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Unit8 Ap
Unit8 Ap
2 Hours
(b) Display Devices and Signal Generators: X-Y recorders. Nixie tubes. LCD
and LED display. Signal generators and function generators.
4 Hours
UNIT 8a:
Interfacing resistive transducers to electronic circuits.
Introduction to data acquisition systems.
The major problem with resistive transducers, which includes strain gages,
temperature transducers is that the resistance change is very small.
As an
First, the zero output voltage Point can be set for a convenient point such as 0
degrees Celsius or 0 degrees Fahrenheit instead of an absolute zero, which would
be the situation if only the transducer current were measured. The setting of the
zero output point can be achieved by adjusting the values of R1, R2 , and R3
to provide bridge balance at the desired temperature. The change of output
voltage in Fig 1. is
Eqn.1
The output voltage is not a linear function of the change in resistance because
of the R term in the denominator of Eqn. 1.
An improvement may be made by providing a constant current source for the
bridge as shown in Fig.2.
This technique requires the use of two matched transducers in the environment to
be measured. Most resistive transducers are not expensive items, and providing
two matched transducers on a common header is not a difficult task.
acceleration,
Display Devices and Signal Generators: X-Y recorders. Nixie tubes. LCD and
LED display. Signal generators and function generators.
LEDs
Bright, efficient,
small size
LCDs
Good contrast in bright ambient light, low power, compatible with ICs
NIXIEs
ELs
Many colors
X-Y recorders
A strip chart recorder records the variations of a quantity with respect to time
while a X-Y Recorder is an instrument which gives a graphic record of the
relationship between two variables. In strip chart recorders, usually self-balancing
potentiometers are used. These self-balancing potentiometers plot the emf as a
function of time.
In X-Y Recorders, an emf is plotted as a function of another emf. This is done by
having one self-balancing potentiometer control the position of the rolls (i.e., the
paper) while another self-balancing potentiometer controls the position of the
recording pen (stylus). In some X-Y recorders, one self- balancing potentiometer
circuit moves a recording pen (stylus) in the X direction while another selfbalancing potentiometer, circuit moves the recording pen (stylus) in the Y
direction at right angles to the X direction while the paper remains stationary.
Hence a X-Y Recorder consists of a pair of servo systems, driving a recording pen
in two axes through a proper sliding pen and moving arm arrangement as shown
in Fig. 5.
There are many variations of X-Y recorders. The emf used for operation of X-Y
recorders, may not necessarily measure only voltages. The measured emf may be
the output of a transducer that measure displacement force, pressure, light
intensity or any other physical quantity.
Fig.5
Nixie Tube
It is a non-planar display device. It is a gaseous glow tube having a set of
electrodes, each shaped in the form of a digit. The selected electrode (3 as shown
in Fig. 6) is surrounded by a gaseous discharge, or glow when the digit is selected.
The electrodes are stacked one behind the other and hence the various digits
appear in different planes in the readout.
Fig.6
Fig.7
In summary the Nixie Tube is a cold cathode glow discharge tube, popularly
known as Nixie which is the trade mark of M/s Burrough' s Corporation U.S.A.
Working: The display works on the principle that when a gas breaks down, a
glow discharge is produced. A gauze electrode with a positive voltage supply
functions as an anode, and there are 10 separate wire cathodes, each in the shape
of a numeral from 0 to 9 (see Fig. 7). The electrodes are enclosed in a glass filled
envelope with connecting pins at the bottom. Neon gas is usually employed and it
gives an orange-red glow when activated. However, other colours are available
when different gases are used.
There is one anode and 10 cathodes. After a negative voltage is applied to the
selected cathode, a simple gas discharge diode is formed which lights the selected
digit. A transistor gate is usually employed at each cathode so that the desired
numeral can be switched on.
The circuitry driving the nixie tubes is simpler than that for seven segment
displays. However, high voltages (150 - 220 V) are required to produce glow
discharge.The current required is of the order of 1- 5 mA. The Nixie tubes are
bulkier in size than the seven segmental displays.
Modern Nixies vary in construction. The original Nixie had 10 cathodes
representing numerals 0 - 9 but additional cathodes displaying decimal symbol
and + and - signs are being used. Special Nixies (shown in Fig. 8) have 15
cathodes constituting 15 segments that be used to produce numeric as well as
alphanumeric characters.
Fig.8
Fig. 9
The liquid crystal material may be one of the several organic compounds which
exhibit optical properties of a crystal though they remain In liquid form. Liquid
crystal is layered between glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on the
inside faces. When a potential is applied across the cell, charge carriers
flowing through the liquid disrupt the molecular arrangement and produce
turbulence. When the liquid is not activated, it is transparent. When the liquid is
activated the molecular turbulence causes light to be scattered in all directions and
the cell appears to be bright. The phenomenon is called dynamic scattering.
The construction of a field effect liquid crystal display is similar to that of the
dynamic scattering type, with the exception that two thin polarizing optical filters
are placed at the inside of each glass sheet. The liquid crystal material in the field
effect cell is also of different type from that employed in the dynamic scattering
cell. The material used is twisted nematic type and actually twists the light passing
through the cell when the latter is not energized. This allows the light to pass
through the optical filters and the cell appears bright. When the cell is energized,
no twisting of light takes place and the cell appears dull
Liquid crystal cells are of two types. (i) Transmittive type and (ii) Reflective type.
In the Transmittive type cell, both glass sheets are transparent, so that light from a
rear source is scattered in the forward direction when the cell is activated. The
reflective type cell has a reflecting surface on one side of glass sheets. The
incident light on the front surface of the cell is dynamically scattered by an
activated cell.
Both types of cells appear quite bright when activated even under ambient light
conditions.
The liquid crystals are light reflectors or transmitters and therefore they consume
small amounts of energy (unlike light generators).
Unlike LEDs which can work on d.c. the LCDs require a.c. voltage supply. A
typical voltage supply to dynamic scattering LCD is 30 V peak to peak with 50
Hz.
LED
The LED is basically a semiconductor PN junction diode capable of emitting
electromagnetic radiation under forward conductions. The radiation emitted by
LEDs can be either in the visible spectrum or in the infrared region,
depending on the type of the semiconductor material used. Generally, infra-red
emitting LEDs are coated with Phosphor so that, by the excitation of phosphor
vislible light can be produced. LEDs are useful for electronics display and
instrumentation.
The advantage of using LEDs in electronic displays are as follows.
1. LEDs are very small devices, and can be considered as point sources of light.
They can therefore be stacked in a high-density matrix to serve as a numeric
and alphanumeric display. (have a character density of several thousand per
square metre).
2. The light output from an LED is function of the current flowing through it. An
LED can therefore, be smoothly controlled by varying the current.
This is particularly useful for operating LED displays under different ambient
lighting conditions.
3. LEDs are highly efficient emitters of EM radiation.
4. LEDs with light output of different colours, i.e. red. amber, green and yellow
are commonly available.
5. LEDs are very fast devices, having a turn ON-OFF time of less than 1 us.
6. The low supply voltage and current requirements of LEDs make them
compatible with DTL and TTL, ICs.
Signal Generators
A signal generator is a vital component in a test setup, and in electronic
troubleshooting and development, whether on a service bench or in a research
laboratory. Signal generators have a variety of applications, such as checking the
stage gain, frequency response, and alignment in receivers and in a wide range of
other electronic equipment.They provide a variety of waveforms for testing
electronic circuits, usually at low powers.
The term oscillator is used to describe an instrument that provides only a
sinusoidal output signal, and the term generator to describe an instrument that
provides several output waveforms, including sine wave, square- wave, triangular
wave and pulse trains, as well as an amplitude modulated waveform.
When we say that the oscillator generates a signal, it is important to note that no
energy is created; it is simply converted from a DC source into AC energy at some
specific frequency.
There are various types of signal generator but several requirements are
common to all types.
The above mentioned requirements vary for special generators, such as function
generators, pulse, and sweep generators.
Various kinds of signals, at both audio and radio frequencies, are required at
various times in an instrumentation system. In most cases a particular signal
required by the instrument is internally generated by a self-contained oscillator.
The oscillator circuit commonly appears in a fixed frequency form. (e.g. when it
provides a 1000 Hz excitation source for an ac bridge). In other cases, such as in a
Q-meter, oscillators in the form of a variable frequency arrangement for covering
Q-measurements
over
wide
range
of
frequencies,
from
few
In more advanced
laboratory types of
extends quite a bit further e.g. a Hewlett Packard model covers 5 Hz - 600 kHz
and a Marconi model generates both sine and square waves and has a very wide
range of 10Hz 100 MHz.
The simple sine wave generator consists of two basic blocks, an oscillator and an
attenuator. The
accuracy
of the frequency,
stability,
and
freedom from
distortion depend on the design of the oscillator, while the amplitude depends
on the design of the attenuator.
STANDARD SIGNAL GENERATOR
A standard signal generator produces known and controllable voltages. It is
used as power source for the measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio (S/N),
bandwidth, standing wave ratio and other properties. It is extensively used in the
testing of radio receivers and transmitters. The instrument is provided with a
means of modulating the carrier frequency, which is indicated by the dial
setting on the front panel (see Fig. 11). The modulation is indicated by a
meter. The output signal can be AmplitudeModulated (AM) or Frequency
Modulated FM. Modulation may be done by a sine
wave,
square
wave,
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
The front panel of the signal generator consists of the following:
Frequency selector :It selects the frequency in different ranges and varies it
continuously in a ratio of 1 : 10. The scale is non-linear.
Frequency multiplier It selects the frequency range over 5 decades, from 10 Hz to
1 MHz.
Amplitude multiplier: It attenuates the sine wave in 3 decades, x 1, x 0.1 and x
0.01.
Variable amplitude It attenuates the sine wave amplitude continuously.
Symmetry control It varies the symmetry of the square wave from 30% to 70%.
Amplitude It attenuates the square wave output continuously.
Function switch It selects either sine wave or square wave output.
Output available This provides sine wave or square wave output.
Sync This terminal is used to provide synchronization of the internal signal with
an external signal.
On-Off Switch
FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator (refer Fig. 14) produces different waveforms of adjustable
frequency. The common output waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and
sawtooth
waves. The frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a Hertz to several
hundred kHz. The various outputs of the generator can be made available at the
same time. For example, the generator can provide a square wave to test the
linearity of an amplifier and simultaneously provide a sawtooth to drive the
horizontal deflection amplifier of the CRO to provide a visual display.
Fig. 14
Generally freq is varied by either L or C. Here it is done by varying the current
supplied to the integrator. The freq controlled voltage regulates the 2 current
sources. The upper current source controls the integrator whose output is
.
The voltage comparator multivibrator changes states at a pre-determined
maximum level of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts off the upper
current supply and switches on the lower current supply. The lower current source
supplies
reverse
current
to
the
integrator,
so
that
its output decreases linearly with time. When the output reaches a pre- determined
minimum level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on the
upper current source. The output of the integrator is a triangular waveform whose
frequency is determined by the magnitude of the current supplied by the constant
current sources.
The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage of the same frequency. The
resistance diode network alters the slope of the triangular wave as its
amplitude changes and produces a sine wave with less than 1% distortion.
Pulse Generator & a Square Wave Generator
These generators are used as measuring devices in combination with a CRO. They
provide both quantitative and qualitative information of the system under test.
They are made use of in transient response testing of amplifiers. The fundamental
difference between a pulse generator and a square wave generator is in the duty
cycle.