WorkplaceStress

StressintheWorkplace:AGeneral
OverviewoftheCauses,theEffects,andtheSolutions
MelanieBickford

CanadianMentalHealthAssociation
NewfoundlandandLabradorDivision
August2005

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StressintheWorkplace:AGeneral
OverviewoftheCauses,theEffects,andtheSolutions

Stressintheworkplaceisagrowingconcerninthecurrentstateoftheeconomy,where
employeesincreasinglyfaceconditionsofoverwork,jobinsecurity,lowlevelsofjob
satisfaction,andlackofautonomy.Workplacestresshasbeenshowntohaveadetrimental
effectonthehealthandwellbeingofemployees,aswellasanegativeimpactonworkplace
productivityandprofits.Therearemeasuresthatindividualsandorganizationscantaketo
alleviatethenegativeimpactofstress,ortostopitfromarisinginthefirstplace.However,
employeesfirstneedtolearntorecognizethesignsthatindicatetheyarefeelingstressedout,
andemployersneedtobeawareoftheeffectsthatstresshasontheiremployeeshealthaswell
asoncompanyprofits.Thisreportisacalltoemployerstotakeactiononstresslevelsinthe
workplace.

GeneralStress
Simplystated,stressiswhatwefeelwhenwehavetorespondtoademandonour
energy.Stressisanaturalpartoflife,andoccurswhenevertherearesignificantchangesinour
lives,whetherpositiveornegative.Itisgenerallybelievedthatsomestressisokay(sometimes
referredtoaschallengeorpositivestress)butwhenstressoccursinamountsthatindividuals
cannotcopewith,bothmentalandphysicalchangesmayoccur(CanadianCentrefor
OccupationalHealthandSafety,2000).

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Wearealldifferentintheeventsthatweperceiveasstressorsandthecoping
abilitiesatourdisposal.However,thereareanumberofsituationswhicharegenerally
identifiedasbeingstressful,andincludefinancialworries,workoverload,unemployment,
relationships,parenting,balancingworkandfamily,caregiving,healthproblems,losses,
Christmas,competitiveness,peerpressure,exams,andnothavingenoughtime(CanadianMental
HealthAssociation,n.d.).
StressisaneverpresentissuewiththemajorityofCanadians,accordingtoresultsfrom
the2001CanadianMentalHealthSurvey(CanadianMentalHealthAssociation,2001).500
Canadianswereaskedthequestion,Thinkingaboutstressinyourlife,howoftendoyoufeel
reallystressedallthetime,afewtimesaweek,aboutonceamonth,afewtimesayear,oncea
yearorlessoften,ornever?Inresponse,9%ofCanadianssaidtheyfeltreallystressedallthe
time,43%feltreallystressedafewtimesaweek,while24%feltreallystressedaboutoncea
month.
Stressisanormal,adaptiveresponsetostressorsinourenvironment.Ourbodiesare
designedwithasetofautomaticresponsestodealwithstress.Thissystemisveryeffectivefor
theshortterm"fightorflight"responsesweneedwhenfacedwithimmediatedanger.The
problemisthat,physiologically,ourbodieshavethesamereactiontoall typesofstressors.
Experiencingstressforlongperiodsoftime,suchaslowerlevelbutconstantstressorsatwork,
activatesthissystem.Formanypeople,everydaystressorskeepthisresponseactivated,sothat
itdoesnothaveachancetoturnoff.
ThisreactioniscalledtheGeneralizedStressResponseandconsistsofthefollowing
physiologicalresponses:
increasedbloodpressure

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increasedmetabolism(e.g.,fasterheartbeat,fasterrespiration)
decreaseinproteinsynthesis,intestinalmovement(digestion),immuneandallergicresponse
systems
increasedcholesterolandfattyacidsinbloodforenergyproductionsystems
localizedinflammation(redness,swelling,heatandpain)
fasterbloodclotting
increasedproductionofbloodsugarforenergy
increasedstomachacids
Whenthissetofreactionsiscontinuouslyactivated,individualsbegintodisplaysignsand
symptomsthatindicatetheyarehavingdifficultycopingwiththestressorsintheirlives.These
symptomscanbephysical,psychosocial,andbehaviouralinnature,asillustratedinthe
followingtable(CanadianCentreforOccupationalHealthandSafety,2000):
Physical
Psychosocial
Behavioural
Headaches
Anxiety
Overeatingorlossofappetite
Grindingteeth
Irritability
Impatience
Clenchedjaws
Sadness
Quicknesstoargue
Chestpain
Defensiveness
Procrastination
Shortnessofbreath Anger
Increaseduseofalcohol/
Poundingheart
Moodswings
drugs
Highbloodpressure Hypersensitivity
Increasedsmoking
Muscleaches
Apathy
Withdrawalorisolationfrom
Indigestion
Depression
others
Constipationor
Slowedthinkingor
Neglectofresponsibility
diarrhea
racingthoughts
Poorjobperformance
Increased
Feelingsofhelplessness, Poorpersonalhygiene
perspiration
hopelessness,orofbeing Changeinreligiouspractices
Fatigue
trapped
Changesinclosefamily
Insomnia
relationships
Frequentillness
WorkplaceStress

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Whenaskedaboutthesourcesoftheirstress,amajorityofCanadians(51%)
reportedthatworkwasamajorormoderatesourceofstressintheirlives.Thisfigureisupfrom
39%reportedinaprevioussurveyconductedin1997.Basedonthesesurveyresultsitappears
thatworkplacestressisagrowingproblemamongCanadians(CanadianMentalHealth
Association,2001).
TheCanadianCentreforOccupationalHealthandSafety(2000)hasdefinedworkplace
stressastheharmfulphysicalandemotionalresponsesthatcanresultfromconflictsbetweenjob
demandsontheemployeeandtheamountofcontrolanemployeehasover meetingthese
demands.Experiencinglowerlevelsofstressatworkcanactuallybeamotivatorandserveto
increaseproductivityinemployees.However,itbecomesproblematicwhenstressoccursin
amountsthatindividualscannolongermanage.

HistoricalContext
Theepidemicofworkplacestresscanbeseenasaresultofchangingworkplaceand
economicconditionsoverthepast20to30years.Hoel,Zapf,&Cooper(2002)explainthe
changesthathavetakenplacespecificallyrelatingtoindustrializedcountries:
Inmostdevelopedcountries,the1980scouldbedescribedfromabusinessperspectiveas
thedecadeoftheenterpriseculture.Workplacesweretransformedbyglobalization,
privatization,processreengineering, mergersandacquisitions,strategicalliances,jointventures
andthelike.Intheshortterm,therewasanimprovementineconomiccompetitivenessin
internationalmarketsandthecountriesthatembracedthesechanges.Buteventually,strains
begantoshow,andtheconceptofburnoutbecamewellknownwithinorganizations.

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However,itwasbusinessasusualasworkwascarriedoutinessentiallythesamewayin
largeormediumsizedbusinesses.
Duringthe1990s,amajorrestructuringofworkwasbeginningtotakeplace.
Organizationsdramaticallydownsized,delayered,flattened,andrightsized.Theresult
wasredundancy,constantrestructuring,andsubstantialorganizationalchanges.Modernworkers
nowfindthemselvesinsmallerorganizations,withfewerpeopledoingmoreandfeelingmuch
lesssecure.Newtechnologyhasaddedtheburdenofinformationoverloadandacceleratedthe
paceofwork.
Twomajoreffectsthathavestemmedfromtheseeconomicchangesareknownaswork
intensificationandjobinsecurity.Theformerreferstotheextenttowhichemployeesare
beingforcedtoworkfasterandharderthantheyhavebeenbefore,whilethelatterreferstothe
subjectivefeelingsabouttheriskofjobloss,asexpressedbyemployeesthemselves(Burchell,
2002).
Thisneweconomicculturehascreatedmorestressfulworkenvironments,asseen
throughtheincreasingphysicalandmentaltollsonemployees,aswellasincreasingcostsfor
employersinthewayoflostproductivity,absenteeism,turnover,anddisabilityleave.

SourcesofWorkplaceStress
Stresscanbetheresultofanynumberofsituationsintheworkplace.Thefollowingtable
illustratescategoriesofworkplacestressorsandexamplesofeach(adaptedfromMurphy,1995):

CategoriesofJobStressors
Factorsuniquetothejob

Examples
Workload(overloadandunderload)
Pace/variety/meaningfulnessof

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Roleintheorganization

Careerdevelopment

Relationshipsatwork(interpersonal)

Organizationalstructure/climate

work
Autonomy(e.g.,theabilitytomake
yourowndecisionsaboutyourown
joboraboutspecifictasks)
Shiftwork/hoursofwork
Physicalenvironment(noise,air
quality,etc.)
Isolationattheworkplace(emotional
orworkingalone)
Roleconflict(conflictingjobdemands,
multiplesupervisors/managers)
Roleambiguity(lackofclarityabout
responsibilities,expectations,etc.)
Levelofresponsibility
Under/overpromotion
Jobsecurity(fearofredundancyeither
fromeconomy,oralackoftasksor
worktodo)
Careerdevelopmentopportunities
Overalljobsatisfaction
Supervisors
Coworkers
Subordinates
Threatofviolence,harassment,etc.
(threatstopersonalsafety)
Participation(ornonparticipation)in
decisionmaking
Managementstyle
Communicationpatterns

TheoreticalExplanationsofWorkplaceStress
Muchresearchattentionhasbeenfocusedontheissueofworkplacestress,somuchso
thattheorieshaveemergedtoexplaintherelationshipthatexistsbetweenstressandthework
environment.Thethreemostinfluentialandprevalenttheoriesofoccupationalstressincludethe
personenvironment(PE)fittheory,theframeworkofoccupationalstress,andthedemand
controlsupportmodel(Vandenberg,Park,DeJoy,Wilson,&GriffenBlake,2002).

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Thebasicpremiseofthepersonenvironment(PE)fittheoryisthatstressarises
fromamisfitbetweenpersonandenvironment notfromthetwocomponentsseparately,butas
thefactorsofeachrelatetooneanother.Whenindividualsperceivethattheirwork
environmentsarenotgood,ordonotfitwellwiththeneeds,wants,anddesiresthatthey
personallywouldlikefulfilledfromwork,thediscrepanciescreatediversestrains,whichare
thenhypothesizedtoaffectworkershealthandwellbeing.
Environmentaldemandshereincludejobrequirements,roleexpectations,andgroupand
organizationalnorms.Counteringthesedemandsaretheindividualsabilitiesrepresented
throughaptitudes,skills,training,timeandenergythepersonusestomeetthedemands.The
ideaisthatthelargerthediscrepancybetweenpersonandenvironment,thegreaterthelikelihood
thatstrain,andaneedforcoping,willarise.
The frameworkofoccupationalstressisbasedaroundthesamefoundationasthePEfit
theory.Theysharetwobasicpremises,first,thatstressarisesfromthemisfitbetweenperson
andenvironment,andsecond,thatsubjectiveperceptionsofworkenvironmentsprimarily
determinestrains.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoviewpointsistheframeworkscore
definition.Itstatesthatoccupationalstressisatotalprocessincludingtheenvironmentalsources
ofstressandtheindividualsperceptionofthem,shorttermandlongtermphysiological,
psychological,andbehaviouralresponses,aswellasanumberofmodifyingfactorsthat
influencetherelationshipsamongvariablesinthestressprocess(suchassocialsupport,andthe
qualityofinterpersonalrelationshipswithintheworkenvironment).
Perceivedstressandtheresultingstrainsareexplainedasasnowballeffect,a
reciprocalassociationwherethenegativefeelingsregardingworkincreasestrains,whichinturn
contributeevenmore tothenegativefeelings.Theendresultisthattheaccumulationof

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physiological,psychologicalandbehaviouralstrainswilleventuallyresultinlongterm
outcomessuchasacutedepression,alcoholism,unemployment,physiologicalproblems(e.g.,
cardiovascularproblems)andothercostlyresults.
Finally,the demandcontrolsupportmodelemphasizestheroleofworkcontentasthe
majorsourceofworkplacestress.Workcontenthereisdividedintotwocomponents:worker
perceptionsregardingthetasksthatneedtobecompletedinperformingthejob(jobdemands),
andworkerperceptionsaboutthedegreeofcontrolordiscretiontheyhaveinperformingthejob
tasks(jobcontrol).Thesetwoconstructsarethoughttointeractwithoneanotherinaffectingthe
amountofstrainexperiencedbyemployees.Thestrongestlevelsofstrain,andhence,the
greatestlevelsofoccupationalstresswereexpectedtooccurinsituationswheretherewere
extremelyhighdemands,andverylowcontrol.
Arevisedversionofthemodelincludessocialsupportasathirdcomponent.Social
supportisnotthoughttoeradicatestrain,butrathertobufferittosomedegree.
Researchtendstobeverysupportiveofthedemandcontrolsupportmodel;ithasbeen
effectivelyusedtopredictpsychologicalstrainandcardiovasculardiseaserisk.

SignsandSymptomsofStress
Whenthedemandsoftheworkplacebecometoomuchtohandle,employeesgenerally
displaysignsandsymptomsthatindicatetheyarefeelingstressedout.Unfortunately,
individualsmaynotrecognizethesesignsandletthemgountreated.Thisiswhereserious
conditionscanoccur,eithermentalorphysicalinnature,andaneedarisesforprofessional
intervention.Itisimportantthatemployeeslearntorecognizestressfulreactionsinthemselves

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andotherssothattheycanstopthedownwardspiralofstressbeforeitbecomesdetrimental
totheirhealth.
Completingastresstestisaquickandeasywaytodeterminewhetherornotstresslevels
arebecomingunhealthy.Therearenumerousvariationsofthetest,andtheycanbefoundinthe
literatureonstress,andalsothroughaninternetsearch.AstresstesttakenfromtheCanadian
MentalHealthAssociation(n.d.)isincludedinAppendixA.
Individualsdisplayvarioussignsandsymptomswhencontinuouslyfacedwithastressful
environment.Thesesymptomsdonotoccurallatonce,butprogressthroughseveralstages,
whicharedescribedinthefollowingtableadaptedfromAnnscheutz(1999):
Signs/Symptoms
Phase1:Warning

feelingsofvague
anxiety
Earlywarningsignsare
depression
oftenmoreemotionalthan
boredom
physicalandmaytakea
apathy
yearormorebeforetheyare emotionalfatigue
noticeable.
Phase2:MildSymptoms
sleepdisturbances
morefrequent
Warningsignshave
headaches/colds
progressedandintensified. muscleaches
Overaperiodof6to18
intensifiedphysicaland
months,physicalsignsmay
emotionalfatigue
alsobeevident.
withdrawalfrom
contactwithothers
irritability
intensifieddepression
Phase3:Entrenched
increaseduseof
CumulativeStress
alcohol,smoking,non
prescriptiondrugs
Thisphaseoccurswhenthe depression
abovephasescontinuetobe physicalandemotional
ignored.Stressstartsto
fatigue
createadeeperimpacton
lossofsexdrive
career,familylifeand
ulcers

SuggestedAction
talkingaboutfeelings
takingavacation
makingachangefrom
regularactivities
takingtimeforyourself
moreaggressive
lifestylechangesmay
beneeded
shorttermcounselling

thehelpofmedicaland
psychological
professionalsishighly
recommended

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personalwellbeing.

Phase4:Severe/
DebilitatingCumulative
StressReaction
Thisphaseisoften
considered"self
destructive"andtendsto
occurafter5to10yearsof
continuedstress.

maritaldiscord
cryingspells
intenseanxiety
rigidthinking
withdrawal
restlessness
sleeplessness
careersendprematurely significantintervention
asthma
fromprofessionals
heartconditions
severedepression
loweredselfesteem/
selfconfidence
inabilitytoperform
onesjob
inabilitytomanage
personallife
withdrawal
uncontrolledanger/
grief/rage
suicidalorhomicidal
thinking
muscletremors
extremechronicfatigue
overreactiontominor
events
agitation
frequentaccidents
carelessness/
forgetfulness
paranoia

EffectsofUntreatedStress
Humanterms.
Ournaturalresponsetostress,whilehelpfulinthreateningsituations,mayactuallycause
usphysicalandmentalharm.Whenindividualshavebeencontinuallyexposedtostressforlong
periodsoftime(i.e.,theirstressresponsesarecontinuouslyactivated),asituationknownas

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chronicstresscanoccur.Chronicstressischaracterizedbyemotionalvulnerability,
persistentnegativeemotions,elevatedhormonalbaselevels,hyperactivityoftheautonomic
nervoussystem(sothatthebodyneverrelaxes),andtendenciestoexperiencepsychosomatic
symptoms.Whileitisnotpossibletodrawdefinitivecausallinks,researchisshowingstrong
relationshipsbetweentheexperienceofchronicstressandthedevelopmentofillnessanddisease
(Grimshaw,1999).
Illnessesthathavebeenlinkedwithlongtermexposuretostressinclude:
Coronaryheartdisease(angina,strokeandheartattacks).Researchhasshownthat
individualswhosufferfromstressaremuchmorelikelytoexperiencebothfatalandnon
fatalheartattacks.
Hypertension(highbloodpressure).Thereisanundeniablelinkwiththestresshormone
cortisol,andtheincidenceof highbloodpressure.
Someformsofcancer.Beingconstantlystressedhastheeffectofloweringdefencesthat
mayhelpfightofftheinitialingressofcancer.
Rheumatoidarthritis.Althoughstressdoesnotappeartocauserheumatoidarthritisor
osteoarthritis,beingunderstresscanexacerbatetheseillnesses.
Diabetesmellitus.Thisdisordermaybeinherited,butthereisalsostrongevidence
linkingitwithstress.
Irritablebowelsyndrome.Ithasbeenshownthatstressoranxietyistoblameinalotof
cases.
Depression.Itiswidelyacceptedthatdepressionislinkedwithstress.Theusual
symptomsareupsetsleeppatterns,fatigue,increasedconsumptionofalcohol,muscle
achesandpains,poorselfesteemorlackofselfworth,amongavarietyofothers.

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Anxiety.Amongstthesymptomsofanxietyisusuallyanoverconcernwiththelack
ofcontroloveronescircumstances,eitheratworkorinonespersonallife.Thisisoften
madeworsebytheindividualbecomingsocaughtupinthinkingabout theirsituationthat
theybegintobelievethatthereisnowayoutoftheproblem.
Ulcerativecolitis(inflammationandulcerationofthecolonandrectum).Stressisoften
associatedwiththeonsetandworseningofthiscondition.
Strokes(provenlinkwithhighbloodpressure).Thereisstrongevidencethatpeople
understressaremorelikelytohaveastrokethantheirnonstressedoutcounterparts.
StomachandduodenalulcersandthebacteriumHelicobacterpylori.Therehasbeen
irrefutableevidencelinkingtheonsetofpepticulcerswiththebacterium Helicobacter
pylori,whichispresentinthegastrointestinalsystemofthelargemajorityofpeoplewith
pepticulcerdisease.
Indigestionandheartburn.Whenweareanxiousorstressedout,weproducetoomuch
acidinourstomach,whichirritatestheliningofthestomachandcanleadtothe
developmentofulcers.
ChronicfatiguesyndromeME(myalgicencephalomyelitis).Thisdiseaseischaracterized
byfeelingsofextremefatigue,depressionandageneraldisappointmentwithlife,which
canlastforseveralmonthsoryears(Clark,2002).

Burnout. Burnoutisaresponsetochronicstressthathasreceivedagreatdealofresearch
attentionbecauseofitsrelevanceintodaysworkplace.Burnoutisnotsimplyexcessivestress.
Rather,itisacomplexphysical,mental,andemotionalreactiontoconstantlevelsofhighstress,
anditrelatestofeelingthatyourinnerresourcesareinadequateformanagingthetasksand

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situationspresentedtoyou.Burnoutproducesfeelingsofhopelessness,powerlessness,
cynicism,resentment,andfailure aswellasstagnationandreducedproductivity.Thesestress
reactionscanresultindepressionandunhappinessthatcanthreatenyourjob,yourrelationships,
andyourhealth.
Burnoutpervadeseveryoccupation,butisthoughttobeespeciallyprevalentamong
serviceprofessionals,orthosewhodopeoplework,suchasteachers,clergymembers,health
practitioners,andcaregivers.Thesetypesof jobsrequireattendingtotheemotionalneedsof
others,andcanleadtoemotionalandphysicalfatigue,aswellasthefeelingofnolongerbeing
abletogiveofoneself.However,burnoutcanoccurinanyworksituationwhereapersonfeels
overworked,underappreciated,confusedaboutexpectationsandpriorities,concernedaboutjob
security,overcommittedwithresponsibilities,andresentfulaboutdutiesthatarenot
commensuratewithpay.
Personalcharacteristicsthatmayleadonetobemorepronetoburnoutincludethe
tendencytoplacetoohighexpectationsononeself,aswellasexcessivecompulsiveness,
perfectionism,andinflatedselfconfidence(Hutman,Jaffe,Segal,Kemp,&Dumke,n.d.).
Anextremeexampleofwhatcanhappeninstressfulworksituationsisknownas
Karoshi.ThisisalargelyJapanesephenomenon,andisquiteliterallytranslatedasdeath
fromoverwork.Karoshireferstodeathcausedbyheartattackandstroke,presumablybrought
aboutthroughacombinationoflongworkhours,highjobstress,andcardiovasculardisease.
ManyoftheworkerswhoarevictimsofKaroshiworkedforuptotwelvehoursaday,sixor
sevendaysaweek.Whilethisappearstobeanexceptionalseriesofcases,itspeakstojusthow
damagingworkplacestresscanbe(Wikipedia,n.d.;VocationalPsychology.com,n.d.).

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Financialterms.
Itisalsoimportanttolookatworkplacestressfromafinancialandeconomicstandpoint.
Itisgenerallyacceptedthatuntreatedworkplacestressisassociatedwithincreasedlevelsof
employeeabsenteeismandturnover,decreasedlevelsofproductivity,aswellaslostworkdays
duetodisabilityorsickleave(Williams,2003).ArecentU.S.estimateplacedthecostofstress
totheeconomy(duetoabsenteeism,healthinsuranceclaims,andlostproductivity)at
approximately$150billionperyear(Neuman,2004).Employersarebeginningtorecognizethat
thisassociationcannolongerbeignored,andthatorganizationalchangesneedtobemade.
Arecentpollrevealedthat66%ofCanadianCEOssurveyedadmittedthatstressisnow
thebiggestdrainfacingcorporateCanada,andisinfactdoingmoredamagetoproductivitythan
anythingelseintheworkplace(NationalUnionofPublicandGeneralEmployees,2005).The
samepollreportedthatstress,alongwithdepression,anxiety,orothermentalhealthdisorders,
arethemostseriousorganizationalissueswithrespecttotheissuesthatcausethemost
absenteeismandhavingthemostimpactonhealthbenefitsclaimscosts(InsuranceCanada.ca
Inc.,n.d.).
Employersareslowlystartingtorealizethatworkplacestressiscreatingphysicaland
mentalhealthproblemsintheiremployees,whichisinturnaffectingthebottomline.Ithasbeen
estimatedthatstressrelatedmentalhealthproblemsarecostingCanadianbusinesses$33billion
annuallyinlostproduction(Conner,2005),andrelatedmentaldisabilityisnowaccountingfor
anestimated3040%ofthedisabilityclaimsbeingrecordedbyCanadasmajorinsurersand
employers.Farlessisknownaboutthecostinlostproductivitybyemployeeswhocontinueto
workwhilesufferingfromstressrelatedconditions(TheEdmontonSun,2005).

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OtherresearchhasindicatedthatthemajorityofCanadianorganizationsconsider
thecontinuousriseinemployeesmentalhealthclaimstobeatopconcern,andthattherehas
beenahugeincreaseinstressandanxietyintheworkplaceanditisshowingupintheir long
termandshorttermdisabilitycosts.Infact,mentalhealthissuescontinuetobetheleading
causeofdisabilityclaims,anditsbeenreportedthathealthcareexpendituresarenearly50%
greaterforworkerswhoreporthighlevelsofstress.71%ofCEOspolled(NationalUnionof
PublicandGeneralEmployees,2005),agreethattheseissueswillbecomemoreofaproblem
withspirallinghealthcarecostsoverthenexttenyearsitsalreadyreachingtheextentthatthey
arebeginningtoworryabouttheirabilitytopayfuturedisabilityclaims.Inspiteofevidence
linkingstressandmentalhealthissuestofinancialloss,companieshavenonethelessbeenslow
toadoptinnovativementalhealthmanagementpracticesintheworkplace(TheProvince,2005;
Galt,2005;Williams,2003;CanadaNewsWireGroup,2005).
Alargepartoftheproblemofstressrelatedmentalillnessisthatthereisagenerallack
ofunderstanding aswellasaction onmentalhealthissuesintheworkplace.Thiscan be
aggravatedbyemployeesreluctancetoseekhelp.Furthermore,thereremainsastigma
associatedwithmentalillness,andthismaypreventemployeesfromseekingsupportfrom
superiorsandcoworkers.Employeesmayevenfearlosingtheirjoboveraninabilitytocope
withthestressorsinherentintheirjobs.Therecanbetragicconsequenceswhenemployeesare
afraidtoseektreatmentoraskmanagersandcoworkersforhelp.Itneedstoberecognizedthat
mentalillnessisaseriouscrisisforemployees,anditdemandsaseriousresponsefrom
employers.Mentalhealthhastobeseenasimportantasphysicalhealth(TheEdmontonSun,
2005;Harvey,2005).

WorkplaceStress
17
Employeesmentalhealthisavitaltoolforincreasingproductivityandprofits.
Treatingmentalillnessesearlynotonlybenefitstheemployeesthemselves,butitcanalsosave
companiesagreatdealofmoney.Ifcompaniesinvestmoneyintofindingworkerswhoare
sufferingfromstressrelatedmentalillnesses,andprovidethemwithprofessionalhelp,
companiesgeta100%returnontheirinvestmentbecauseemployeeswillshowupforworkand
bemoreefficientandproductiveonthejob.Ithasbeenshownthatwhenemployeesgetearly
accesstotreatment,employerscansave$5,000to$10,000perworkerperyearinthecostsof
prescriptiondrugs,sickleave,andwagereplacement.Companieshaveeveryreasontotryand
fosterhealthyworkenvironments,especiallywiththeknowledgethatprovidinghelpfortheir
workerswillnotrunupbig costs,butrathersavethemmoney(CanadianMentalHealth
Association,1999;Conner,2005;TheStandard,2005).
Awiderangeofstudieshavefoundthatmodifiablehealthrisks(i.e.,stress)canbe
improvedthroughworkplacesponsoredpreventativemedicineandhealthpromotionprograms
(Smith,2005).However,despitewidespreadacknowledgementofthedetrimentalimpactof
stressonindividualsandorganizations,theamountofattentiongivenbyemployersto
understandingthesourcesofworkplacestressandtoalleviatingstressfulworkconditionsis
relativelysmall.Stressresearchershaveobservedincongruencebetweenworkplacepractices
andtheoreticalandpracticalworkinthefield.Threereasonsthathavebeensuggestedtoexplain
thisinconsistencyinclude,1)managersperceptionsandbeliefsabouttheimpactofthework
environmentonlevelsofemployeestrainandgeneralwellbeing,2)theirbeliefsaboutwhois
responsibleformanagingindividualemployeeslevelsofstrain,and3) thecostsassociatedwith
makingorganizationlevelchangescomparedwiththoserelatedtoteachingindividualstocope
moreeffectively(Cooper,Dewe,&ODriscoll,2001).

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Thegoodnewsisthatdespiteageneralreluctancebyemployers,thereare
progressivecompaniesmakingchangesforthebetterandinstitutingvariousmeansofhelping
employeestomanagetheirstress.ThemeasuresthatemployerscantakeinthewayofStress
ManagementInterventions(SMIs)willbediscussedinalatersectionofthisreport.

IndividualDifferencesinReactionstoWorkplaceStress
Workplacestressdoesnothavethesameeffectonallindividuals.Therearearangeof
personal,social,andenvironmentalmoderatorswithineachofusthatinfluenceoursusceptibility
andcopingabilitiesinrelationtothestressorsweexperience.Personalitydifferences,gender
differences,age,andsocialsupportallseemtobeimportantfactorsindetermininghowwell
individualscopewithworkplacestress(Wichert,2002).

Personalitydifferences.
TypeAandTypeBpersonality.Withrespecttoindividualpersonalitydifferences,one
canviewworkplacestressasafunctionoftherelationshipbetweenworkcharacteristicsandthe
attributesof,and resourcesavailableto,theindividualworker.Awellknownperspectiveon
personalityvariablesandtheirrelationstostressarethedistinctionsbetweenTypeAand
TypeBpersonalitytypes,whichwerederivedbytwocardiologistslookingtoexplaintherole
ofpsychologicalfactorsincardiovasculardisease.TypeAbehavioursincludesuchthingsas
ambition,aggressivecompetitiveness,andaneagernesstogetthingsdoneontime,aswellas
selfabsorption,andatendencytobecynicalandhostile.Ontheotherhand,theTypeB
personalityincludesbehavioursthataremuchmorerelaxedandlesscompetitive.

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StudieshaveshownthatindividualsdisplayingTypeAcharacteristicshavea
significantlyincreasedriskofexperiencingthedeleteriouseffectsofstress,specificallywith
respecttocardiovasculardisease.ItisarguedthatindividualsexhibitingTypeAbehavioursare
morelikelytoenterintodemandingjobs,morelikelytooverreacttothem,andforthisreason
wouldbemore vulnerabletostressandcoronaryheartdiseaseinparticular(Wainwright&
Calnan,2002;Cowley,Hager&Rogers,1995).
AnotherdistinctionthatmayberelatedtotheTypeApersonality,involvestypesof
peopleknownashotreactors.Theseareindividualswho,whenfacingthechallengesofdaily
life,sufferextremesurgesinbloodpressure.Otherindividualswhodonotexhibitthisreaction
tostressors,havebeenfoundtobelessatriskforthedeterioratingeffectsofworkplacestress
(Cowleyetal,1995).

Locusofcontrol.Anotherpersonalityfactorthathasbeenfoundtoaffectindividual
reactionstostressorsisknownasthelocusofcontrol.Peoplecanbedifferentiatedonthe
basisoftheirgeneralizedexpectancyconcerninginternalandexternalcontroloflifeeventsand
outcomes.Specifically,someindividualsfeelthateventsarecausedbyfactorsexternaltothem
whichtheyhavelittleornocontrolover(meaningtheyhaveanexternallocusofcontrol), while
otherstendtofeelthateventsarecausedbyinternalfactorswhichtheyhaveagreatdealorentire
controlover(meaningtheyhaveaninternallocusofcontrol).
Thereisevidencetosuggestthatindividualswhohaveanexternallocusofcontroltend
torespondtoperceivedstressorswithnegativeemotionsandmaybemorepronetothenegative
effectsofstresswhentheyfeelpressuredatwork.Specifically,theseindividualshavebeen
showntoreportmoreburnout,higherlevelsof perceivedtress,lessjobsatisfaction,greater

WorkplaceStress
20
anger,frustrationandhostility,andhigherlevelsofanxiety.Whereas,theinternallocusof
controlisassociatedwithanumberofhighlydesirablebehavioursandattributes,including
higherjobmotivationandbetterperformance,higherjobsatisfactionandpsychologicalwell
being.Theunderlyingpremiseisthatindividualswhodefinestressfactorsascontrollablewill
bemorelikelytotryandcopewiththemusingaproblemsolvingapproachandwillthereby
experiencefewerilleffects.Externalsmightnottakeactivestepstoresolvetheirfeelingsof
stress(Grimshaw,1999).
Genderdifferences.
Genderisanotherfactorthatisimportantindeterminingsusceptibilitytoworkplace
stress. Researchindicatesthatwomenaremorelikelythanmentoexperiencethenegative
effectsofstress.Severalfactorsappeartomagnifytheeffectofworkplacestressonwomen,and
include:
Thepredominantrolethatwomenstillplayintheprovisionoffamilycare.Itiswell
establishedthatthetotalworkloadofwomenwhoareemployedfulltimeishigherthan
thatoftheirmalecounterparts,particularlywheretheyhavefamilyresponsibilities.
Lowerlevelsofcontrolintheirjobs,sincethegreatmajorityofwomenstilltendto
occupylessseniorjobsthanmen.
Thehigherproportionofwomenwhoworkinprecariousformsofemployment.
Theproliferationofwomeninhighstressoccupations.
Theprejudiceanddiscriminationsufferedbymanywomenwhoareinmoresenior
positions,suchasmanagerialjobs,bothasaresultoforganizationalandcorporatepolicy
andfromtheircolleaguesatwork.

WorkplaceStress
21
Largelyduetothesekindsoffactors,womenaresignificantlymorelikelytoreport
burnout,stressrelatedillnesses,oradesiretoleavetheirjobs(InternationalLabour
Organization,2001).
Alsoimportanttonoteisthattheremaybedifferencesinthecopingmechanismsmen
andwomenusetodealwithstress.Ithasbeenfoundthatin general,womentendtousemore
socialemotionalstrategiestocopewithstress,whereasmenaremorelikelytouse
behavioural/mentalordrug/alcoholdisengagement.Mentendtocopebywayofproblem
focusedstrategieswhilewomencharacteristicallyusemoreemotionfocusedstrategiesto
managetheirstress.Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatwomenmayhavebeensocializedina
waythatpredisposesthemtoineffectivecoping,forexample,womengetsickasawayofcoping
withstressmoreoftenthanmendo(Korabik,McDonald,&Rosin,1993).
Finally,whenitcomestohowmenandwomenreacttostressoverthelongterm,ithas
beenfoundthatmentendtoshowphysicaldeteriorationasaresponsetostressfulsituations,
whereaswomengenerallyexhibitpsychologicalsymptoms(Wichert,2002).

Age.
Agecaninfluencethetypeofworkplacestressexperienced,butittendstobespecificto
certainaspectsofthejob.Forexample,inastudyconductedbyStatisticsCanada(Williams,
2002)moreworkersovertheageof45feltstressasaresultofhavingtolearncomputerskills,as
comparedtoworkersbetweentheagesof15and24.Withrespecttostressasaresponsetorisk
ofinjuryoraccidents,moreyoungmenfeltthisasasignificantsourceofstressthanoldermale
workers.Youngemployeesweresignificantlylesslikelythanolderemployeestofeelthattoo
manyhours/toomanydemandswereasourceofstress.Lastly,itwasreportedbyWichert

WorkplaceStress
22
(2002)thatwithrespecttojobsecurity,olderemployeestendtoexperiencelessstressthan
theiryoungercounterpartsbutexperiencemorestressthanyoungerworkerswhenitcomesto
workintensification.

Socialsupport.
Thisisanotherfactorthatcanbuffertheeffectofworkplacestressthatanindividual
experiences.Socialsupportreferstotheresources(bothemotionalandpractical)thatare
derivedfromanindividualssocialnetworkoffamily,friends,coworkersandothersocial
contacts.Thereisasubstantialbodyofevidencesuggestingthatlackofsocialsupportmaylead
toillhealth,andinfacthasbeenshowntoexertapositiveeffectonpeopleshealthandwell
beinginarangeofstressfulsituations.
Ithasbeensuggestedthatsocialsupportbringshealthbenefitsirrespectiveofthedegree
ofstressencounteredbytheindividuals,andalsoactsasabufferagainstthenegativeeffectsof
stressbyfulfillingspecificneedsthroughpracticalhelp,adviceandinformationoremotional
comfort.Additionally,socialsupportmayservetoa)reducetheimportanceoftheperception
thatasituationisstressful,b)insomewaytranquillizetheneuroendocrinesystemsothatpeople
arelessreactivetoperceivedstress,orc)facilitate healthybehaviours,suchasexercisingor
gettingsufficientrest.
Whenitcomestoappraisingpotentialstressors,theavailabilityofemotional,
informational,andinstrumentalsupportmaysubstantiallyeffectanindividualsperceptionof
threat.Emotionalsupportmayincreaseindividualsconfidenceintheirabilitytodealwiththe

WorkplaceStress
23
challengesthatconfrontthem.Informationalsupportmayyieldnewstrategiesfor
resolvingparticularproblems,orreducetheperceivedmagnitudeofthechallengebyplacingit
inthecontextofdifficultiesencounteredbyothers.Finally,instrumentalsupportmayofferthe
resourcestoresolveaproblemorstopitfromarisinginthefirstplace(Wainwright&Calnan,
2002;Wichert,2002).
CopingStrategiesandInterventions
Whateverthecausesofthisworkplacestressepidemic,thereisnodenyingitsexistence
asoneofthekeyproblemsofmodernworkinglife.Becauseofthepervasivenessofstressinthe
workplace,thereisaneedtodefinecopingmechanismssothatthelongtermnegativeeffectsof
persistentstresscanbeavoided.Therearetwodifferentapproachestocopingwithstress.The
firstapproachistolocatetheoriginsofworkstressinthestructureandorganizationofthe
modernworkplaceandtoseethesolutionintermsofjobredesign.Thesecondapproachisto
locateworkstressintheresponsesoftheindividualandseethesolutionintermsoftherapeutic
intervention(Wainwright&Calnan,2002).
Themosteffectivemethodforworkerstomanagestressseemstolieinsolutionsthat
combinestressmanagementatboththeorganizationalandindividuallevel.Ofthetwo,
organizationalstrategiesaremoreeffectiveinreducinglongtermstressandriskofillness,
however,itisjustasimportantthatindividualshavepersonalcopingstrategiesattheirdisposal
forwhenstressinevitablyoccurs(Cahill,Landsbergis,&Schnall,1995).

IndividualLevel
Itisextremelyimportantthatindividualsaretaughttorecognizewhentheyarefeeling
stressedoutandtodeveloppersonalcopingstrategiestoutilizewhentheyarefeeling

WorkplaceStress
24
overwhelmedbystress.TheCanadianMentalHealthAssociation(n.d.)listsanumberof
methodsforindividualstouseincopingwithstress.

Relaxationtechniques.
Learningrelaxationtechniquescanbeoneofthemosteffectivewaysofdealingwith
stress.Whilethestressresponsespeedsupthebodysreactionsandtensesthemuscles,
relaxationwilldotheopposite,bydeepeningbreathing,slowingthepulseandheartrate,and
relaxingthemuscles.
Deepbreathingisatoolwehaveatourdisposalallthetime.Nomatterwhereyouare,it
iseasytotakeafewminutestopracticedeepbreathing,exhalingslowly untilyourabdomenis
flat,thenfillingupyourlungs,diaphragmandabdomenwithairasyouinhale.Doingthis
severaltimesadaywillhelptocalmyourbodyandyourmind.
Progressiverelaxationreferstotheprocessoftrainingyourbody torelaxcompletelyby
tensingandreleasingeachsetofmusclesinturn.Booksorcassettetapesareavailablethatcan
helptoguideyouthroughtheprocess.
Massagetherapyandhotbathsareothermethodsofrelaxingtensemusclesthatwillhelp
releasestress.

Waystofocusyourmind.
Individualswhoworryexcessivelyandbeatthemselvesupintheirownmindscan
benefitfromfindingwaystofocustheirmindsandletgooftroublesomeorpainfulthoughts.

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25
Theancientpracticeofmeditation isaprovenwaytoworkwiththechaosofour
thoughtstowardsasenseofpeace.Therearemanybooksonmeditationandmanydifferent
techniques,aswellasanumberofgroupsthatcanprovideanintroductiontothepractice.
Spendingregulartimeonahobbywillhelptorestoreenergyandsenseofwellbeing.
Absorbingyourselfinsomethingyoureallyenjoyisagreatwaytogiveyourselfabreakfrom
thehasslesandstressesofeverydaylife.
Wehavealreadyspokentothebenefitsofsocialsupportintheworkenvironment.
However,havingsupportivefriendsingeneralcanhelpwhenweareexperiencingstress.Weall
needsomeonewecantalktogetourworriesoffourchest,someonewhowilllistenwithout
judgementandappreciateyouforwhoyouare.
Oneoftheverybestwaystorelaxyourmindisbylaughing!Good,heartylaughter
causesthereleaseofendorphins,whicharethebody'snatural"feelgood"chemical.Itisagood
ideatocollectthingsthatmakeyoulaugh cartoons,books,movies andlookatthemwhenyou
feeloverstressed.You'llbeamazedhowsmilesandlaughtercanlightenyourmood.

Dailyhabits.
Individualswhofeeltiredandlackinginenergymaybeexperiencingstressdueto
unhealthydailyhabitsthatareinterferingwiththebodysabilitytomaintainasenseofwell
being.Anindividualsdiet,amountofsleep,caffeineconsumption,andlevelofactivityareall
importantfactorsinonesgeneralhealth.Maintainingyourhealthbypractisinghealthyhabits
canbeimportantinfightingoffthenegativeeffectsofstress.
Itisimportantto maintainabalanceddiettoensurethatwearekeepingourbodies
healthy.Wearewhatweeat,andweneedabalancedintakeofhealthyfood.Toomuchfatty

WorkplaceStress
26
"comfort"foodaddsweightanddepletesenergy.Itisimportanttogetenoughfreshfruit
andvegetables,anddrinkplentyofwater.
Ourbodiesneedadequatesleeptorestoreourenergy.Manypeoplethesedaysaresleep
deprivedwithoutrealizingit.Artificiallightandlatenighttelevisionkeepmanyofusupand
awakeathourswhenourancestorsusedtosleep.Trygoingtobedearlyafterahotbath,orlisten
toarelaxationtapetohelpyoufallasleep.You'llfeelmuchbetterinthemorning.
Itisadvisabletocutcaffeineconsumptiondown.Caffeineisastimulantthatsimulates
thestressresponseandcanmakeusedgyand"hyper".Keepingyourconsumptiondowntothree
cupsofcoffeedaily,orcuttingitoutcompletelyisrecommended.
Exerciseisoneofthebestwaystoreleasetensionandrelaxourmindsandbodies.It's
greatifyouenjoysports,butitdoesn'thavetobethatformal.Swimmingandbikingare
excellent.Walkingthedog,workinginthegarden,andvacuumingthehouseareallformsof
exercise.Orjoinadanceoryogaclassandgetthebenefitofmeetingpeoplealongwiththe
exercise!
Grimshaw(1999)pointsoutthatwhileindividuallevelstressmanagementinterventions
maybeofvalueinhelpingworkerscopewithunavoidablepressures,theydealwithonlypartof
theproblem,andneedtoactasasupplementtoorganizationalchangeprogramsthatdealwith
therootcausesofstressinunhealthy workenvironments.

OrganizationLevel
Organizationsmayhavedifferentreasonsforwantingtoimplementstressmanagement
initiatives.Onereasonmaybetheneedtoreducethecoststotheorganizationofstressrelated
illness,absenteeismandstaffturnover.Itmaybeahumanitariandesiretoimproveworking

WorkplaceStress
27
conditions.Theremayberegulationsinplaceregardingthelistingandassessingof
workplacehazards,includinghazardstomentalhealthsuchaspsychologicalstress,andto
provideasafeworkingenvironment.Anorganizationmightwishtobeseenascaringandas
lookingaftertheiremployeesinordertoraisemoraleorimprovethecompanyimage.Afinal
reasonforwantingtomakethesechangesmaysimplybetofollowcurrenttrends,whereother
suchorganizationsareintroducingstressmanagementinterventions(Grimshaw,1999).
Whateverthereason,theissueofworkplacestresscannolongerbeignored,anditisnecessary
forchangestobemadewhereunhealthyworkenvironmentsexist.

Stressmanagementinterventions.
Thereareabroadrangeofinterventionsthatcanbeusedtomanagestressinthe
workplace.Theseincludeinterventionsthataimtochangetheindividual,theindividuals
relationshipwiththeorganization,andtheorganization.
Threebroadaimsofstressmanagementinterventionsinclude1)prevention,through
controlofhazardsbydesignandworkertrainingtoreducethelikelihoodofworkers
experiencingstress,2)timelyreaction,toimprove theabilityofmanagerstorecognizeanddeal
withproblemsastheyarise,and3)rehabilitation,whichofteninvolvesofferingenhanced
supportsuchascounsellingtohelpdistressedworkerscopeandrecover(Grimshaw,1999).
Thefollowingsectionsexplainsomecommonlyusedstressmanagementinterventionsin
theworkplace.

EmployeeAssistancePrograms. AnEmployeeAssistanceProgramme(EAP)isa
systematic,ongoingandorganizedservice,fundedbytheemployerandprovidingcounselling,

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28
advice,andhelptoemployeesandtheirfamilieswithproblemsarisingfrombothwork
relatedandexternalsources.EAPshavetwomainobjectives:1)tohelpemployeesdistractedby
arangeofpersonalconcerns,includingemotional,stress,relationship,family,alcohol,drug,
financial,legalandotherproblems,tocopewithsuchconcernsandtolearntomanagethe
stressesproduced,and2)toassisttheorganizationintheidentificationandimprovementof
productivityproblemsinworkerswhoseperformanceisadverselyaffectedbysuchconcerns.
EAPsaregenerallyseenasthefirststeptotakeinseekinghelpwithstressrelated
emotionalproblems.Theseservicesmaybeprovidedinhousebydesignatedstaff,ordelivered
byanexternalcontractor.Mostcounsellingwithinthisserviceisshorttermtherapyaimedat
helpingtheclientatatimeofchange,choice,orcrisis.Workplacecounsellingdoesnotaimto
bethekindofpersonalrestructuringaccomplishedbyapsychoanalyst.Insteadcounsellingis
viewedasanopportunitytolearnproblemsolvingskillsandtocreatenewlifechoices.The
servicesofanEAPcangenerallybeextendedtoemployeesfamilymembersaswell,butthis
mayvarydependingontheorganization.
AweaknessoftheEAPservicesurroundsthedelicatebalancebetweenassisting
individualsandpromotingtheinterestsoftheorganization.Theproblemliesinattemptingto
allyamentalhealthdriventherapytoaperformanceandprofitdominatedsystemofproduction
ofgoodsandservices. Thedegreeofbenefitgainedbytheorganizationwillbeindirect
correlationwiththeextenttowhichtheEAPisintegratedintotheorganizationalstructure
(Grimshaw,1999;CanadianMentalHealthAssociation,2004).

StressManagementTraining. Inrecentyears,ithasbecomepopulartooffertrainingin
stressmanagementtechniquesintheworksetting.Individuallevelstressmanagementtraining

WorkplaceStress
29
seekstoeducatestaffaboutstressanditsassociatedhealtheffects,andtoteachcopingand
stressreductionskills.Interventionshavemoreoftenthannotbeenofferedinapreventative
contexttoparticipantsnotsufferingfromanyevidentstressrelatedproblems.Trainingusually
consistsofsomeformofrelaxationexerciseincombinationwithcognitivetechniquesborrowed
fromthefieldsofcounsellingandpsychotherapy.Elementsofmanagementskills,suchastime
management,andofinterpersonalskills,suchasdelegationandassertiveness,maybeincluded.
i.Relaxationtraining
Theobjectiveofrelaxationtrainingistoreducetheindividualsarousallevelboth
psychologicallyandphysiologically.Psychologically,successfulrelaxationresultsinenhanced
feelingsofwellbeing,peacefulnessandcontrol,andareductionintensionandanxiety.
Physiologically,decreasesinbloodpressure,respirationandheartrateshouldtakeplace.
Progressivemusclerelaxation.Thisinvolvesfocusingattentiononmuscleactivity,
learningtoidentifyevensmallamountsoftensioninamusclegroups,andpractisingreleasing
tensionfromthemuscles.Musclerelaxationisusuallyaccomplishedbyaseriesofalternating
tensingandreleasingexercisesandinvolvescreatingtensioninamusclegroup,studyingthe
feelingsoftension,andthenallowingthemusclestorelax.
Meditation. Meditationmethodstaughtinstressmanagementtrainingareoftensecular
versionsoftraditionallypractisedTranscendentalMeditation.Forexample,theRespiratoryOne
Methodrequiresapersontositcomfortablyinaquietplacefor20minutestwiceadayand
repeattheworkoneorsomeotherneutralwordwitheachexhalationwhilemaintaininga
passivementalattitude.

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30
Biofeedbacktraining. Inbiofeedbacktraining,anindividualisprovidedwith
informationorfeedbackaboutthestatusofaphysiologicfunctionandovertimelearnstocontrol
theactivityofthatfunction.Potentially,biofeedbacktechniquescanbeusedtobringawide
rangeofphysiologicalfunctionsundercontrol,includingheartrate,bloodpressure,stomach
activity,andbodytemperature(Grimshaw,1999).

ii.Cognitivebehaviouralskillstraining
Cognitivebehaviouraltechniquesrefertoarangeofskillsdesignedtohelpparticipants
toappraisesituationsmorerealisticallysoastoreducethethreattheypresent,andtodevelop
behaviouralskillstomanagestressfactorssuccessfully.Cognitivereappraisalorrestructuring
focusesonremovingdistortedviewsofasituationthatcanarisefromovergeneralization,
personalizationandexaggerationofitsimpact.Approachesusedinthistypeoftrainingaimto
helpindividualsgainahigherdegreeofcontrolovertheirreactionstostressorsbymodifying
unhelpfulpatternsofthinking.
Themostwidelyusedapproachiscalledstressinoculationtraining,andconsistsofthree
phases.Thefirstphaseiseducationalandaimstohelptheindividualunderstandthenatureof
stressandstresseffects.Thesecondphaseconsistsofskillacquisitionandrehearsal,andhasthe
objectiveofteachingindividualsarangeofcopingskillstoreduceanxietyandenhancetheir
capabilitytorespondeffectivelyinstressfulsituations.Thethirdandfinalphase,applicationand
followthrough,involvestheapplicationofcopingskillsthroughroleplayor guidedimageryin
conditionsthatincreasinglyapproximatereallife(Grimshaw,1999).

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31
CrisisIntervention. Feworganizationshavedevelopedcomprehensiveplanstodeal
withtheacuteandlongtermeffectsoftraumaticeventsonthehealthandmoraleofemployees.
However,implementingcrisisinterventionstrategiesintheworkplaceisimportantwhenyou
considertheeffectsoftraumaticeventsonthehealthandwellbeingofemployees,andthe
resultingeffectstotheirperformanceatwork.
Traumaticeventsintheworkplacecanarisefrommanysources.Somejobscarryhigher
thannormalrisksofexposuretocrimeorinjury,suchaslawenforcement,emergencyresponse,
andretailbanking.However,suddendeath,violenceorthethreatofviolencecanstrikeany
workforceandcanhaveaprofoundeffectonindividualandgroupfunctioning.Havingacrisis
interventionmethodavailableforwhenemployeesexperiencedistressingandpainfuleventscan
helpminimizedisruptionofworkwithintheorganization.
Peopleexposedtotraumaticeventsintheworkplacemaydisplayarangeofreactions
includingemotionalnumbing,withdrawal,irritability,fearfulness,depression,sleepdisturbance,
substanceabuse,andprolongedmedicalproblems.Ithasbeenshownthatmobilizationofsocial
supportatworkisvitaltotherestorationofgeneralmoraleandtheprotectionofthehealthof
individualworkers.Acrisisresponseplanthatencouragescommunicationandgroupsupport
shouldconsistofthefollowing:
CrisisreadinessAsetofprocedurespreparedinadvanceincludingcommunicationplans,
securityprocedures,handlingshutdowns,etc.
Formationofacrisisresponseteam,includinghighlevelmanagementwhosevisibilitywill
bereassuringtostaff.
Meetingswithaffectedgroups,whichwillcombineaninformation,education,andemotion
sharingapproach.

WorkplaceStress
32
Crisiscounsellingforindividualemployees,especiallyprimaryvictimsandwitnesses.
Followup,includingevaluationofthesuccessoftheinterventionsandplanningforthe
future.
Additionally,stressdebriefinghasbeenwidelypromotedasameansofpreventingor
reducingpsychologicaldistressexperiencedfollowingaseveretrauma.
CriticalIncidentStressDebriefing(CISD)isthemostwidelyusedgroupintervention
techniqueforthepreventionofworkrelatedtraumaticstressdisorderamonghighrisk
emergencyresponsepersonnel.CISDcanbedefinedasgroupmeetingsordiscussiondesigned
todiminishthepsychologicalimpactofatraumaticevent,preventthedevelopmentofpost
traumaticstressdisorder,andserveasanearlyidentificationmechanismforindividuals
requiringprofessionalcounselling.Participantsaregiventheopportunitytodiscusstheir
thoughtsabout,andemotionsfollowing,atraumaticevent.Theyarealsotaughtaboutnormal
reactionstotraumaandstressmanagementtechniques,andhavetheopportunitytoseetheyare
notaloneintheirresponses(Grimshaw,1999).

StressorReductionInterventions. Jobcharacteristicsthatcanbeassociatedwithpoor
levelsofmentalandphysicalhealthtypicallyincluderoleambiguity,roleconflict,jobinsecurity,
lowinvolvementindecisionmaking,andworkoverloadamongothers.Inspiteofthesefactors
beingprevalentin manyorganizations,relativelylittleattentionhasbeenfocusedon
organizationalchangeasawayofimprovinghealthandwellbeingofemployees.Implementing
changesaimedatreducingworkstressorscanbecostlyanddifficulttoimplement.Stressor
reductionrequiresanidentificationofthestressagentsfollowedbyplannedchangesin
organizationalstructureandfunction,whicharepotentiallyexpensiveanddisruptivetoongoing

WorkplaceStress
33
work.Itisthereforemorefinanciallyfeasiblefororganizationstoconcentrateoncheaper
individualcentredapproaches,thantotackletherootoftheproblemsinherentinthework
environment.
Regardlessofthisfact,researchintheareasupportsorganizationallevelinterventionsas
thepreferredapproachtodealingwithemployeestressbecausetheyconcentrateoneliminating
thesourcesoftheproblemratherthansimplytreatingthesymptoms.Organizational
interventionsmayinclude:
Changingorganizationalcharacteristics,suchasrewardsystems,staffselectionsystems,or
traininganddevelopmentsystems.
Changingrolecharacteristicsthroughroleredefinition,reductioninroleunderloador
overload,reductioninroleconflictandincreasingparticipationindecisionmaking.
Changingtaskcharacteristicsthroughjobredesigntotakeaccountofworkersabilities,use
ofworkerspreferencesinselectionandplacement,provisionoftrainingprograms,and
treatmentofworkersasindividuals.

Theideaslistedintheabovesectionsarebroadinnature,andaremeanttogiveanoverall
glanceatthecurrentmethodsofstressinterventionsintheworkplace.Somepractical,workable
stepsthatanorganizationcantaketoreducestressintheiremployeesarelistedinCahilletal
(1995)andareexplainedasfollows:

Thefirststepisto offeranoccupationalstressworkshop.Thissendsamessageofconcern
foremployees,willeducateworkersaboutstress,andhelptoidentifythemostimportant
personalandorganizationalconcernsabouttheissue.

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34
Organizeanoccupationalstresscommittee.Thecommitteeshouldmeetonanon
goingbasisandformulateastrategyforimprovingtheworkenvironment.Thiscommittee
shouldincludebothlabourandmanagement.Employeesfromvariousdepartments,
divisions,shifts,andworkgroupsshouldbeincluded.Managementrepresentativesshould
includepersonswithrealauthorityintheorganization.Thiscommitteeshouldalsobe
distinguishedfromotherongoingcommittees.
Increaseemployeessenseofcontrolandparticipationintheworkplace.Thekeypointhere
istoincreaserealcontrolandparticipation;nottheillusionofcontrol.Somepossible
strategiesmayincludeusingstaffmeetingsmoreeffectivelytoencourageparticipationand
input;anddevelopingautonomousworkgroups.
Increasetheskilllevelsofemployees.Unfortunately,manyofthejobspresentlybeingadded
totheeconomyareextremelylowskillones.Skillfulworkallowsfortheongoing
developmentofnewskillsandtheopportunitytousethem.Possibleworkplacestrategiesto
counterthedeskillingeffectmayincludeincreasedskillbasedtraining,useofcareerladders
torewardskilldevelopment,useofjobrotationtoexpandskills,useofjobredesignto
increaserangesofskillneeded,andhealthyuseofcomputersforskilldevelopment.
Increaselevelsofsocialsupport.Keycomponentsofsocialsupportintheworkplaceare
supervisorysupportandcoworkersupport.Somepossiblestrategiesmayincludetrainingin
proactivesupervision;traininginconflictresolutionandteambuilding;andappropriateuse
ofstaffretreats.
Changesthatimprovephysicalworkingconditions.Thereisextensiveevidenceshowingthat
poorphysicalworkingconditionscontributenotonlytophysicalhazards,butstresslevelsas
well.Somepossiblestrategiesmayincludeimprovingindoorairquality;reducinglevelsof

WorkplaceStress
35
physicalhazardssuchasnoise,toxins,chemicals,etc.;andjobredesigntoreduce
incidenceofrepetitivestraininjuries(i.e.,reducingrepetitivework,awkwardworkpostures
and/orheavylifting.).
Healthyuseoftechnology.Strategiesmayincludehealthyuseofcomputers;andstaff
involvementinchoosingnewequipment.
Maintainjobdemandsathealthylevels.Peopleareattheirmostproductiveandhealthyif
theycanworkatamanageablelevel.Possiblestrategiesmayincludereduceduseof
overtime;caseloadrestrictions;brakemechanism(anadministrativegroupdesignedto
reducetheamountofchangetheorganizationinitiates);andformationofWhatdontwe
needtodo?committee(aninternalgroupchargedwithfindinglowpriorityorunnecessary
tasks).
Changesthatprovideforjobsecurityandcareerdevelopment.Changesthatareintendedto
eliminatejobsareusuallyincompatiblewitheffortstoimprovethequalityoftheworking
environment.Morepositiveapproachesattempttousetheskillsofexistingemployeesina
moreeffectivemanner.Possibleworkplacestrategiesmayincludeextensionofcareer
ladders;andexpansionofresponsibilitiesandtasks.
Changesthatprovidehealthyworkschedules.Moreflexibleworkscheduleshavethe
potentialofimprovingemployeesatisfactionandreducingstress.Possibleworkplace
strategiesmayincludereduceduseofforcedovertime;rotatingshiftsinaforward(dayto
night)schedule;anduseofflextimeandotheralternativeworkweekschedules.
Strategiestoimprovepersonalcopingmechanisms.Thesestrategiescanbeseenasuseful
companionstoorganizationalchangeefforts.Adistinctionmustbemadebetweenfunctional
anddysfunctioncopingmechanisms.Somehealthychoicesincludeimprovingthedietof

WorkplaceStress
36
employees;encouragingtheemployeestoexercise;traininginmusclerelaxation
techniques;trainingineffectivecognitivestrategies;traininginsubstanceabuseawareness;
organizingdiscussiongroupsonhealthystressreducers;transitiontime(thebasicideabeing
totrainemployeestofindawaytorelaxfor2030minutesbeforeassumingfamily
responsibilities,allowingthebodysautonomicresponsestoreturntobaselinelevels);and
trainingonfamilydynamicsandparentingskills(improvingemployeesabilitiestohandle
pressuresathomecanhavemajorpayoffsforanorganization,asemployeeswillbeless
stressedingeneral).
Developstrategiesthatdonotharm.Changeforthesakeofchangeisnotagoalofstress
reductionprograms.Oneeffectivewaytoavoidthesenegativeoutcomesistodesignan
assessmentmechanismthatwillaccuratelymeasurekeyaspectsoftheworkenvironmentand
stresssymptomsbefore,duringandafteryourefforts.Importantthingstoassessincludethe
following:Hassocialsupport(bothcoworkersandsupervisory)increased?Havejob
demandsdecreased?Haveemployeessenseofautonomyandcontrolincreased?Hasjob
satisfactionincreased?Haveskilllevelsanduseofskillsincreased?Havephysicalor
psychologicalstresssymptomsdecreased?Apositivefindingonanyofthesemeasuresisan
encouragingaffirmationofhealthyorganizationalchange.

Asorganizationsworktoimplementchanges,theinterestshouldlienotjustinworkplace
stressperse,butinidentifyingandworkingtowardsthehealthyworkorganizationwhere
workplacestressisconsideredamongotherfactorssuchashealthpromotion,andsafetyandrisk
management.Akeyassumptionofthehealthyworkorganizationisthatcreatingand

WorkplaceStress
37
maintainingsuchanorganizationisgoodforallstakeholdersemployees,shareholders
(andothersconcernedwithfinancialperformance),andsocietyingeneral.
Inworkingtowardsthegoalofmaintainingthehealthyworkorganization,sixfairly
distinctbutinterrelatedcomponentsmustbekeptinconsideration:
i.

Coreorganizationalattributes.Specificattributes thatarerelevantinclude
involvement,qualityofworklife,safetyandhealth,organizationalvalues,and
organizationalbeliefs.Focusshouldbeonemployeesperceptionsoftheattributes,
andnotonsomeobjectiveassessmentoftheexistenceofthoseattributes.

ii.

Domainsofsocialsupport.Opportunitiesshouldbeprovidedformeaningful
interpersonalinteractionandcommunication,bothforemotionalsupportandsupport
infulfillingjobtasksandotherassignedresponsibilities.

iii.

Jobdesign.Jobsshouldinvolvereasonableworkloads,meaningfulandworthwhile
tasks,adequatelevelsofcontrol,andclearjobexpectations.Workscheduleisalsoan
importantelement,aswellastheminimizationofexposuretoenvironmental
stressors.

iv.

Jobfuture.Employeesshouldbeclearlyinformedaboutopportunitiestoimprove
theirjobskillsandcareeropportunities,aswellasabouttheorganizationand
economicdevelopmentsthatmayaltertheiremploymentsituation.

v.

Workadjustment.Definedthroughfourindices:jobsatisfaction,organizational
commitment,psychologicalempowerment(includingworkplaceselfefficacy,and
perceivedimpactontheworkgroup),andexperiencedjobstress.

WorkplaceStress
38
vi.

Organizationaleffectiveness.Itisnecessarytomeasurerelevantoutcomes
relatedtotheemployeesaswellastheorganizationtodetermineifchangeshavebeen
beneficial(Vandenbergetal,2002).

Conclusion
Stressisnotsomethingtobedismissedasbeingjustpartofthejob,orthepriceyoupay
forbeingsuccessfulinyourcareer.Stresshasbeenshowntobeeitherdirectlyorindirectly
responsibleforearlyanduntimelydeathsthroughheartattack,stroke,highbloodpressure,anda
multitudeofotherstressrelatedillnesses.Whilethementalandphysicalhealthofemployees
aresufferingduetounhealthyworkenvironments,stressisstillseenasasignofweaknessin
manyorganizations,andiskeptquietsoastoavoidnegativerepercussions.Stresstendstobe
eitherignoredordismissedbytheverypeoplewhoarebestplacedtodosomethingaboutit
managingandseniordirectors,personnelandtrainingmanagers,occupationalhealthworkers,
anddepartmentalmanagersandsupervisors.
Theopportunityexistsforemployersandemployeestogettogetherandmakewayfor
changesthatwillreducestressrelatedillness.Changemustcomefromthetop,anditis
thereforeimperativeformanagerstorecognizethattheyhavealegalandmoralresponsibilityto
protectthephysicalandmentalwellbeingof theirworkers(Clark,2002).
Itistheintentionofthisreporttoeducateonthedamagingeffectsofworkplacestress,
andincreaseawarenessofthewidespreadnatureofthisproblem.Itishopedthatthisknowledge
willmotivateorganizationstoexplorethestressorsthatarepresentintheirownwork
environments,andtotakestepstoreduceand/orpreventstressintheworkplace,thereby
workingtomaintainthehealthandwellbeingofemployees.

WorkplaceStress
39

WorkplaceStress
40
AppendixA
SelfScoringStressTest

Chooseanumberforeachstatementandaddupyourownscore.
almost
always
(2points)

Behaviour

afew
rarely
timesa
week (0points)
(1point)

Ifeeltense,anxiousorhavenervousindigestion.
Iseemtobelowinenergy.
Ieat/drink/smokeinresponsetotension.
Ihavetensionormigraineheadaches,orpainintheneckor
shoulders.
Iseemtohavetroublegettingtosleepnaturallyorhave
difficultygettingbacktosleepifawakened.
IfinditdifficulttoconcentrateonwhatI'mdoingbecauseof
worryingaboutotherthings.
Itakepills,medicine,alcoholorotherdrugstorelax.
Ihavedifficultyfindingenoughtimetorelax.
IfIfinallyfindthetime,itishardformetorelax.
Ifeelpressuredduringmyworkday.
Ifinditdifficulttolaugh.
Maximumtotalscore=22
MYTOTALSCORE=_____
Score
1422
1013
69
35
02

Tensionlevel
Considerablyaboveaverage
Aboveaverage
Average
Belowaverage
Considerablybelowaverage

Ifyou'reaboveaverage,it'svitalforyoutodevelopacopingplan.Andifyou'redoingfineatthe
moment,agoodcopingplanwillhelpyoustayfine(CanadianMentalHealthAssociation,n.d.).

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