Professional Documents
Culture Documents
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
M H Armbruster*, MSc Mech Eng (Wits)
Cape Town, 14 July 2002
1.
ABSTRACT
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a computer based technology for predicting the
stresses and strains in structures. It can also be used to predict deflections, natural
frequencies, heat transfer, dynamic response and buckling and has been popular in the
aerospace and automobile industry to reduce the cost and improve the reliability of load
carrying components. This paper presents examples of composite structures which
have been optimised using FEM. Comparisons are made with components designed
using traditional methods, with the emphasis on the reduction of material mass and
component cost.
The geometry on which the FEM model is based can often be loaded directly from
computer aided design (CAD) programs (See Figure 9,10,11, 25 and 26). Some
programs have modules where the element mesh (consisting of nodes and elements),
loads and constraints can be generated within the CAD environment, and then exported
directly into the FEM program for analysis. This 3D solid model sometimes requires
some simplification for FEM, but means that the main features are used for the
generation of the FEM model and the subsequent 2D general arrangement and detailed
manufacturing drawings. The use of parametric 3D CAD software also allows for easier
updating of the 3D model once the results of the FEM analyses are obtained (and have
been checked).
This paper presents applications where FEM has been used successfully for:
- Concept Design - done early in the design cycle
- Detailed Design done once the customer is happy with the concept and the
geometry is better defined.
- Laminate Optimisation cost reduction and reverse engineering.
- Failure Analysis used by investigation consultants and third party inspection.
- Design Verification client review of a design, third party inspection.
Each section gives a detailed description of one example and short description of a few
other relevant applications.
3.
factors was obtained, and this confirmed that the FEM model represented the
loading accurately.
A different material was then defined for each circumferential band of the FEM
model, with the laminate composition varying from band to band (Figure 3). The
outer band represented the outer tip of the axle. The inner band represented the
middle of the axle at the centreline of the helicopter. The benefit of this technique is
that the material composition of the axle can be varied from band to band. This
enables both the orientation and the thickness of each orientation to be
continuously varied along the length of the axle, in response to the variation of the
axial, circumferential, shear and radial stresses. The layup consisted of a 0, 45
and 90 layers. A nomex honeycomb was used for the portion between the
fuselage supports in order to increase the buckling strength. (See Figure 5 and 6).
The output was compared using the Tsai-Wu failure criteria. Each layer in the 30
different bands was evaluated, and the thickness of this layer was increased (or
decreased) in multiples of the per layer thickness in order to increase (or decrease)
the load carrying capacity of that layer.
A spreadsheet was used to convert the output of the FEM prediction into a number
of layers for the next FEM iteration. After this process was repeated a number of
times, the optimum was reached and no further reduction of mass was possible for
a given Tsai Wu safety factor. This method ensured that the entire component had
the same safety factor. The mass of the axle was reduced from 32kg for the
original steel component to a predicted mass of 6 kg for the carbon fibre
composite, with no sacrifice of the margin of safety.
This same technique was used for the optimum design of composite aircraft
seating. A economy class seat and business class seats are shown in Figures 31
and 16 respectively. Both seats were analysed for a range of different loading
conditions which include load and deflection limiting cases.
3.2 Other Examples
Figure 6 shows a concept analysis of a carbon fibre archery bow. Figure 8 shows
a hollow carbon fibre windsurfer which was analysed for various load cases as
specified by the client. All of these components were successfully placed in
production based on laminates very similar to those specified during the concept
stage.
each other with respect to the stresses, deflection and masses quickly allows an
optimum design to be chosen. The other loading conditions such as impact,
internal pressure, external pressure and burial loads can also be evaluated. By
doing a matrix of FEM testing of various constructions vs loading conditions, the
optimised design can quickly be determined. The tests required for qualification of
the vessel can also be modelled to ensure that the vessel is strong enough to pass
all of the qualification and acceptance tests.
4.3 Other Examples
Figure 16 shows the detailed design using FEM for a carbon fibre business class
seatback. Figure 17 and 18 show how FEM was used in the detailed design of a
carbon fibre wing for a supersonic aircraft. Figure 18 show how a FEM analysis is
used to predict the natural frequency of the first mode of vibration.
5.
7.
8. CONCLUSION
Finite Element Methods are a powerful tool to enable todays engineers to
successfully design, build and analyse composite structures. The ability of these
techniques to accurately predict the load distribution in the structure and determine
the effect of stress concentrations enables the designer to compensate by adding
extra reinforcing material in these regions. Systematic use of this technique can result
in the design of highly optimised structures, which complies with all the customer
requirements, and does not weigh or cost more than it needs to.
APPENDIX A : REFERENCES
A1. American Standards Institute, ANSI/AISC N690-1994, Specification for the design
fabrication, and erection of safety related structures of safety-related structures for
nuclear facilites
A2. Timoschenko, S., Woinowski, S. and Krieger, Theory of plates and shells , 2nd
Edition, McGraw Hill.
A3. Roark, R.J. and Young, W.C., Formulas for stress and strain, 5th Edition, McGraw
Hill.
A4. Armbruster, M.H , MSc Thesis Dissertation: The effect of liquids on the stress
distribution in a glass fibre reinforced plastic road tanker, University of the
Witwatersrand, 1992
A5
British Standards Institute BS 4994: 1987, Design and construction of vessels and
tanks in reinforced plastics
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10 American Bureau of Shipping, ABS 1986-1993: Guide for building and classing
offshore racing yachts
A11 South African Standard Specification: SABS 1668:1997, Fibre-Reinforced Plastic
(FRP) tanks for buried (underground) storage of petroleum products.
A12 European Standard: CEN/TC 210/WG6 N 53, Filament wound FRP pressure
vessels materials, design, calculation, manufacturing and testing.
A13 European Standard: CEN/TC 210/SC1 N 74, Requirements and test methods for
double wall tanks
8
Figure 1. Comparison between theory and FEM predictions for the longitudinal stress
resultant in a GRP road tanker subjected to uniform internal pressure.
Figure 2. Comparison between theory and FEM predictions for the circumferential stress
resultant in a GRP road tanker subjected to uniform internal pressure.
Figure 3. FEM model of the one half of the helicopter composite axle, with different materials
assigned to each band.
Figure 4. FEM plot showing the stress in the outer longitudinal layer as a result of the crash
load case
10
TOTAL THICKNESS
(NOMEX+CARBON)
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
CARBON THICK
NOMEX THICK
Figure 5. Variation of thickness along the length of the helicopter composite axle (centreline
on the left)
HELICOPTER COMPOSITE AXLE
LOADCASE CRASH 9
140
120
NO OF LAYERS
100
80
60
40
20
0
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
+45
+90
-45
11
Figure 7. Analysis of a carbon archery bow using FEM from the concept stage.
Figure 8. FEM buckling analysis of a hollow carbon fibre windsurfer board used to
determine initial laminate details
12
Figure 10. 3D rendered model showing a section through the wall of the GRP
underground storage tank.
13
Figure 11. A section through the GRP UST which is exported from the 3D CAD package
and imported to the FEM program for mesh generation. The rib stiffener and
overlay laminate are clearly visible.
Figure 12. Stresses in the corrosion barrier for a section of the GRP UST supported by
a cross brace and GRP ring stiffener.
14
Figure 13. Stresses in the corrosion barrier for a section of the GRP UST supported by
a GRP ring stiffener.
Figure 14. Stresses in the corrosion barrier for a section of the GRP UST supported by
a Steel ring stiffener overlaid with GRP.
15
Figure 15. Stresses in the corrosion barrier for a section of the GRP UST consisting of a
GRP shell section only (no ribs stiffeners or cross bracing)
Figure 16. Detailed design using FEM for a carbon fibre business class seatback.
16
Figure 17. Detailed design of a carbon fibre wing for a supersonic aircraft at ultimate
load using FEM .
Figure 18. FEM analysis to predict the natural frequency of the first mode of vibration .
This was determined to be at 46 Hz
17
Figure 19. FEM of a section of the conical bottom of a silo as calculated by BS 4994
Figure 20. FEM of a section of the conical bottom of a silo after optimisation
18
Figure 21. FEM of a section of the conical bottom of a silo with proposed
circumferential and radial stiffeners.
Figure 22. Detailed design using FEM for a glass reinforced sandwich satellite TV
antenna.
19
Figure 23. Top dome of an ice scraper vessel designed to BS 4994 optimised by FEM to
carry the torsion loads.
Figure 24. Shell of an ice scraper vessel designed to BS 4994 optimised by FEM to
carry the torsion loads
20
Figure 26. 3D solid model of the keel, keel support, keel bolts and hull.
21
Figure 27. The effect that the specified grounding load has on the fibres along the axis
of the keel.
Figure 28. The effect that the specified grounding load has on the keel support structure
22
Figure 29. Buckling design verification of a silo designed for 250mm vacuum, 150 km/hr
wind, full contents and a 8 ton vertical top load.
23
Figure 31. Model of an economy class carbon fibre seatback used to determine the
regions responsible for seat structural failure
Figure 32. Model of the corner of a flat bottomed pressure vessel. Each layer of material
was given its axisymmetrical orthotropic properties.
24
25