4 4
4 8
4.32

1 0 0
2 4 4
u
2

1 1 0 0 1 2 v = 0
1 0 1
0 0 1
w
2
, Lc = b U x = c.
92
4.33 A = LDU 0 .
D
U 0 L, L
1
(: LDU 0 = L
U 0 , U 0 1
, D, D
D=D
U 0 = U 0 .)
. L = L,
4.34 F GH HGF ( ):
1
1
1
2 1
0 1
0 1
F =
G=
H=
.
0 0 1
0 2 1
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 2 1
4.35 A LU ,
U x = c , :

2
u
2 3 3

Ax = 0 5 7 v = 2 .
5
w
6 9 8
4.36 E 2 , E 8 E 1
"
#
1 0
E=
6 1
4.37
d1 a b
U = 0 d2 c
0 0 d3
V V U = I. d1 d2 d3 6= 0
V .

(4.6) ,
.
Gauss
93
;
4.5
"
# "
2 3
7 8
=
7 8
2 3

1 0 0
1 5 4

P23 A = 0 0 1 0 2 3 =
0 1 0
7 1 8
0 1
1 0
#"
1 5 4
7 1 8 ,
0 2 3
P23 A
A P23 .
. Pij i
j A A Pij
. Pij 1 ij ji,
ii jj, 0 .
A Pij ,
i j A.
. A ,
A.
A ,
A.
n n A Gauss
A, ,
Pi1 j1 , Pi2 j2 , . . . , Pik jk .
,
P = Pik jk . . . Pi1 j1 , P A. 5.1,
4.39. P A
,
P A = LU .
, .
. n n A
( )
94
. , A
,
U
0.
4.5 n n
Ax = b .

. A ,
.
. A , P
P A
.
() ,
.
() P A
P A = LDU 0
L 1 , D
, U 0 1 . .
4.38 ,
:
u + 4v + 2w = 2
2u 8v + 3w = 32
v + w =
1
v + w = 0
u + v
= 0
u + v + w = 1
.
4.39 E 3 3 ,
P .
. E P , E 0 P E 0 =
EP .
Gauss
95
. E 0 .
4.40 6 3 3,
. ,
.
4.41 , , LU .

1 0 0
2 4 4
u
2

LU x = 1 1 0 0 1 2 v = 0 .
1 0 1
0 0 1
w
2
4.42 P A = LDU 0
1 2 1
0 1 1
1 0 1 , 2 4 2 .
1 1 1
2 3 4
4.43 E21 E32

A E32 E21 A = U ;
1
1
1 1
E32
E21
A LU = E21
E32 U :
1 1 1
A = 2 4 5 .
0 4 0
4.44 L U
a a a a
a b b b
A=
.
a b c c
a b c d
a, b, c, d A =
LU .
4.45 A 2, 7 6, ,
2 2 B ;
.
96
4.46 P P A ;
P1 P2 P1 AP2 ;
P2 . . . . . . . . . A.
0 0 6
A = 1 2 3 .
0 4 5
4.47 P1 P2 , P1 P2 :
I .
P1 P2 6= P2 P1 P3 P4 = P4 P3 .

.
. A
B
BA = I
AB = I .
B A.
. , ( 6, 6.5), .
4.6 A , B
AB = I C CA = I.
4.7 A , .
. B C A, AB = I = CA.
B = IB = (CA)B = C(AB) = CI = C .

1
A , A .
4.6 1 1 A = [a]
a 6= 0, A1 = [1/a].
Gauss
97
4.8 A , Ax = b x = A1 b.
A , Ax = b, b.
.
Gauss ,
.
4.9 A B
,
(AB)1 = B 1 A1 .
. B 1 A1
.
(AB)(B 1 A1 ) = A(BB 1 )A1 = (AI)A1 = AA1 = I ,
(B 1 A1 )(AB) = B 1 (A1 A)B = B 1 IB = B 1 B = I .

4.7 A, F, G GF EA = U , F 1 G1 U A1 =
F 1 G1 (GF EA)A1 = E.
4.10 B C , A BAC .
. , A1 , (BAC)1 = C 1 A1 B 1 . , (BAC)1 , C(BAC)1 B
A:
A(C(BAC)1 B) = (B 1 B)A(C(BAC)1 B) = B 1 (BAC)(BAC)1 B) = I .

4.11 .
98
. B, A j- ,
, BA j-. BA 6= I.

"
#
a b
4.48 2 2 A =

c d
"
#
d
b
1
.
ad bc 6= 0, A1 = adbc
c
a
4.49 ,
"
#
"
#
3 8
3 6
,
.
1 3
2 4
4.50
.
;
4.51 A2 B, A
AB. ( A A2 ).
4.52 2 2 , I I,
, A2 = I.
Gauss - Jordan
A AA1 = I
: xj j A1 , ej j I,
Axj = ej ,
j = 1, . . . , n.
, A1 n n
n . A
n . Gauss , .

A I.
[A I] = [A e1 e2 e3 ]
Gauss
2
1 1
= 4 6 0
2
7 2
2
1
1
0 8 2
0
8
3
2
1
1
0 8 2
0
0
1

= U L1
99
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
2 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 0
2 1 0
1 1 1
, ,
. ,
:
2
1 0
2 1 1

U L1 0 8 0 4
3
2 .
0
0 1 1
1
1
1/8 :
85 86
2
0 0 12
8
0 8 0 4
3
2 .
0
0 1 1
1
1
.
, I :
12
5
6
1 0 0 16
16
16
1
0 1 0
38 14 = [I B] .
2
0 0 1 1
1
1
B Axj = ej , AB = I.
,
F1 , . . . , Fk .
Fk . . . F1 A = I,
Fk . . . F1 I = B. A1 = Fk . . . F1 = B.
GaussJordan, . .
, .
100
.
4.12 U , .
. U
, ukk = 0. k 1
k U u(k1) k . ,
k 2, k 3, . . . , 1
u(k2) k , u(k3) k , . . . , u1 k ,
W k .
j
k,
Ejk (). M ,
W = UM .
. 4.9, M . 4.10, U
W . W
4.11 .

A n n ,
Gauss U ,
,
A = P 1 LU .
P L U , 4.10
A .

4.13 .
4.53 GaussJordan ,
1 0 0
2 0 4
1
2 1
0
1 2 0 , 1 3 1 , 3 1
2 3 3
0 1 2
2 3
1
Gauss
101
4.54
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
A = 41 1
.
3 3 1 0
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
4.55
A B, .
a b c
a b
A= d e 0 B= c d
f 0 0
0 0
0 .
e
4.56 Gauss-Jordan
A1 :
"
#
h
i
0 2 1 0
A I =
2 2 0 1
4.57 x
.
"
2x 7
1 2
#1
"
=
2 7
1
4
#
.
.
"
2
2x x
5 3
#1
"
=
3 2
5
4
#
.
4.58 GaussJordan

. ,
.
4.59 ,
, .
4.60 A B
102
. A + B , A B .
. A + B , A B .
. A, B, A + B .
A1 (A + B)B 1 = B 1 +
A1 , C = B 1 + A1 ,
C 1 .
4.61 A ,
A B. B ;
B 1 A1 ;
4.62 A B , I BA
I AB . B(I
AB) = (I BA)B.

. A m n , (transpose)
A, AT n m
A. ij AT ji
A:
(AT )ij = (A)ji .
4.8
"
2 1
8 7
#T
"
=
2 8
1 7
#
,
1 2 1
1 3 1
3 4 6 = 2 4 4 .
1 4 8
1 6 8
.
4.14 A, B m n , C n p ,
. (A + B)T = AT + B T .
Gauss
103
. (AC)T = C T AT .
. A , (A1 )T = (AT )1 .
. A AT = A,
(A)ij = (A)ji i, j. A
AT = A, (A)ij = (A)ji i, j.
4.15 A , A = LDU 0 , L
1 , D U 0 1
,
LT = U 0 .
. LDU 0 = A = AT = (LDU 0 )T = (U 0 )T DT LT . (U 0 )T
, DT LT ,
A = LDU 0 , LT = U 0 , (U 0 )T = L.

4.63
4.64
:
1 2
6
4 5
1 1 3
2 0 .
1
3
0 4
4 5 6
1 2 3
0 1 2
3
4
7
2
7
"
4.65 A (4AT )1 =
9
7
4
9
#
2
3
.
4 4
4.66 A B ,
(AT )1 = (A1 )T
(AT B T )1 = (A1 B 1 )T .
104
4.67 A 4 1, B 2 3, C
2 4 D 1 3. ,
;
. ADB T
. C T B 5AD
. 4CA (CA)2
. (ADB T C)2 I4
4.68 (AB)T = B T AT .
(AB)T , AB,
B T AT .
4.69
0 0 1
0 0 1
P1 = 0 1 0 P2 = 1 0 0 .
1 0 0
0 1 0
, P , P 1 = P T : 1
P P T = I
4.70 ;
.
. 4 4 .
. 1 .
. A , A1 .
. AT , A .
4.71 A2 = 0,
AT A = 0 A = 0.
4.72 A = LDLT , D L .
"
#
"
#
2 1 0
1 3
1 b
A1 =
A2 =
A3 = 1 2 1 .
3 2
b c
0 1 2
Gauss
105
4.73 R m n , A
m m .
. RT AR; .
. RT R .
Rn
. R2 , = {(x, y) | 3x +
2y = 6}. ,
. ,
:
(2, 0) , (0, 3)
(2, 0) + (0, 3) 6 , 2(2, 0) 6 .
, = {(x, y) | 3x+2y = 0}, (x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 )

R,
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
(x1 , y1 ) = (x1 , y1 ) .
R3 , = {(u, v, w) | 2u + v + w = 0}
a, b a+b b , = {(u, v, w) | 2u+v+w = 5}
.
. V Rn ( ) Rn
. V , V 6= .
. V : a, b V a + b V .
. V : a V R,
a V .
106
107
2 3 , V
V .
5.1 V Rn ,
0 = (0, . . . , 0) Rn V . , V ,
a V 0 = a + (1)a V .
{(0, . . . , 0) Rn } Rn .
R3 , : R3 ,
0 R3 , 0 R3 , {0 R3 }.
Rm Rn
m n , m n .
5.2 Ax = b,
1 0 " #
b1
= b2 .
5 4
v
2 4
b3
; , (u0 , v0 ),
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) A:

0
1
b1

b2 = u0 5 + v0 4 .
4
2
b3
,
A, . b A. A V = {1 (1, 5, 2) + 2 (0, 4, 4) | 1 , 2 R}.
V , (1, 5, 2) V ,
:

1
0
1
0
1
0

1 5 + 2 4 +1 5 + 2 4 = (1 +1 ) 5 +(2 +2 ) 4
2
4
2
4
2
4

1
0
1
0

1 5 + 2 4 = 1 5 + 2 4 .
2
4
2
4
108
. m n A Rm ,
A, R(A).
R(A) .
.
b R(A) Ax = b . x
A b.
,
Rm :
A = 0. , m m
Rm : Rm
e1 , e2 , . . . , em I:
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ) = b1 e1 + b2 e2 + + bm em .
m m A. A
Rm : Ax = b
b Rm .
5.3 Ax = 0. x = 0
. x1 x2 ,
A(x1 + x2 ) = Ax1 + Ax2 = 0
A(x1 ) = Ax1 = 0 .
Ax = 0
Rn .
. A m n , Ax = 0
Rn ,
A, N (A).

0
1 0 " #

u
= 0 .
5 4
v
2 4
0
(u,
v) = (0, 0). N (A) = {0 R2 }.
1 0 1
B = 5 4 9 , .
2 4 6
109
R,

1
0
1

5 + 4 9 = 0.
2
4
6
(1, 1, 1) Bx = 0, N (B) {(1, 1, 1) | R}.
.
5.1 R2
.
. 3x + y = 0
. 3(x + 2) 5y = 6
. 3(x + 2) = 5y
. x2 + y 2 = 0
5.2 b A,
, . . . . . . . . . .
.
Ax = b
b;
5.3 AB A.
AB ( )
A. A AB
.
5.4 ;
.
. b R(A) .
. R(A) , A .
. 2A A.
. A I A.
5.5 (b1 , b2 , b3 ) ;
1 1 1
x1
b1
1 1 1
x1
b1
0 1 1 x 2 = b2 ,
0 1 1 x 2 = b2 .
0 0 1
x3
b3
0 0 0
x3
b3
110
5.6 3 3
(1, 1, 0) (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1).
3 3 .
5.7 A 9 12 Ax = b
b, R(A) = . . . .
"
#
2 0
5.8
.
1 0
5.9 A n n , N (A) = {0
Rn }.
m n
m n m 6= n,
, . ,
, 3 4 :
1
3 3 2
(5.1)
A= 2
6 9 5 .
1 3 3 0
, . ,
:
1
3 3 2
1 3 3 2
6 9 5 0 0 3 1
2
1 3 3 0
0 0 6 2
,
.
, , .
:
1 3 3 2
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 1 0 0 3 1 .
0 0 6 2
0 0 0 0
111
.

. ,
.
( )
( ).
( ) .
.
.
,
m m . ,

1 0 0
E 1 = 2 1 0
1 0 1

1 0 0
F 1 = 0 1 0 .
0 2 1
A = E 1 F 1 U = LU ,
1 0 0
L= 2 1 0 .
1 2 1
,

. ,
, .
5.1 m n A
. m m P ,
. m m L, 1 ,
. m n U
112

P A = LU .

.
.
r ji .
. m n U = [aij ]
r ( ), 0 r m,
i = 1, . . . , r ji n (
i)
. aiji 6= 0, i ji .
. j1 1, i = 1, . . . , r 1, ji+1 > ji . (
).
. i = 1, . . . , r, aik = 0 k < ji . (
).
. i > r, aik = 0 k. ( r ).
0 a1j1
0 a2j2
..
..
..
.
.
.
0
0
..
..
..
.
.
.
0

..
.
arjr

..
.

..
.
0
..
.
, .
.
U = [aij ] m n , r m
j = 1, . . . , n ij (
j) ij r,
. 0 i1 1 j = 1, . . . , n 1, ij ij+1 ij + 1.
113
. aij = 0 i > ij , ij > ij1 aij j 6= 0.

ij 1 j.
. , ij . i0 = 0, U0 = A k
n > k 0 Uk ( A
k ) i0 , . . . , ik
. k + 1 Uk
Uk+1 ik+1 .
ai(k+1) = 0 i m i > ik ,
k + 1 Uk+1 . ik+1 = ik Uk+1 = Uk .
, i i > ik ai(k+1) 6= 0.
i, ik + 1 i Uk ,
Uk P(ik +1)i .

k+1. ,
aij . ` m ` > ik + 1,
a
ik + 1
a(i `(k+1)
k +1)(k+1)
`. k + 1
a(ik +1)(k+1) . ik+1 = ik + 1
Uk+1 .
, U = Un ,
.
P1 , . . . , Pr r
, L1 , . . . , Lr
,
U = Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 A .
LU = P A, L
1 P ,
Li Pi .
, ,
Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 6= Lr Lr1 L1 Pr Pr1 . . . P1 .
K, 1 ,
Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 = K Pr P1 .
114
Kr = Lr , i = 1, . . . , r 1 Ki
(Pr Pr1 Pi+1 )Li = Ki (Pr Pr1 Pi+1 ) .

(5.2)
, , 5.2.
Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 = Kr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1
= Kr Kr1 Pr Pr1 L1 P1
= ...
= Kr Kr1 K3 K2 Pr Pr1 P3 P2 L1 P1
= Kr Kr1 K2 K1 Pr Pr1 P2 P1 .
K = Kr K1 1
. Li i
,
.
Ii ..
0
..
Li =
..
B . Imi
Pr Pi+1 R
.
Ii ..
..
Pr Pi+1 =
.
.
0 ..
(Pr Pi+1 )1 = Pi+1
i + 1, . . . , m,
..
. 0
..
Pr =
.
.
0 .. R1
Ii
Ki = (Pr Pi+1 )Li (Pr Pi+1 )1

,
.
.
.
Ii .. 0
Ii ..
0
Ii .. 0
..
... ...
Ki =
..
..
..
1
0 . R
B . Imi
0 . R
.
Ii ..
0
..
= .
,
.
RB .. Imi
115
, 1 .
K = Kr K1 1 .

5.10 A B ,
..
.
A
0
C =

..
1
0 . B
.
5.11
1 0 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
P1 = 0 0 1 , P 2 = 0 1 0 , L = 0 1 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 2 1
P1 LP11 P2 LP21 .
; .
5.12 U , P L
P A = LU , :
.
"
A=
0 1 0 3
0 2 0 6
.
"
1 2 2
2 4 5
"
1 2 2
2 4 4
A=
.
A=
1 2 0 1
A= 0 1 1 0
1 2 0 1
116
A=
0
1
0
3
0
2
0
6

m n ,
: .
Ax = 0 .
A = (P 1 L)U , P 1 L , Ax = 0
U x = (P 1 L)1 0,
Ux = 0 .
, x = 0.
.
5.1,
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 1
0 0 0 0
u
v
w
y

= 0 .
u w
. :
3w + y = 0, w = 31 y.
w u + 3v y + 2y = 0,
u = 3v y.
v y,
,
u w.
(3v y, v, 13 y, y) .
117
, ,
, ,
, ,
. v
y,
u
3
1
v
1
0
x=
= v
+y 1 .
w
0
3
y
(3, 1, 0, 0)
(1, 0, 31 , 1) A.
, mn ,
,
.
,
.

U . 1 ,
0 ,
.
U x = 0,
Ax = 0.
.
x1 , . . . , xn k , xi1 , . . . , xik .
ai1 , . . . , aik .
x2 = v x4 = y,

a2 = (3, 1, 0, 0) ,
a4 = (1, 0, 31 , 1) .
, c = (c1 , . . . , cn )
N (A). U c = Ac = 0. c ai1 , . . . , aik , ci1 , . . . , cik c,
c = c i 1 ai 1 + c i 2 ai 2 + + c i k ai k .
a = c (ci1 ai1 + + cik aik )
U x = 0, U c = 0 U aij = 0. ,
118
a 0. U
a : 0.
c (ci1 ai1 + + cik aik ) = 0 .
5.13 LU
,
1 2 0 1
A= 0 1 1 0 .
1 2 0 1
Ax = 0.
.
5.14 A 5.12,
Ax = 0.

:
Ax = b ,
b 6= 0 .
b A.
b 6 R(A), , .
b R(A), .
5.1.
1
3 3 2
b
1
Ax = b
=
2
6
9
5
b
2
w
1 3 3 0
b3
y

Ux = c
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 1
0 0 0 0
u
v
w
y
b
1
b2 2b1
=
.
b3 2b2 + 5b1
119
b3 2b2 + 5b1 6= 0
. ,
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) 5b1 2b2 + b3 = 0.
b = (1, 5, 5).
.
u

1 3 3 2
1
v
= 3 .
0 0 3 1
w
0 0 0 0
0
y
. 0x = 0.
v y .

3w + y = 3
u + 3v + 3w + 2y = 1
w =
1 y3
u = 2 y 3v .
,
, Ax = 0. , x1
x2 Ax = b, A(x1 x2 ) = 0.
, 0. , x = (2, 0, 1, 0),

3
1
u
2
0
1
v 0
x=
+v
+y 1 .
=
3
0
w 1
y
5.2 Ax = b b
A. x1 , x
x = x1 + x0 ,
x0 Ax = 0.
b 6= 0 : A .
A r
. r , r
120
n r .
U .
r = n, ,
A {0 Rn }, , .
r = m, Rm
A, Ax = b b.
r = m = n, :
.
5.15 A 5.12, ,
bi b,
Ax = b. , b
, .
5.16 A 2 3 C 3 2 , CA
( CA).
AC = I.
5.17
1 3 3 2
U = 0 0 3 1 .
0 0 0 0
,
,
, 1
.
1 3 0 1
R = 0 0 1 1/3
0 0 0 0
,
A.
R
.
"
1 2
3 4
121
.
"
1 2
2 4
1 2 3 5
2 4 8 12
3 6 7 13
5.18 m n r
m r r n :
A = ( ) ( R).
.
5.19 [A .. b]
U b
Ax = b.
b1
2 4 6 4
A = 2 5 7 6 b = b2 .
b3
2 3 5 2
Ax = 0, Ax = b
b = (4, 3, 5).
5.20 Ax = b
.
A [A .. b].
5.21 (b1 , b2 , b3 ) A;
A 0;
1 2 1
1 1 1
A = 2 6 3 , A = 1 2 4
0 2 5
2 4 8
5.22 b1 ,
.
1 2
b
1
"
#
2 4 x
b
2
1
=
,
2 5 x2
b3
3 9
b4
b2 , b3 , b4 ;
1
2
2
3
2 3
4 6
5 7
9 12
x1

x2 =
x3
b1
b2
b3
b4
122
5.23 b1 , b2 , b3 ; .
[A .. b],
.
x + 2y 2z = b1
2x + 5y 4z = b2
4x + 9y 8z = b3
5.24 Ax = b x1 x2 ,
Ax = 0. Ax = b.
5.25 r, m
n, m n A r, Ax = b
:
. b .
. b .
. b, b.
. b.
5.26 q, ,
A B ) 1, ) 2, ) 3.
"
#
6
4
2
3
2
3
.
A = 3 2 1 , B =
q 2 q
9
6
q
5.27 3 4 A
(2, 3, 1, 0).
. A, Ax = 0;
. R A, ( 5.17).
5.28 ;
.
123
. .
. .
. m n n .
. m n m .
5.29 " #" A

" #
#
1
1
0
Ax =
x =
+c
.
0
0
1
5.30 2 2
.
5.31
(2, 2, 1, 0) (3, 1, 0, 1).
5.32 (1, 1, 1)
(1, 1, 1, 1).
5.33 (1, 1, 0)
(0, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1) (0, 0, 1)

Ax = 0, 5.1,
1, 0,
. , 0
1, .
, 1
,
.
. .
,
3x + 5y + 2z = 0
2x + y z = 0
x + 4y + 3z = 0
124
,
U = {(t, t, t) | t R}
, U .
, .
, .
,
,
, .
.
.
.
,
. ,
.
, .
u1 , . . . , uk Rn , k 2,
.

1 1 2
4 1
0
1
3 3

, (1, 3, 3) = (1, 1, 2) + (0, 4, 1).
(u, v, w)
u
v + 2w = 0
4v + w = 0 ,
u + 3v + 3w = 0
.
k Rn 0,
: v1 = 0 v1 = 0v2 + + 0vk .
,
.
. v1 , . . . , vn Rm
c1 , . . . , cn ,
125
,
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ck vk = 0 .
A v1 , . . . , vn
Ax = 0 x = (c1 , . . . , cn ) 0 Rn .
v1 , . . . , vk Rn
, v1 , . . . , vk
, , 0.
Ax = 0
x = 0 Rn .
n = 1, {u}
u = 0, u 6= 0.
5.4
. c1 v1 + c2 v2 = 0, c v1 = cv2
v2 = cv1 , c1 = c2 = 0.
5.5 v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 6, 3), v3 = (3, 9, 3)
, , v2 = 3v1 .
: 3v1 + v2 +
0v3 = 0.
5.6 v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 4, 3), v3 = (1, 4, 1)
, 4v1 v2 v3 = 0.
, v1 , . . . , vn Rm
, m n v1 , . . . , vn .
c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) Ac = 0,
A . Ax = 0 ,
x = 0 Rn , A .
,
0.
5.3 ,
. .
. m n , r
, j1 , j2 , . . . , jr . U r n
, c = (c1 , . . . , cr )
cT U = 0. c = 0.
126
j1 . a1j1 6= 0, 0.
c1 a1j1 = 0 c1 = 0.
c1 = c2 = . . . = ck = 0, k < r,
ck+1 = 0.
jk+1 . a(k+1)jk+1 6= 0, p > k + 1, apjk+1 =
0. ck+1 a(k+1)jk+1 = 0 ck+1 = 0.
, U x = 0
0. x = 0.

5.4 n > m n Rm
.
5.34 a = 0 d
:
U = 0
0
= 0 f = 0, U
b c
d e
0 f
5.35 a, d, f 5.34 0,
U x = 0 x = 0. U
.
5.36 :
) (0, 1), (1, 1)
) (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0)
) (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)
5.37 u1 , u2 , u3 ,
u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 :

1
1
1
2

u1 = 0 , u2 = 1 , u3 = 1 , u4 = 3 .
0
0
1
4
5.38 w1 , w2 , w3 ,
u1 = w2 w3 , u2 = w1 w3 u3 = w1 w2 .
u1 , u2 , u3 0.
127
5.39 w1 , w2 , w3 ,
v1 = w2 + w3 , v2 = w1 + w3 v3 = w1 + w2 .
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 = 0 wi ,
ci .
5.40
, .

A U ;

Rm .
.
. V Rn . w1 , . . . , wk
Rn V Rn
. wj V j = 1, . . . , k
. V w1 , . . . , wk ,
v V c1 , . . . , ck v = c1 w1 +
+ ck w k .
, S Rn V
Rn S V V
S.
{0 Rn }.
5.7 (1, 0), (1, 1) (1, 0) R2 .
R2 ;
R2 ;
5.8 , , .
(1, 2)
.
5.9 e1 , e2 , . . . , en Rn (
) Rn . b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )
128

b1 e1 + + bn en .

w1 , . . . , wk
: ,
.
5.5 w1 , . . . , wk Rn .
Rn w1 , . . . , wk
Rn .
. w1 , . . . , wk Rn . w1 , . . . , wk Rn
w1 , . . . , wk .
Rm A.
5.41 R2 :
) (0, 1), (1, 1)
) (1, 1), (1, 1)
) (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0)
5.42 ) , Ax = 0.
(1, 1, 0, 0) ,
(1, 0, 1, 0) ,
(0, 0, 1, 1) ,
(0, 1, 0, 1) .
) (0, 0, 0, 1) .
5.43 R3
. (1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1).
. (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) (0, 0, 0).
. 3 5 2 .
. .
129

. V Rn Rn
. V
. .
5.6 w1 , . . . , wk V , V w1 , . . . , wk .
. w1 , . . . , wk V ,
b = a1 w1 + + ak wk = c1 w1 + + ck wk .
(a1 c1 )w1 + + (ak ck )wk = 0, w1 , . . . , wk
, 0
0.

5.10 Rn e1 , . . . , en ,
.
. n n
Rn .
5.11
, .
.
.
5.12
1 3 3
U = 0 0 3
0 0 0
1
0
(1, 0, 0) (3, 3, 0).

:
#
1 3 "
c
1
=0
0 3
c2
0 0
130
c1 + 3c2 = 0 3c2 = 0, c2 = 0, c1 = 0.
,

.
U , v1 , . . . , v4 U ,
v2 v4 v1 v3 :
v2 = 3v1
1
v4 = v3 + v1 .
3
5.44 u + w u w u
w. u w u + w u w.
. . . . . . . . . .
;
Rn {0},
. .
5.7 U Rn k ,
U .
. v1 , . . . , vk w1 , . . . , wm U .
v1 , . . . , vk , wj
vi :
wj = a1j v1 + + akj vk .
(5.3)
V W , v1 , . . . , vk w1 , . . . , wm .
A = (aij ) 5.3,
W = V A.
, V A
V a11 , . . . , ak1
a11 v1 + + ak1 vk = w1 .
A k m. k < m, c 6= 0
Ac = 0.
131

W c = V Ac = V 0 = 0,
W . k < m
w1 , . . . , wm .
k > m, k = m.

. V Rn
V , dim V .
5.13 Rn n: n .
{0 Rn } 0: 0 .
5.14 V = {(x, y, z) R3 | y = 3x}
R3

h
i x

3 1 0 y = 0 .
z
V , N (A)
[ 3 1 0 ].
, , 3.
1, .
( ),
V 2. , V
.
V ,
V . v V 3 ,
R3 , v R3 . v = (1, 3, 2)
V 2, R3 3. v
W = {(t, 3t, 2t) : t R}, 1.
5.45 x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 . 24
. 24
V R4 . x V
) 0, ) 1, ) 3, ) 4.
5.46 x2y +3z = 0 R3 .
(x, y)-.
132
.
5.47 S R6 , 5.
;
. S R6 ,
.
. R6 S,
.
5.48 A n Rm . A
.
Rm . Rm
5.49
R4 .
. .
. 0.
. (1, 1, 0, 0) (1, 0, 1, 1)
5.50 V k.
. k V ,
V.
. k V , V .
5.51 V W R5 ,
V W . (
, 6 ).
.
, .
133
, ,
.
.
, , . ,
, A,
Ax = 0.
,
.
.

.
A.
, A, mn
A :
A Rm
A,
R(A) Rm
A Rn
Ax = 0,
N (A) Rn
A Rn
A.
AT ,
R(AT ) Rn
A Rm y T A = 0.
AT , y T A = (AT y)T ,
N (AT ) Rm .
: ,
, A
U .
134
5.1 A
U:
1
3 3 2
A= 2
6 9 5
1 3 3 0
1 3 3 2
U = 0 0 3 1
0 0 0 0
A, R(AT )
U
U : 5.3 ,
. A
U .
5.8
R(AT ) = R(U T ) .
. U A. ( , 2 U 2 A
1 A.)
U A.
U A:
R(U T ) R(AT ) .
A
U . ( , 2
A 2 U 1 U .)
U A:
R(AT ) R(U T ) .

R(AT ) = R(U T ) .

R(AT )
U . r .
:
dim R(AT ) = r .
135

A. Gauss, r
A .
.
5.9 m n A Rn ,
,
R(AT ) Rn
dim R(AT ) = r
R(AT ) U .
A, N (A).
A U (
Gauss Ax = 0). xi1 , . . . , xik
vi1 , . . . , vik N (A).
vij 1 xij , 0
. vij .
vi1 , . . . , vik
N (A).
, k = n r.
5.10 m n A Rn ,
,
N (A) Rn
dim N (A) = n r .
A, R(A).
, R(A) R(U )
. R(A) R(U ).
5.52 R(A) 5.1
R(U ).
A
U .
136
5.11 A
U .
. A0
A, U 0 U ,
A0 = P 1 L U 0
, P 1 L , x
A0 x = 0 U 0 x = 0.
U 0 , U 0 x = 0
x = 0, A0 x = 0 x = 0.
A0 .
: A0
, U 0 .

r R(U ).
r j1 , . . . , jr A .
R(A) r,
A , j1 , . . . , jr .
r + 1 U ,
, R(U ) r. j1 , . . . , jr
R(A) .
5.12 m n A Rm ,
r ,
R(A) Rm
dim R(A) = r .
R(A) U .
5.9 5.12 .
5.13 m n A,
A ,
A.
137
A, N (AT ).
A AT .
,
. AT ,
m ( AT , A).
AT r, 5.13.
AT m r,
dim N (AT ) = m r .
y y T A = 0,
P A = LU .
L ,
L1 P A = U .
i U i L1 P A. mr
U . m r
L1 P A. L1 P
, . m r
L1 P N (AT ),
m r, .
5.14 m n A
Rm , m r,
N (AT ) Rm
dim N (AT ) = m r
N (AT ) m r L1 P
Gauss.
5.53 R3

0 1 0
A= 0 0 1
0 0 0
138
5.54
U =
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
5.55 .
.
1 2 0 1
1 2 0 1
A = 0 1 1 0 U = 0 1 1 0 .
1 2 0 1
0 0 0 0
.
"
A=
0 1 4 0
0 2 8 0
"
U =
0 1 4 0
0 0 0 0
#
.
5.56 AB , AB = 0,
B A.
A B
5.57 A V ,
B V : V

1
1
1

1 , 2 , 5 .
0
0
0
5.58 A (1, 1, 1)
A;
5.59 Ax = 0 ,
w AT y = w . A
w.
139
5.60
A:
1 0 0
1
A= 6 1 0 0
9 8 1
0
A,
2 3 4
1 2 3 .
0 1 8
5.61 A,
; y = (1, 2, 3, 4)
A, .

x A
Ax. x Rn m n, Rm .
A LA Rn
Rm .
LA : Rn Rm : x 7 Ax .
6.1
"
A=
c 0
0 c
#
.
x R2 , Ax = cx.
c. c > 1, , 0 < c < 1,
. c < 0, .
6.2
"
#
0 1
A=
.
1
0
x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (v, u).
0, .
6.3
"
A=
0 1
1 0
140
#
.
141
x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (v, u).

u = v.
6.4
"
A=
1 0
0 0
#
.
x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (u, 0).

u-.
;
.
. 0 0: LA (0) = 0, A0 = 0.
. : LA (cx) = c LA (x), A(cx) = c(Ax).
.
: LA (x + y) = LA (x) + LA (y), A(x + y) = Ax + Ay.
.
. f : Rn Rm
x, y Rn c R,
. f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
. f (cx) = c f (x).
, V W Rn Rm , f : V W
v V .
m n A, LA .
, , f : Rn Rm
. 1 , . . . , n A,
u1
.
A .. = u1 1 + + un n .
un
142
6.1 f : Rn Rm A
f (e1 ), f (e2 ), . . . , f (en ), e1 , e2 , . . . , en
Rn . f = LA .
. u = (u1 , . . . , un ). u = u1 e1 + u2 e2 + + un en .
,
f (u) = f (u1 e1 + + un en )
= u1 f (e1 ) + + un f (en )
u1
.
= A .. .
un

6.1 .
f : V W v1 , v2 , . . . , vk V , : v V
, v = c1 v1 + + ck vk , f
f (v),
f (v) = c1 f (v1 ) + + ck f (vk ) .
6.5 f : R2 R3 , f (1, 2) =
(1, 1, 2) f (0, 1) = (0, 1, 1), 3 2
f .

" #
" #
0
1
0
1

A
= 1 ,
A
= 1
1
2
1
0

"
A
1 0
2 1
1 0
= 1 1 .
0 1
(1, 2)
" (0, 1)# (
1 0
R2 )
.
2 1
A1 ,
#1
1 0 "
1
0
A= 1 1
.
2 1
0 1
143
6.6 :
. g(x) = 2x + 1. ,
: g(u+v) = 2u+2v+1 6= (2u+1)+(2v+1) =
g(u) + g(v).
. (u1 , u2 ) 7 (2u2 + 1, 0).
. (x, y) 7 (xy, x, y).

.
6.2 A, B , m n n p ,
C = AB,
LA LB = LC .
. , LC (v) = Cv = (AB)v = A(Bv) = LA (LB (v)) = LA LB (v).

6.1 (v1 , . . . , vn ) ,

"
#
1 1
1 2
A=
B= 0
2
0 0
1
3
"
C=
3 0 1
4 2
0
1 0 2
1
D = 1 0 1 1
1 2 2
2
6.2 A
f (x, y) = (3x + y, 2y, x y) .
6.3 .
144
. g(x, y, z) = (3x, y 2 ).
. h(u, v, w) = (v + 2, 4u).
6.4
:
. (1, 0) (0, 1) (1, 3) (7, 1),
.
. (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) (0, 0, 1) (1, 5, 2, 9),
(2, 6, 4, 7) ( 3, 3, 7, 1), .
6.5 f g , f (u) = g(u) = u,
f g(u) u u2 ;
6.6 f (u+v) =
f (u) + f (v), f (cv) = cf (v), v = (v1 , v2 , v3 );
. f (v) = v/||v||
. f (v) = (v1 , 2v2 , 3v3 )
. f (v) = v1 + v2 + v3
. f (v) = v.
6.7 , v =
(v1 , v2 );
. g(v) = (v2 , v1 )
. g(v) = (0, v1 )
. g(v) = (v1 , v1 )
. g(v) = (0, 1)
6.8 f : R3 R3 , f 2
.
6.9 f : V W
( ) f 1 : W V

145

, x = y, x-. ,
0.
. "

#
"# , 1
0

R2 .
0
1
" #
1

0
"
#
" #
"
#
cos
0
sin
,

, ( sin
1
cos
).
Q ,
"
#
cos sin
Q =
sin
cos
,
.

"
# "
#
cos() sin()
cos sin
Q =
=
sin()
cos()
sin cos

"
Q Q =
cos2 + sin2
cos sin sin cos
sin cos cos sin
sin2 + cos2
"
=
1 0
0 1
#
.
6.10
2,
Q2 = Q2 ,
,
+ ,
Q Q = Q(+) .
146
(1, 0)
x- ( -) (cos , sin ), cos . (1, 0)
(cos2 , cos sin ). , (0, 1)
(sin cos , sin2 ).
-
"
#
cos2
cos sin
P =
.
cos sin
sin2

-
. +
2
0.

cos +
, sin +
= ( sin , cos ) .
2
2

,
:
"
2
(P ) =
c2 cs
cs s2
#2
"
=
c2 (c2 + s2 ) cs(c2 + s2 )
cs(c2 + s2 ) s2 (c2 + s2 )
#
= P .
-, -, (cos , sin ) .
- , ( sin , cos ) (sin , cos ). H
"
# "
#
c s
c
s
H
=
s
c
s c

#1
c s
=
s
c
"
#
2c2 1
2cs
=
.
2cs
2s2 1
"
c
s
s c
#"
6.11 H .

, (H )2 = I.
.
147
, H = 2P I, (H )2 = (2P
I)2 = 4P2 4P + I = I P2 = P
"
#
2 0
6.12 A =
(stretching)
0 1
x. x2 + y 2 = 1, (2x, y) A.
;
6.13 R2 , x;
x
y;
"
#
1 0
6.14 A =
3 1
(shearing), y . x,
(1, 0), (2, 0) (1, 0), x.
6.15 3 3 ;
. (x, y)-.
. (x, y)-.
. (x, y)- ,
z- .
. (x, y)-, (x, z)-
(y, z)-, .
. ,
.
6.16 ,
, .
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x2 , x3 , x1 ).
6.17 g(v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (v3 , v1 , v2 ).
g(g(g(v))) g 100 (v).
148
6.18 (1, 0)
(2, 5) (0, 1) (1, 3); (2, 5) (1, 0) (1, 3)
(0, 1); (2, 6) (1, 0)
(1, 3) (0, 1);
6.19 x {(x1 , x2 ) : 0 x1
1, 0 x2 1} 2 2 A.
. x 7 Ax;
. A ;
. A ;
. A 1;
. .
6.3 m n A, LA : Rn Rm .
. V Rn , V
LA , LA (V ) = {LA (v) | v V }
Rm .
. W Rm , W
n
LA , L1
A (W ) = {v R | LA (v) W }
Rn .
. 1, w1 , w2 LA (V ) c R,
w1 +w2 cw1 LA (V ). w1 LA (V ), v1 V
LA (v1 ) = w1 , w2 . V ,
v1 + v2 V LA (v1 + v2 ) = LA (v1 ) + LA (v2 ) = w1 + w2 , w1 + w2 LA (V ).
cv1 V LA (cv1 ) = cLA (v1 ) = cw1 . cw1 LA (V ).
1
2, v1 , v2 LA
(W ) c R, v1 + v2
1
cv1 LA (W ). w1 W LA (v1 ) = w1 ,
w2 . LA (v1 + v2 ) = w1 + w2 W , LA (cv1 ) = cw1 W , v1 + v2
149
cv1 L1
A (W ).

LA , .
LA v1 , v2 Rn , LA (v1 ) = LA (v2 )
v1 = v2 . Av1 =
Av2 v1 = v2 , A(v1 v2 ) = 0 v1 v2 = 0. LA
, , x Rn , Ax = 0 x = 0,
Ax = 0 , x = 0.
,
, r = n.
LA b Rm , v Rn , LA (v) = b,
Ax = b b Rm .
A Rm , r = m.

6.4 A m n , LA
. , r = n, N (A) = {0},
. , r = m, R(A) = Rm ,
. r = m = n.

f : N M g : M N ,
gf = idN , f ,
h : M N , f h = idM , f , (
).
. A m n ,
. n m B A, BA = In .
. n m C A, AC = Im .
6.5 m n A,
. r = n m.
. r = m n.
150
. ,
LA , . r = n r = m .

.
m n A r = n, A
, 7.7 7,
AT A. AT A .

B = (AT A)1 AT , BA = (AT A)1 AT A = (AT A)1 (AT A) = In .
A r = m, AT
, , (AT )T AT = AAT

. C = AT (AAT )1 , AC = A AT (AAT )1 =
(AAT )(AAT )1 = Im .

A, m = n, :
. r = n.
. A .
. A .
. A .
6.20 V = {x R2 : x1 = x2 }, ( ) LA (V ) L1
A (V ),
"
#
1 2
. A =
2 4
"
#
1 3
. A =
0 2
6.21 ,

"
#
"
#
1 2
1 3
A=
B=
2 4
0 2
C=
3 2 1
"
D=
3 0 2
1
1 0 1 1
151
6.22 A.
AB = I AT AB = AT B = (AT A)1 AT . B
BA = I .
;
6.23 : R3 R3
(1, 1, 1) = (1, 0, 1)
(0, 1, 1) = (2, 1, 3)
(1, 2, 1) = (1, 1, 2) .
. A .
. (R3 ) R3 .
. {0} .
. V R3 2 (V ) = (R3 ).
. v R3 (v) = (6, 1, 5).
. W R3 2 (W )
R3 (6, 1, 5).
6.24 LA : R3 R2
"
#
1 0 1
A=
.
2 1 3
. .
. v R3 LA (v) = (2, 5).
. {0} LA .
. ( ;)
LA .
7

, R2 , x = (x1 , x2 )
:
||x||2 = x21 + x22 .
R3 , 2 : x = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
u = (x1 , x2 , 0)
||x||2 = ||u||2 + x23
= x21 + x22 + x23 .
,
||x||2 = xT x .
n 1 , Rn :
||x||2 = x21 + x22 + + x2n
= xT x .
7.1 x = (1, 2, 3) 14:
kxk2 = xT x = [1 2 3] 2 = 12 + 22 + (3)2 = 14 .
3
152
153

, .
,
. x , y ;
:
2 . Rn ,
, x y. (x, y)

||x||2 + ||y||2 = ||x y||2 ,

x1 y 1 + + xn y n = 0
xT y = 0
7.1 x, y Rn
xT y 0.

7.2 x = (2, 2, 1) y = (1, 2, 2):
xT y = [2 2 1] 2 = 0 .
2
:
x x = 0. Rn 0.
T
7.2 v1 , . . . , vk
, .
. c1 v1 + + ck vk = 0.
v1 :
v1T (c1 v1 + + ck vk ) = v1T 0 = 0
154
v1T vi = 0 i 6= 1,
v1T c1 v1 = c1 ||v1 ||2 = 0
||v1 || =
6 0, c1 = 0
, ci = 0 i,
.

:
.
7.1 x = (1, 4, 0, 2)
y = (2, 2, 1, 3).
7.2 u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ;

1
1
4
1
1
1
0
2

u1 =
, u4 = .
, u2 = , u3 =
1
1
4
2
1
7.3 1.
x = (x1 , x2 ) y = (y1 , y2 ), x2 /x1 y2 /y1 ,
, xT y = 0.
7.4 i B
j B 1 , i =
6 j;
7.5 x y x + y
||x|| = ||y||. ;

R3 ,
.
, V W Rn
V W .
W1 W2 R3
. ,
155
, u1 , v1 W1 , u2 , v2 W2 . W1 W2
, 4 u1 , v1 , u2 , v2 .
7.2 . R3 4
.
U V Rn
U V .
7.3 V v1 =
(1, 0, 0, 0) v2 = (1, 1, 0, 0). w = (0, 0, 4, 5)
v1 v2 . W w R4
V . R4
V W : z = (0, 0, 5, 4) v1 ,
v2 w. U z
V W :
U V , U W , V W .
7.3 m n A.
. Rn A A:
R(AT ) N (A)
. Rm A
A:
R(A) N (AT ) .
. ,
AT .
x N (A) v R(AT ), v T x = 0.
Ax = 0. v R(AT ), v
r1 , . . . rm A,
v = z1 r1 + + zm rm ,
z Rm v = AT z.
v T x = (AT z)T x = z T Ax = z T 0 = 0 .
156

:
dim R(AT ) + dim N (A) = n
(7.1)
dim R(A) + dim N (AT ) = m
(7.2)

Rn : Rn .
. W
R(AT ),
7.3 N (A) W .
, W N (A),
. , x W
x A Ax = 0.
:
. V Rn . Rn V ,
Rn ( 7.22), V
Rn , V .
:
N (A) = R(AT ) .
:
R(AT ) = N (A) .
7.3 R(AT ) N (A) .
z N (A). A0
A z T . A0
A, z T x = 0 x N (A).
, n.
dim R(A0T ) + dim N (A0 ) = n
7.1, N (A0 ) = N (A), dim R(A0 T ) = dim R(AT ).
z
R(AT ), R(AT ).
.
.
157
7.4 m n A.
. N (A)
R(AT ) Rn ,
Rn ,
N (A) = R(AT ) R(AT ) = N (A) .
. N (AT )
R(A) Rm ,
Rm ,
N (AT ) = R(A) R(A) = N (AT ) .

, .
.
7.5 V Rn , W
V , W = V .
. W dim W = n dim V , V W = {0}.
. W V : W = V V = W .
. {v1 , . . . , vk } V {w1 , . . . , wnk } W ,
{v1 , . . . , vk , w1 , . . . , wnk } Rn .
. x Rn , V W .
. 1. v1 , . . . , vk V A
v1 , . . . , vk . V A,
A V , N (A) = W .
dim W = dim N (A) = n k.
x V W, x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ). x V x W =
V , x , xxT = 0. x21 + x22 + x2n = 0
x = 0.
2. 7.4, W = N (A)
R(AT ) = V .
158
3. {v1 , . . . , vk , w1 , . . . , wnk } n .
, Rn . a1 v1 + + ak uk +
b1 w1 + + bnk wnk ) = 0. ai bj 0.
a1 v1 + + ak uk = y = (b1 w1 + + bnk wnk ) .

V , W .
y V W , y 0 Rn .
a1 u1 + + ak uk = 0, u1 , . . . , uk , ai
0. , b1 w1 + + bnk wnk = 0, w1 , . . . , wnk
, bj 0.
4. {u1 , . . . , uk , w1 , . . . , wnk } Rn , x Rn

x = a1 u1 + + ak uk + b1 w1 + + bnk wnk
= x0 + x00
x0 = a1 u1 + + ak uk V x00 = b1 w1 + + bnk wnk W .
x = x + x, x V x W . x0 + x00 =
x + x, x0 x = x x00 , V ,
W , , . x0 = x
x00 = x.

LA
Rn m n A.
x N (A), LA (x) = 0.
x , x R(AT ), LA (x) R(A).
, R(AT )
R(A), .
7.6 y R(A), , ,
x R(AT ), Ax = y.
. y , u Rn
Au = y. 7.5, x R(AT )
w N (A), u = x + w. Aw = 0, Ax = Au = y.
x0 R(AT ) Ax0 = y, x x0 N (A). R(AT )
, x x0 R(AT ). x x0 = 0,
.

.
159
A mn r, LA : Rn Rm
x 7 Ax,
. R(AT ) Rn , r.
. R(A) Rm , r.
. N (A) Rn n r.
. N (AT ) Rm m r.
. , N (A) =
R(AT ) .
. ,
N (AT ) = R(A) .
. LA R(AT ) Rn
R(A) Rm .
. LAT R(A) Rm
R(AT ) Rn .
.
3.4 , 163 Strang.
7.6 x A, , :
1 2 1
A= 2 4 3 .
3 6 4
7.7 R3 (1, 1, 1)
(1, 1, 0).
7.8
A:
"
#
1 0 2
A=
.
1 1 4
x = (3, 3, 3) , A.
160
7.9 S R4
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0. S ,
S.
7.10
(1, 1, 2) (1, 2, 3),
A, Ax = 0.
.
7.11 V W ,
: V W = {0}.
7.12 (1, 2, 1)
(1, 2, 1), .
7.13 , (1, 1, 2) (1, 2, 3).
,
.
7.14
"
#
"
#
1 2
1 0
A=
B =
.
3 6
3 0
7.15 A,
x A,
" #
1 1
2
A= 0
.
0 x =
0
0
0
7.16 , A

. (1, 2, 3) (2, 3, 5), (1, 1, 1).
. (1, 2, 3) (2, 3, 5) (1, 1, 1).
161

1
1
0

T
. Ax = 1 , A 0 = 0 .
1
0
0
. (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1).
7.17 S (1, 2, 2, 3)
(1, 3, 3, 2). S . Ax = 0 A. A;
7.18 S V , S
V .
7.19 S
. S R3 .
. S (1, 1, 1).
. S (2, 0, 0) (0, 0, 3).
7.20 3 3 A, ,
. AT A.
;
7.21 u = (1, 2, 3)
. u
.
u;
7.22
V = {w Rn : v V, wT v = 0}
Rn ,
Rn , .
7.23 V Rn W = V ,
W = V , W V ,
V W .
162
7.24 Ax = b y T b = 0
y y T A = 0.

Ax = b.
b A.
, b
R(A). ,
, .
, .
b b0 R(A)
Ax = b0 . ,
b A
b .
b .
p b ,

A
x = p.

Ax = b, ( 7.25).
7.4 b
a, b a.

b = a .
b1 a = 2, b2 a = 3
b3 a = 4. .
2x = b1
3x = b2
4x = b3 .
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) -
163
(2, 3, 4).
2
b1

3 x = b2
4
b3
(7.3)
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) . x

p
= kax bk = (2x b1 )2 + (3x b2 )2 + (4x b3 )2 ,
x 7.3.
7.3 , , x
. ax
b ,
ax b a.
7.25
ax b a.
d
(2 ),
dx

. a
b . 6 R2 -,
(cos , sin ).
b Rn
a Rn . p
:
. p a, p = xa x R.
. b p a, aT (b p) = 0.

aT (b xa) = 0
x:
x =
aT b
.
aT a

p = xa =
aT b
a.
aT a
164
Rn
Rn , Rn V = {ta : t R},
.
a x:
aT b
p = a
x=a T ,
a a
:
p=
1
aT a
aaT b .
aT a , a, aaT
.

1
P = T aaT
a a
. b Rn
a, P .
7.5

3
4
7.4, b = (4, 6, 9),

x = 6 .
9
, (4, 6, 9)
(2, 3, 4). x,

2
4

6 x 3 = 0 ,
4
9
2 3 4
x =
(2, 3, 4) (4, 6, 9)
62
=
.
2
2
2
2 +3 +4
29
3 (2, 4),
62
(3, 6) (4, 9) = 29
.
7.26 (7, 4)
(1, 2).
7.27 R2 3x 2y = 0.
165
7.28 P1 a = (1, 3),

P2 a.
P1 + P2 P1 P2 . .
7.29 Rn , (1, 1, . . . , 1)
; .
7.30 a = (1, 1, 1) b =
(2, 4, 4); b
a.
7.31 P =
P 2 = P .
1
aT a
aaT
7.32 P R3
x + y + t = 0 x t = 0;
7.33 ,
b a, ,
p = xa:
"
#
" #
cos
1
. b =
a =
sin
0
" #
"
#
1
1
. b =
a =
1
1
7.34 b a, e = b p a:

1
1

. b = 2 a = 1
2
1

1
1

. b = 3 a = 3
1
1
7.35 a Rn P a.
P 1.
166
7.36 a = (1, 2, 1, 3).

. P a.
. N (P ).
. v R4 a
.

.
b V k Rm .
k = 2 m = 3, .
a1 a2 R3 , V ,
m k A ai , V = R(A).
p A,
p = A
x
x Rk . , b A
x
A, 7.4
A:
AT (b A
x) = 0 .

AT A
x = AT b ,
x,
p.
AT A ,
x = (AT A)1 AT b ,
b V = R(A)
p = A
x = A(AT A)1 AT b .

P = A(AT A)1 AT .
167
, A m k , AT A k k
, P m m .
, k = 1,
m 1 A a, k k AT A
aT a, aT1 a . A,

a(aT a)1 aT =
1
aT a
aaT .
AT A
A ,
V .
7.7 AT A A.
. Ax = 0 AT Ax = 0, N (A)
N (AT A).
x AT Ax = 0,
xT (AT Ax) = 0.
xT (AT Ax) = (xT AT )Ax = (Ax)T Ax = ||Ax||2 .
Ax , Ax = 0, x N (A).

7.8 m m P
Rm P P 2 = P .
. V Rm , A V . V
P = A(AT A)1 AT . P 2 = P ,
P 2 = A(AT A)1 AT A(AT A)1 AT
= A(AT A)1 AT
= P.
P
P T = (A(AT A)1 AT )T
= (AT )T (AT A)1
T
AT
168
= A (AT A)T
1
AT
= A(AAT )1 AT
= P
, m m P P 2 = P P = P T ,
P . ,
b Rm , P b P . P b
b V = R(P ) b P b V .
v V . v P ,
c Rm v = P c,
(b P b)T v = (b P b)T P c
= (bT bT P T )P c
= bT (I P T )P c
= bT (P P T P )c.
P T = P P 2 = P , P P T P = P P = 0.

7.6 7.4, b = (4, 6, 9),
a b
b = a + .
, (2, 4), (3, 6) (4,
:
2x1 +
3x1 +
4x1 +
9),
x2 = 4
x2 = 6
x2 = 9 ,

#
2 1 "
4
x1

Ax = 3 1
= 6 .
x2
4 1
9
(4, 6, 9) A,
. = kb Axk x x =
(x1 , x2 ) b A
x A.
:

"
#
#
4
2 1 "
2 3 4
x1
AT (b A
x) =
6 3 1
= 0,
1 1 1
x2
9
4 1
169
"
62
19
"
1
=
6
"
29 9
9 3
#"
x1
x2
#
=0

"
x1
x2
3 9
9 29
#"
62
19
"
=
15
6
7
6
#
.
(2, 4), (3, 6) (4, 9)
6b = 15a + 7 .
7.37 Ax =
b, p = A
x,

1
1 0
A = 0 1 b = 1 .
0
1 1
e = b p
A.
7.38 2 = ||Ax b||2 ,
2 u v,

" #
1
1 0
u

b = 3 .
A = 0 1 , x =
v
1 1
4
, AT A
x = AT b,
. x p = A
x. p = b;
7.39 b = (4, 3, 1, 0)
A=
1 2
1 1
.
1
0
1
2
170
7.40 x,
3x = 10 4x = 5. 2
; e = (10 3
x, 5 4
x)
(3, 4).
7.41 b A:
1
1
A = 1 1
2
4
1

b = 2 .
7
b p + q, p A q
. A q;
7.42 P P = P T P , P
. P = 0 ,
;
7.43 a1 = (1, 1, 0) a2 = (1, 1, 1)
R3 . , b
0.
7.44 V (1, 1, 0, 1) (0, 0, 1, 0)
. V .
. P V .
. V (0, 1, 0, 1) V
7.45 P A,
A;
7.46 P = A(AT A)1 AT
A, P A;
7.47 V R4

(1, 2, 0, 3), (2, 1, 1, 2) (1, 4, 2, 5)
171
. V V .
. x = (4, 15, 7, 8) x = v + w, v V
w V .

V Rn dim V = k,
v1 , . . . , vk V . u V
u = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + + ak vk .
u w = b1 v1 + b2 v2 + + bk vk
uT w = (a1 v1T + ak vkT )(b1 v1 + + bk vk )
k X
k
X
=
ai bj viT vj .
i=1 j=1
,
viT vj = 0 i 6= j, uT w
T
u w =
k
X
i=1
k
X
ai bi viT vi
ai bi ||vi ||2 .
i=1

. , : ||vi ||2 = 1.
u w :
T
u w=
k
X
ai b i
i=1
.
. q1 , q2 , . . . , qk
0 i 6= j
T
qi q j =
1 i = j
172
7.48 q1 , . . . , qk V ,
a1 , . . . , ak u = a1 q1 + + ak qk ai = qiT u.
.
.
.
.
e1 , . . . , en
Rn . ,
e1 , . . . , en n n I.
, .
7.9 m n M M T M = I.
, Q ,
,
QT = Q1 .
. q1 , . . . , qn Rm M . M T M
n n (i, j) qiT qj .
(
0 i 6= j
qiT qj =
1 i 6= j .
M T M n n M T
M .
,
6.5 .

"
#
cos sin
7.7 Q =
.
sin
cos
"
#
cos sin
Q , QT =
sin cos
. , sin2 + cos2 = 1,
1.
7.8 ,
173
.
"
P =
0 1
1 0
#
,
x = y. ,
.
:
7.10 Q
: x Rn ,
||Qx|| = ||x||.
, : x, y Rn ,
(Qx)T (Qy) = xT y.
. (Qx)T = xT QT . QT Q = I :
(Qx)T (Qy) = xT QT Qy = xT Iy = xT y.

Q , QT = Q1 , QQT = I.
.
Gram-Schmidt
v1 , . . . , vk V Rn , v1 , . . . , vk q1 , . . . , qk ,
j = 1, . . . , k, q1 , . . . , qj
v1 , . . . , vj . Gram-Schmidt.
v1 , v2 , v3 . v1 , v2 , v3 .
w1 w2 , w3 . ,
wi q1 , q2 , q3 .
w1 = v1 . w2 w1 w1 w2
v1 v2 . v2
w1 .
w 2 = v2
w1T v2
w1 .
w1T w1
174
w1 w2 :
w1T w2 = w1T v2
w1T v2 T
w w1
w1T w1 1
= 0
v3 w1 , w2 ,
v1 , v2 v3 . w3
v3 v1 v2 . A
w1 w3 .
"
#
T
w
w
0
1 1
AT A =
0
w2T w2
, , A = [w1 w2 ], v3
w1T w1
A(AT A)1 AT v3 = [w1 w2 ]

0
0
w2T w2
"
w1T
w2T
#
v3
w1
w2
w1T v3 + T w2T v3
T
w1 w1
w2 w2
T
T
w v3
w1 v3
w1 + T2 w2
=
T
w1 w1
w2 w2
=
, w1 w2 ,
w1 w2
w1 w2 .
w1T v3
w2T v3
w 3 = v3
w1
w2 .
||w1 ||2
||w2 ||2
w1 , w2 , w3 .
V ,
q1 =
w1
,
||w1 ||
q2 =
w2
,
||w2 ||
q3 =
w3
.
||w3 ||
7.9
v1 =
1
0
1
0
, v2 =
1
0
0
1
, v3 =
2
1
0
0
175
w1 =
1
0
1
0
1
1
2
0 1 0 0

w2 = = 1 ,
0 2 1 2
1
1
0

1 2
2
1
2
3
1 2 0

1

0 1
w3 =
=
0 2 1 3/2 12 23
32
q1 =
2
1
0
1
0
1
2

2 0
q2 = 1
3 2
1
1
6

0

=
1
2
3
2
3
3
1
q3 = 2
21 3
23
2
21
3
21
2
21
221
Gauss
A = LU , Gram-Schmidt
A
v1 , v2 , . . . , vk :
A = QR,
Q q1 , q2 , . . . , qk , R
Gram-Schmidt:
q1T v1 q1T v2 q1T v3
R= 0
q2T v2 q2T v3 .
0
0
q3T v3
, A m k , R k k
i, j
Rij = qiT vj j i .
7.11 m k A

A = QR ,
176
Q m k , R k k
. m = k, Q .
A = QR
.
AT A
x = AT b
RT QT QR
x = RT QT b.
QT Q = I RT ,
R
x = QT b
x .
7.49 u , Q = I 2uuT . ( ,

1
1
1 1

.
Householder). Q uT =
2 2
2
2
7.50 b = (1, 2) ,
a1 = (1, 0) a2 = (1, 1).
b.
7.51
.
7.52 v1 , v2 , v3 , q1 , q2 , q3 .

1
1
0

v1 = 1 , v2 = 0 , u3 = 1 .
0
1
1
7.53 v1 v2 ,
Gram-Schmidt q1 q2 .
7.54 a1 = (1, 1) a2 =
(4, 0), "
# a1 .
1 4
QR Q .
1 0
177
7.55 Gram-Schmidt

0
0

v1 = 0 , v2 = 1 , u3 =
1
1
1 ,
1
A = QR.
7.56 A = QR, Q ,
A.
7.57 q1 , q2 , q3 R3 ,
q1 , q2
1
1
A = 2 1 .
2
4
A q3 ;
Ax = b, bT = [1 2 7].
7.58 A 7.57, b = [1 1 1]T ,
A = QR
Ax = b.
7.59 Gram-Schmidt (1, 1, 0),
(0, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1) x1 +x2 +x3 =
0. Gram-Schmidt;
7.60 w1 , w2 , w3
v1 = (1, 1, 0, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 1, 0), v3 = (0, 0, 1, 1) .
v1 , v2 , v3 (1, 1, 1, 1).

2 2 :
"
#
1 3
A=
2 4
A

1 3

2 4

= 1 4 3 2 = 4 6 = 2.

2 2 , :

a b

= ad bc
c d
2 2 .
() 1,

1 0

= 1.
0 1
() :

c d

= cb da
a b

a b

=
.
c d
178
179
() :

a + a0 b + b 0

= (a + a0 )d (b + b0 )c

c
d
= (ad bc) + (a0 d b0 c)

a b a0 b0

=
+
,
c d c d

ta tb

c d

= tad tbc

a b

= t
.
c d
() ()
:

a

c + c0 d + d 0
b

=

c + c0 d + d0
a
b

c d c0 d0

=

a b a b

a b a b

=
+
.
c d c0 d0
n n , .
n n .
.
,
Mn, n n n
det : Mn, n R ,
det A |A|, :
() n n 1,

1
0

..
det In =
= 1.
.

0
1
() B A ,
det B = det A .
180
() det .

a + a0 . . . a + a0 a
a0 . . . a 0
.
.
.
a
1n
1n
11
11
11
11
1n
1n

a21 . . . a2n a21 . . . a2n
a21
...
a2n

..
..
...

= .. . . . .. + .. . . . ..
.
.
.
. .

.

an1 . . . ann an1 . . . ann
an1
...
ann

ta
11

a21
.
.
.

an1
. . . ta1n
. . . a2n
..
..
.
.
. . . ann

= t

a11 . . . a1n

a21 . . . a2n
.. . .
. .
. ..
.

an1 . . . ann
det(A + B) = det A + det B det(tA) =

t det A, n = 1. () (),
.
,
.
() A , det A = 0.
, ,
(), . det A = det A det A = 0.
() ,
.
B A,
i, j 6= i A,
i- A j-
det A det B, det B = 0.
8.1 ()
"
#
a+c b+d
.
c
d
8.2 () (aij ).
() () Gauss
, .
() A , det A = 0,
() ().
181
() D
d1
0
..
0
det D = d1 d2 . . . dn .
,

d
0
1

d2

...

0
dn
.
dn

1
0

d2
= d1
...

0
dn
=

1
0

.
..
= d1 d2 . . . dn

0
1
() A ,
.
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann , a11 a22 . . . ann 6= 0,
,
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann . A ,
,
a11 . A , ,
ann . det A =
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann .
ai i , Gauss
. det A = 0.
n n , (), () ().
. , ,
Gauss, A U . (),
U . (),
A U : k
, det A = (1)k det U .
A , (1)k
182
.
, A.
8.4, .
8.1 det A A
.
. A ,
, det A = 0.
, A ,
, det A = d1 d2 . . . dn 6= 0.

8.2 A, B n n ,
det(AB) = det A det B.
. A, B ,
det(AB) = 0 = det A det B.
B , n n A
det(AB)
.
d(A) =
det B
d(A) (), (), (),
, 0 ,
.
(): A = I,
d(I) =
det IB
det B
=
= 1.
det B
det B
(): A,
AB. det AB,
d(A).
(): C = (cij ) D = (dij )
j = 1, . . . , n,
a1j = sc1j + td1j
i > 1
aij = cij = dij .
183
AB
n
X
a1k bkj = s
k=1
n
X
c1k bkj + t
d1k bkj
k=1
det AB = s det CB + t det DB, d(A) = s d(C) + td(D).

d(A) A.

8.3 A
A,
det(AT ) = det A .
. A AT
.
det A = 0 = det AT .
A ,
P A = LDU .
(8.1)
8.2
det P det A = det L det D det U .
8.1,
AT P T = U T DT LT ,

det AT det P T = det U T det DT det LT .
L, U, U T LT .
1. , D DT = D.
det P T = det P . P
I. det P = 1.
, P P T = I, det P det P T = 1. det P = det P T .

det A = det P T det L det D det U = det P det LT det DT det U T = det AT .
184

8.3 :
,
.

.
8.4 , .
. : {1, . . . , n} {1, . . . , n}.
N (i, j) i < j (i) > (j).
, {1, 2, 3} Nid = 0,
1 3, N = 3, (1) > (2),
(1) > (3) (2) > (3).
, N N
. , N ,
1 , 2 , . . . , k , 1 k , N
, .
i i i + 1. i
j 6= i, i + 1, i (i) = (i + 1) i (i + 1) = (i).
(i) < (i + 1), Ni = N + 1, (i) > (i + 1), Ni = N 1.
,
.
k k+r. r
k k + r, k+r1 k+1 k , r 1
k + r k, k k+r2 .
2r 1,
= k k+r2 k+r1 k+r2 k+1 k .

1
2
...
n
(1) (2) . . . (n)
!
.
185

1234
,
1 4, 2 2, 3
4213
1 4 3.
8.3 44 A det A = 12 ,
det(2A), det(A), det(A2 ) det(A1 ).
8.4 3 3 B det B = 1,
det( 12 B), det(B), det(B 2 ) det(B 1 ).
8.5
1
2 2 0
2 1 0
0
2
3 4 1
1 2 1 0
A=
B =
1 2 0 2
0 1 2 1
0
2
5 3
0
0 1 2
.
B,
.
8.6
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
det
det
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
8.7 n,
A P A;
an1 ann
.
a11 a1n
..
..
.
A = a21 a2n ,
PA =
a21 a2n
an1 ann
a11 a1n
P .
8.8
, .
. A B , (1, 1),
b11 = 2a11 , det B = 2 det A.
186
. .
. A B , A + B .
. A B , AB .
. AB BA .
8.9
"
"
#
#
3
2
4 2
1
A=
, A1 =
,
10 1 4
1 3
"
A I =
4
2
1
3
#
.
A I ;
8.10 A
0 det A = 0. A 1,
det(A I) = 0. det A = 1.
8.11 K
K T = K,
0
a b
K = a 0 c .
b c 0
. K 3 3, det(K) = (1)3 det K.
3 3 0.
. 4 4 , det K 6= 0.
8.12 A
B, C, AB, AT A C T .
1 1 3
1 1 3
1
A = 0 4 6 , B = 0 4 6 , C = 0
1 5 8
0 0 1
1
8.13
1 a a2
det 1 b b2
1 c c2
1 3
4 6 .
5 9
3 3 Vandermonde
= (b a)(c a)(c b).
187
8.14 n n A aij = ij, det A = 0,

A = [1].
8.15

101 201 301
1 t t2

2
102 202 302 ,
t 1 t .

2

103 203 303
t t 1
8.16 n n A aij = i + j, det A = 0,

n = 1 2.
8.17
.
1 2 3
1 1 1
2 2 3
1 2 2 ,
3 3 3
1 2 3
8.18 Gauss
A=
1
1
1
2
0
2
1
0
1 1
2
2
2
2 1
0
.
( .)
8.19 A 6,
B, A a1 , a2 , a3 B a1 + a2 , a2 +
a3 , a 3 + a1 .
8.20 det(2A), det(A) det(A2 ) det A,
A n n;
8.21

1234
1234
1234
,
,
.
4213
3142
4321
188
4 4 , .
8.22

1 h
i

. 1, A = 4 2 1 2 .
2
. U =
4
0
0
0
4
1
0
0
8
2
2
0
8
2
6
2
. U T .
. U 1 .
. M =
0
0
0
4
0
0
1
4
0
2
2
8
2
6
2
8
, .
"
a mc b md
8.23
c la d lb
.
#
-
8.24 B = M 1 AM , det B = det A;

det A1 B = 1.

nn

A = P 1 L D U 0 ,
P , L 1 ,
D , U 0
1 .
det P = 1, det L = det U 0 = 1 det D
.
det A = det P 1 det L det D det U 0
189
= ( ) .
:
,
(1)k , k
.

,
det A = ad bc 2 2 .
:

"
#
a b
A=
c d
[a b] = [a 0] + [0 b] ,

a 0 0 b
a b

+
=

c d c d
c d

a 0 a 0 0 b 0 b

=

+
+
+
c 0 0 d c 0 0 d
= 0 + ad + (bc) + 0
n n , ,
:
[a11 . . . a1n ] = [a11 0 . . . 0] + [0 a12 0 . . . 0] + + [0 . . . 0 a1n ]
n ,
.
,
n2 ,
.
, nn ,

0. i 0
ji , aiji .
nn . n . ,
190
, .

i 7 ji , {1, , n}.
n! , n! nn
.
3 3 :

a11 a12 a13
a11
0 a12
0

0
0
0
0
a
13

0 + 0
0 a23 + a21
0
0
a21 a22 a23 =
0 a22

a31 a32 a33
0
0 a33 a31
0
0 0 a32
0

a11
0 a12
0

0
0
0
0
a
13

+ 0
0 a23 + a21
0
0 + 0 a22
0

0 a32
0 0
0 a33 a31
0
0
= a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 a13 a22 a31 .
: {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3},
X
det A =
a1 (1) a2 (2) a3 (3) det(P )
P
3 3 I. det P 1 1
.
n n ,
n n .
8.5 A = (aij ) n n ,
X
a1 (1) . . . an (n) det(P )
det A =
(8.2)
n ,
P
.

(1) = 1.
(8.2) a11 . a11
, C11 :
X
X
a11 a2 (2) . . . an (n) det P = a11
a2 (2) . . . an (n) det P = a11 C11 .
(1)=1
(1)=1
191
{1, 2, . . . , n} (1) = 1, {2, 3, . . . , n}. C11 A11

A :
C11 =
a2 (2) an (n) det P
{1, . . . , n}
(1)=1
a2 (2) an (n) det P .
{2, . . . , n}
(1) = 2.
(8.2) a12 . a12
, C12 :
X
X
a12 a2 (2) an (n) det P = a12
a2 (2) an (n) det P = a12 C12 .
(1)=2
(1)=2
{1, 2, . . . , n} (1) = 2, {2, 3, . . . , n} {1, 3, 4, . . . , n},

C12 A12
A :
...
a21 a23 . . . a2n
a21 a23 . . . a2n .

..
..
.
A12 =
.
. ,
..
..
..
..
= .
.
.
.
.
an1 an3 . . . ann
an1 an3 . . . ann
C12 =
a2 (2) an (n) det P .
{1, . . . , n}
(1)=2
C12 det A12 ,

. j = 1, . . . , n
j = {1, . . . , n 1} {1, . . . , n}\{j}
, {1, . . . , n},
1
i = (i)
i {1, . . . , n 1}:
i
1
(i)
{1, . . . , n 1} {1, . . . , n}\{i} {1, . . . , n}\{(i)} {1, . . . , n 1}
192
(k)
(k) 1
i (k) =
(k + 1)
(k + 1) 1
k
k
k
k
<i
<i
i
i
(k) < (i)

(k) (i)
(k + 1) < (i)
(k + 1) (i).
8.6
det P = (1)i+(i) det Pi
. (n) = n,

P
n
det P =

1

= det Pn ,

.
, i {1, . . . , n}, P
#(n i)
"
P i 0
(n (i))
:
0 1
(i)
(i)
(n i)
(n (i))
P i
det P = (1)(ni)+(n(i)) det Pi = (1)i+(i) det Pi

,
X
C12 =
a1 (1) 1 (1) a1 (n1) 1 (n1) (1)1+2 det P1
{1, . . . , n}
(1)=2
{1, . . . , n 1}
= det A12 .
a1 (1) 2 (1) a1 (n1) 2 (n1) det P
193
(8.2) (1) = j :
X
X
a1 j a2 (2) an (n) det P = a1j
a2 (2) an (n) det P
(1) = j
(1) = j
= a1 j C 1 j
C1 j
A1j A j .

a21 a2 (j1) a2 (j+1) a2 n
a21 a2 (j1) a2 (j+1) a2 n .

..
..
..
.
A1j =
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
..
= .
.
.
.
.
.
an 1 an (j1) an (j+1) an n
an 1 an (j1) an (j+1) an n
C1j = (1)1+j det(A1 j ) .

{1, . . . , n},
(1)
n
n
X
X
X
X
det A =
a1 j a2 (2) an (n) det P =
a1 j
a2 (2) an (n) det P ,
j =1
(1) = j
j =1
(1) = j
det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1 n C1 n .

. A = (ai j ) n n , (n 1) (n 1)
A i j ,
ai j A.
a11
a1 (j1)
a1 (j+1)
a1 n
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
a
a
a
(i1) 1
(i1) (j1)
(i1) (j+1)
(i1) n
Ai j =
a(i+1) 1
a
a
a
(i+1)
(j1)
(i+1)
(j+1)
(i+1)
n
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
an 1
an (j1)
an (j+1)
an n
Ci j = (1)i+j det Ai j ai j .
.
194
8.7
. i = 1, . . . , n
det A =
n
X
ai j C i j
j=1
det A i.
. j = 1, . . . , n
det A =
n
X
ai j C i j
i=1
det A j.
8.1
2 1
0
0
1
2 1
0
A4 =
0 1
2 1
0
0 1
2
:
det A4 = 2(1)1+1 det(A4 )11 + (1)(1)1+2 det(A4 )12
2 1
0
= 1
2 1 = A3
0 1
2
(A4 )11
(A4 )12
1 1
0
1 1 0

= 0
2 1 = 0
A2
0
0 1
2
det(A4 )12 = (1)(1)1+1 det A2 .

det A4 = 2 det A3 det A2 .
, n n An 2 (1)
,
det An = 2 det An1 det An2 .
8.25 ;
195
. S 1 AS A.
. det A = 0, 0.
. 0 1 1, 0 -1.
8.26 Fn n n
1, 1, 1,
1 1
1 1
1
..
Fn = det
.
1 1 1
1
1
Fn = Fn1 +Fn2 . Fn Fibonacci, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . ..
8.27
.
A=
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
6
0
B=
0
3
7
0
1
4
8
0
2
5
9
1
4
. det A det B.
8.28 8.27,
. (
(1)i+j ) det A det B.
8.29 nn 1 :
"
A1 = [1]
A2 =
1 1
1 1
1 1 0
A3 = 1 1 1 . . .
0 1 1
Dn An .
. ,
Dn = Dn1 Dn2 .
196
. D1 = 1 D2 = 0, D3 , D4 , . . . , D8 .
Dn , D1000 .
8.30
. LU , 4 4
aij = min{i, j}.
. A = (aij ), aij = min{ni , nj } n1 = 2, n2 = 6,
n3 = 8, n4 = 10.
n1 n2 n3 n4 ;
8.31 a15 a24 a33 a42 a51
!
1 2 3 4 5
5 5 . :
;
5 4 3 2 1
8.32
:
1 1 0
A = 1 0 1 ,
0 1 1
1 2 3
B = 4 5 6 ,
7 8 9
"
C=
A 0
0 B
#
.
;
8.33 0 4 4 ,
0. , 0.
8.34 det A 6= 0, n!
0. P
A 0 P A.
8.35 . . ;
"
A=
2 1
3 6
#
,
1 2 3
B == 4 5 6 .
7 0 0
197
8.36 Bn 1, 2, 1 An (
8.1) 1, 1 b11 = 1 a11 = 2.
,
|B4 | = 2|B3 | |B2 | = 1 .
1 1
1
2 1
B4 =
1
2 1
1
2
1 1
B3 = 1
2 1 .
1
2
|Bn | = 2|Bn1 | |Bn2 | An .

. Bn ;
8.37 1, 3, 1
"
C1 = [3],
C2 =
3 1
1 3
3 1 0
C = 1 3 1 .
0 1 3
#
,
det C4 ; ( Fibonacci).

det Cn = 3 det Cn1 det Cn2 .
det Cn F2n+2 Fibonacci (
F2n+2 = 3F2n F2n2 )
8.38 , A D ,

A B

= |A| |D| .
0 D
2 2

A B

6= |A| |D| |C| |B|.
C D
8.39 CD = DC : , (det C)(det D) = (det D) (det C),
198
C D . , CD = DC
C D .
8.40
3
2
2
A = 3 1 3 .
1
2
A ;
8.41
4 1 1
B= 1 2 5 .
1 2 3
. B
,
, B.
. B.
B.

. C = (Ci j )
(i, j) ai j A.
, C T ,
A, adj A,
T
C11 C1 n
C11 Cn 1
.
.
..
..
adj A = ..
. = ..
.
Cn 1 Cn n
C1 n Cn n
8.8 A = (ai j ) n n , Ci j ai j ,
b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) ,
b 1 C i 1 + b2 C i 2 + + bn C i n
199
B i b i
A,
a11
a1 n
..
..
.
.
a(i 1)1 a(i 1) n
Bi =
b
b
1
n
a
(i + 1)1
(i + 1) n
..
..
.
.
an 1
an n
b1 C 1 j + b2 C 2 j + + bn C n j
Bj b j
A,
a11 a1 (j 1) b1 a1 (j + 1) a1 n
.
..
..
..
..
Bj = ..
.
.
.
. .
an 1 an (j 1) bn an (j + 1) an n
. j A C1 j , , Cn j . A
Bj . Bj j
det Bj = b1 C1 j + b2 C2 j + + bn Cn j .
B i .

8.9 A n n ,
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = det A In .
. (i , j) A (adj A)
ai 1 C j 1 + ai 2 C j 2 + + ai n C j n .
, adj A = (Ci j )T . i = j,
det A i-. i 6= j

i- A j- A. ,
200
det A
..
A (adj A) =
.
det A
(adj A) A .

8.10 det A 6= 0
A1 =
1
(adj A) .
det A
. nn
, ,
Gauss - Jordan.
Ax = b
8.11 ( Cramer) det A 6= 0,
Ax = b
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
det Bj
det A
Bj b j A.
xj =
. det A 6= 0, A ,
x = A1 b =
1
(adj A) b
det A
xj =
1
det Bj
(C1 j b1 + + Cn j bn ) =
.
det A
det A

Cramer
Ax = b,
Gauss.
8.2
x1 + 3x2 = 0
2x1 + 4x2 = 6
201
(0, 6)
x1 , x2 :

x1 =

0 3

6 4
18
=
= 9,

2
1 3

2 4

x2 =

1 0

2 6
6
=
= 3 .

2
1 3

2 4
n-
n u1 , . . . , un
,
,
V = ||u1 || ||u2 || ||un || .
u1 , . . . , un A. uTi uj = 0 i 6= j

T
||u1 ||2
0
u1 u1 uT1 un
.
..
..
AT A = ..
.
.
. =
uTn u1 uTn un
||un ||2
V 2 = ||u1 ||2 ||un ||2 = det(AT A) = (det A)2 ,

,
V = | det A| .
u1 , . . . , un .
u1 , . . . , un det A > 0 det A < 0.
,
. ,
w1 w2 w1 .
,
Gram-Schmidt: w20 = w2 sw1 w1 .
w1 w20 w1 w2 .

V = | det A|
202
A w1 w2 .
n , w1 , . . . , wk1
wk , n-
, . ,
w10 , w20 , . . . , wn0 ,
,
V = | det A| .

Gauss ,
. ,
, k k k Ak
A.
a
a b e
c d f 0
g h i
g
adbc
a
af ec
a
A1 = [a].
"
#
a b
a, b, c, d A2 =
.
c d
, A2 ,
.
, n n A1 k n, , ,
"
Lk 0
B C
Uk F
0 G
"
Lk U k
Lk F
BUk BF + CG
A = LU =
#"
Ak = Lk Uk . Lk 1 ,
det Lk = 1, Uk k d1 , . . . , dk
.
det Ak = det Uk = d1 . . . dk .
203
det Ak1 = d1 . . . dk1 , dk

dk =
det Ak
.
det Ak1
, det A0 = 1, k = 1.
.
8.12 Gauss n n A
A1 , . . . , An . d1 , . . . , dn
det Ak
.
dk =
det Ak1
8.42
1 2 3
A= 0 4 0
0 0 5
C, AC T =
(det A)I.
8.43 C11 , C21 , C23 C33
1 2 3
A= 5 0
6 .
7 1 4
8.44 C12 , C24 , C33 C43
2
0
1 5
8 1
2
1
A=
.
4 3 5
0
1
8.45
. A = (2, 2), B = (1, 3) C = (0, 0).
,

1 2 2
(ABC) =
.
2 1 3
204
. A, B D = (1, 4),

2

2
1

1

(ABD) = 1
3 1 .

2
1 4 1
( ).
8.46
2 1
4 5
2 7
0 ,
0
2 1 2
4 5 3 .
2 7 0
.
8.47 Cramer :
ax + by = 1
cx + dy = 0
x + 4y z = 1
x + y + z = 0
2x
+ 3z = 0
8.48 M x =
(x1 , . . . , xn ) j .
1
x1
..
..
.
.
M =
xj
.. . .
.
.
xn
1
. M .
. Ax = b, AM Bj ,
a11 a12 b1 a1n

det Bj
.
..
..
..
xj =
, Bj = ..
.
.
. ,
det A
an1 an2 bn ann
b j- .
205
. Cramer, AM = Bj .
8.49 0,
. 0,
;
8.50 4 4 `1 , `2 , `3 `4 ,
.
1 1, .
9
, .
,
Ax = b .
, ,
, LA : Rn Rm : x 7 Ax. LA
N (A) 0, R(AT )
R(A).
, n n A,
Ax = x ,
(9.1)
x.
LA :
, .
"
#
2 0
9.1 A =

1 3
" #
1
:
0
"
#" # " #
2 0
1
2
=
1 3
0
1
" #
0

3:
1
"
#" #
" #
0
0
2 0
=3
.
1 3
1
1
206
207
"
5 1
1
5
9.2 A =
x =
" #
"
#
1
1
y =
.
1
1
"
#" # " #
5 1
1
4
Ax =
=
= 4x
1
5
1
4
"
Ay =
5 1
1
5
#"
1
1
"
=
6
6
#
= 6y .
u R2 x y,
A : u = cx + dy,
Au = cAx + dAy
= 4cx + 6dy.
x Ax = x
, , A:
A .
( eigenvectors,
). ,
, ,
.
Ax = x;
, 0 . .
9.1
Ax x = 0
I,
Ax Ix = 0

(A I)x = 0 .
x A I.
,
208
A I , .
: A I
det(A I) = 0.
. n n A
det(A I) = 0 .
i , A i I .
A i I A
i . A i I A
i .
det(AI) n .
A.
.
9.3 2 2 A,
"
#
4 5
A=
.
2 3
,

4
5

det(A I) =

2
3
= (4 )(3 + ) + 10
= 2 2
2 2 1 2.
A
1 = 1
2 = 2 .
1 = 1,
(A 1 I)x = 0 ,

"
5 5
2 2
#"
x1
x2
#
= 0.
209
"
#
1
x =
, A 1 = 1
1
A 1 I,
X1 = {t(1, 1) | t R} .
2 = 2 , ,
(A 2 I)x = 0
"
#"
#
2 5
x1
= 0.
2 5
x2
" #
5
x =
, A 2 = 2
2

X2 = {t(5, 2) | t R} .
9.4
1 2 2
1 2 .
2
2
0 3
A

1 2
2

det(A I) = 2 1
2

2
0
3
= (1 )2 (3 ) + 8 + 4(1 ) 4(3 )
= (1 )2 (3 ) .
1 = 1 2 = 3.
1 = 1
0 2 2
x1
0 2 x2 = 0 .
2
2
0 2
x3
210
2
0 2
0 2 2
0
0 0
x1
x2 = 0 .
x3
x = (1, 1, 1). A
1 = 1 x = (1, 1, 1). A 1 = 1
,
X1 = {t(1, 1, 1) | t R} .
2 = 3
2 2 2
x1
2 2 2 x2
2
0 0
x3
= 0.
A 2 = 3 x = (0, 1, 1).
A 2 = 3
X2 = {t(0, 1, 1) | t R} .
, , 3 3
. 1 = 1
2, 1. ,
,
.
9.5
4 0 3
A= 0 2 0
3 0 4
A

4
0
3

det(A I) = 0
2
0

3
0
4
= (2 8 + 25)(2 ) .
211
, 1 = 2. ,
2 = 4 + 3i
3 = 4 3i .
1 = 2
2 0 3
x1
0 0 0 x2 = 0
3 0 2
x3
A 1 = 2
x = (0, 1, 0).
2 = 4 + 3i
3i
0
3
x1
0 2 3i 0 x2 = 0
3
0
3i
x3

3i
0
0 2 3i
0
0
x1
3
0 x2 = 0
x3
0
A 2 = 4 + 3i
x = (i, 0, 1).
3 = 4 3i
x1
3i
0
3
0 2 + 3i 0 x2 = 0
3
0
3i
x3
A 3 = 4 3i
x = (i, 0, 1).
A ,
, 1 = 2,
X1 = {t(0, 1, 0) | t R} .
A
1 = 2
X1 = {t(0, 1, 0) | t C} ,
212
2 = 4 + 3i
X2 = {t(i, 0, 1) | t C}
3 = 4 3i
X3 = {t(i, 0, 1) | t C} .
n n
. A I.
n , .
. .
A.
. i ,
(A i I)x = 0 .
A i ,
A i .
Ax = b
Gauss, .
2. n n ( C
), n 5 (
)1 .

, ,
.
.

(trace) tr A.
Galois (
),
.
1
213
9.1 n n A .
, n , 1 , 2 , . . . , n ,
.
. A ,
1 + 2 + + n = tr A
. A ,
1 2 n = det A .
.
. 1 , . . . , n A,
det(A I) = (1 ) (n ) .
n 1 .
n 1

a

a
a
12
1n
11

a21
a22
a2n

..
..
..
...

.
.
.

an1
an2
ann

n 1 .

. , n 1
, ,
(a11 )(a22 ) (ann ) .
n 1
a11 n1 + a22 n1 + + ann n1 = (a11 + + ann )n1 .
n 1 (1 )(2
) (n )
(1 + 2 + + n )n1 .

1 + 2 + + n = a11 + a22 + + ann = tr A .
214
.
det(A I) = (1 ) (n ) .
, 1 2 n .
= 0, det A.
1 2 n = det A .

9.1
"
A=
1 1
2
4
#
.
,
.
9.2 B = A 7I, A 9.1,
B. A;
9.3
. 0
, .
9.4
3 4 2
A= 0 1 2
0 0 0
0 0 2
B = 0 2 0 .
2 0 0

.
9.5 A, x
: Ax = x. x
A1 , .
9.6 AT
A.
215
9.7 2 2 A B,
AB A B,
A + B .
9.8 3 3 A 0, 3, 5
u, v, w.
. A,
A.
. Ax = v + w. .
. Ax = u .
9.9
"
A=
3 4
4 3
"
B=
a b
b a
#
.
9.10 x = (1, 1, . . . , 1) . = 1.
0 1 0
P = 0 0 1
1 0 0
0 0 1
R= 0 1 0 .
1 0 0
9.2 A,
A .
.
9.2 n n A n x1 , . . . , xn . R,
216
x1 , . . . , xn . R1 AR ,
1 , . . . , n A,
R1 AR =
0
..
.
n
.
..
..
.. 1
.
0
.
.
.
.
1
.
= x1 xn
.
x1 xn
.
..
..
..
..
0
n
.
.
.
.
A = RDR1
. j- AR Axj = j xj .
..
..
.
.
AR = 1 x1 n xn
.
..
..
.
.
j- R1 (AR) j- AR
R1 . j- AR j- R j .
j- R1 (AR) j (j- R1 R), j ej .
..
..
.
.
,
R1 AR =
e
1
1
n
n
..
..
.
.
1 , . . . , n .

A R
1
R AR . .
n n n ,
n , .
9.3 .
. 1 , . . . , m A,
v1 , . . . , vm , k, 1 < k m,
217
{v1 , . . . , vk1 } , v1 , . . . , vk

vk = a1 v1 + + ak1 vk1 .
(9.2)
9.2 A
Avk = a1 Av1 + + ak1 Avk1
vi i ,
k vk = a1 1 v1 + + ak1 k1 vk1
(9.3)
9.2 k , 9.3:
0 = a1 (1 k )v1 + + ak1 (k1 k )vk1 .
v1 , . . . , vk1 , ai (i k ) = 0 i =
1, . . . , k 1, i k 6= 0, a1 = = ak1 = 0. ,
9.2, vk = 0, . {v1 , . . . , vm }
.

9.11 ( R
R1 AR ):
"
#
"
#
1 1
2 1
.
1 1
0 0
"
9.12 A =
4 3
1 2
#
, A
A100 .
9.13
1 1 1
A= 1 1 1
1 1 1
R A.
9.14 ;
"
#
"
#
"
#
2 2
2
0
2 0
A1 =
A2 =
A3 =
.
2 2
2 2
2 2
218
9.15 A = RDR1 ,
D .
"
#
"
#
1 2
1 1
.
0 3
2 2

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102

ABCD, BCDA, CDAB, DABC, ADCB, DCBA, CBAD

(1) u u + (1) u = OO.

(AB) + (BC) = (AC) .

BCD . (OA0 ) = (BD) = (B 0 C 0 ). Chasles

P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ) P (x, y),

A0 (a01 , a02 ) BC 1:1, (1.3)

P (O, i , j ) (p, q),

x0 (cos i + sin j ) + y 0 ( sin i + cos j ) = (x p) i + (y q) j

1.14 ( Euler 1747) A, B, C, D

ABC. |BM | = |AM | =

ABC. |BM | = |AM | =

( 1.2, 2), O, A, B, C , 1.9

z12 + z22 + z32 .

(y2 z3 y3 z2 ) i + (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) j + (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) k

i (x2 (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) x3 (y3 z1 y1 z3 ))

+ j (x3 (y2 z3 y3 z2 ) x1 (y1 z2 y2 z1 ))

+ k (x1 (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) x2 (y2 z3 y3 z2 ))

= i (y1 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z1 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ))

+ j (y2 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z2 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ))

+ k (y3 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z3 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ))

= (xa1 + ya2 + za3 )

+(xb1 + yb2 + zb3 )

+(xc1 + yc2 + zc3 )

, f : R R3 , f (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)),

(x, y, z) = (1 s t)(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(x2 , y2 , z2 ) + t(x3 , y3 , z3 ) .

A = (y2 y1 )(z3 z1 ) (z2 z1 )(y3 y1 )

kx + `y + mz (kx1 + `y1 + mz1 ) = 0 .

(x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(a, b, c), X1 , OX1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ).

(2, 2, 3) + s (2, 1, 1) t (1, 3, 1) = ` (4, 3, 5) ,

a11 a12 . . . a1j . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2j . . . a2n

ai1 ai2 . . . aij . . . ain

(A + B)ij = aij + bij ,

k=1 aik bk1 . . .

k=1 aik bkp

aik ckt etj

aik ckt etj

4.20 EA, AE,

4.43 E21 E32

(2, 0) + (0, 3) 6 , 2(2, 0) 6 .

, = {(x, y) | 3x+2y = 0}, (x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 )

. aij = 0 i > ij , ij > ij1 aij j 6= 0.

(Pr Pr1 Pi+1 )Li = Ki (Pr Pr1 Pi+1 ) .

(Pr Pi+1 )1 = Pi+1

Ki = (Pr Pi+1 )Li (Pr Pi+1 )1

5.29 " #" A

(1, 0, 0) (3, 3, 0).

x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (v, u).

x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (u, 0).

7.1 x = (1, 2, 3) 14:

dim R(A) + dim N (AT ) = m

a1 v1 + + ak uk = y = (b1 w1 + + bnk wnk ) .

7.4, b = (4, 6, 9),

7.28 P1 a = (1, 3),

7.36 a = (1, 2, 1, 3).

(2, 4), (3, 6) (4, 9)

A(AT A)1 AT v3 = [w1 w2 ]

q1T v1 q1T v2 q1T v3

det(A + B) = det A + det B det(tA) =

det AB = s det CB + t det DB, d(A) = s d(C) + td(D).

= (b a)(c a)(c b).

8.14 n n A aij = ij, det A = 0,