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SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Since fire is one of the most dangerous threats to the safe operation of an aircraft, manufacturers and operators
install a variety of overheat, fire detection, smoke detection, and extinguishing devices. Although the majority of
aircraft fire-protection systems are installed around the powerplant section, it is typically the responsibility of an
airframe technician to maintain all fire-protection systems regardless of where they are installed. To maintain the
highest level of reliability from these systems, a technician must be familiar with the basic operating principles,
troubleshooting, and repair of the various types of fire protection devices used on modern aircraft.
FIRE DETECTION
PRINCIPLES OF
FIRE-DETECTION SYSTEMS
For a fire to occur, three conditions must be met.
There must be fuel, oxygen, and enough heat to
raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition or
kindling point. If any of these elements is missing or
removed, fire will not be sustained. [Figure 16-1]
Chemically, fire is a reaction between oxygen and
fuel. This reaction reduces fuel to its basic chemical
elements and in the process produces tremendous
amounts of heat. Paper, for example, is an organic
material composed primarily of carbon and
hydrogen. When the paper is heated to its kindling
temperature in the presence of air, the carbon and
hydrogen will unite with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) and water (H2O). Other elements in the
paper, and the products of incomplete combustion,
show up as ash and black carbon to form smoke.
In the case of smoke and fire hazards aboard aircraft,
the emission of smoke or the presence of flames and
heat makes it reasonably easy for a person to
physically detect a fire or overheat condition. The
smoke
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may not only be ineffective, but may even cause the
fire to spread. Although these types of fires are not
common in aircraft during flight, they can occur in
maintenance shops, where metal shavings may
ignite when exposed to intense heat such as from a
welding torch or high-voltage source.
FIRE ZONES
Various compartments in an aircraft are classified
into fire zones based on the amount and
characteristics of airflow through them. The
airflow through a compartment determines the
effectiveness of fire-detection systems, as well as the
effectiveness of suppressant materials used to
extinguish a fire. Fire zones are primarily classified
by the amount of oxygen that is available for
combustion and are identified as A, B, C, D, or X
zones.
Class A zones have large quantities of air flowing
past regular arrangements of similarly shaped
obstructions. The power section of a reciprocating
engine is a common example of this zone. For these
areas, a fire-extinguishing system is usually
installed, but may not prove adequate since the
suppressant may be carried out into the
air-stream before extinguishing the fire.
Class B zones have large quantities of air flowing
past
aerodynamically
clean
obstructions.
Heat-exchanger ducts and exhaust manifold
shrouds are usually of this type, as are zones where
the inside of the cowling or other enclosure is
smooth, free of pockets, and adequately drained so
that leaking flammables cannot puddle. For
example, turbine engine compartments are in this
zone class, if the engine surfaces are
aerodynamically clean and a fireproof liner is
installed to produce a smooth enclosure surface
over any adjacent airframe structure. Class B zones
are usually protected by temperature sensing
elements or flame and smoke detection systems as
well as extinguishing equipment, to provide a means
of controlling a fire if one should occur.
Class D fires involve burning metals such as magnesium, and are difficult to extinguish. Using the
wrong type of extinguishing agent with these fires
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FIRE-DETECTION/OVERHEAT
SYSTEMS
Engine fire-detection systems generally fall into two
categories: spot-detection type systems and
continuous-loop type systems. With a spot-detection
type system, individual fire detectors, or switches,
are used to detect a fire. Such detectors must be
placed in locations where a fire is likely to occur,
because with this type of system a fire warning
sounds only when a fire exists in the same location
as the detector. The continuous-loop type system
works on the same basic principle as the spot-type
fire detectors, except that a single switch in the
form of a long inconel tube is used instead of
several individual switches. The small-diameter
inconel tube is run completely around an engine
nacelle or an area that surrounds an auxiliary power
unit, thus allowing more complete coverage than
spot-type detection systems.
The most common types of fire detection systems
found in modern aircraft include Fenwal, the
Kidde, the Lindberg, the Systron-Donner, and the
flame-detector system.
FENWAL SYSTEMS
Fenwal produces a thermoswitch fire-detection system, a thermocouple fire-detection system, and a
continuous-loop fire-detection system.
THERMOSWITCH DETECTOR
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Figure 16-3. Fire detection systems using multiple thermal switches are wired so that the switches are in parallel with each other
and the entire group of switches is in series with the indicator light. When one switch closes, a ground is provided for the circuit
and the warning light illuminates.
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Figure 16-4. With the double-loop thermoswitch system shown here, wire loop A is positive while wire loop B is negative.
However, if an open or short develops in wire loop A, the sudden rush of current will activate a relay that causes the positive loop to
become negative and the negative loop to become positive.
THERMOCOUPLE DETECTOR
The total number of thermocouples used in a particular detector circuit depends on the size of the
fire zone and the total circuit resistance. Typically,
circuit resistance is less than five ohms. In addition,
most thermocouple circuits contain a resistor connected across the slave relay terminals. This resistor
absorbs the coil's self-induced voltage when current
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Figure 16-5. In a thermocouple fire detection circuit, the wiring system is typically divided into a detector circuit, an alarm circuit,
and a test circuit. When a temperature difference exists between an active thermocouple and the reference thermocouple, current
flows through a sensitive relay coil. When the sensitive relay closes it trips the slave relay, which, in turn, allows current to flow
to the warning light.
Figure 16-6. Fenwal continuous-loop fire detection elements sense a large area for fire and overheat conditions. In
this picture, a continuous-loop detector can be seen running through an area inside an engine cowling.
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KIDDE SYSTEM
The Kidde system is also a continuous-loop type
system consisting of a single overheat-sensing element that varies in length. The sensing element
consists of a rigid, preshaped inconel tube with two
internal wire conductors. The conductors are
embedded in a thermistor, or thermal resistor material, to prevent the two electrodes from touching
each other and the exterior casing. Like the eutectic
salt used in the Fenwal system, the thermistor material has an electrical resistance that decreases as the
temperature increases. [Figure 16-9]
One of the wires is electrically grounded to the
outer tube at each end and acts as an
internal
LINDBERG SYSTEM
The Lindberg fire detection system is a pneumatic
continuous-loop type system consisting of a
stainless steel tube filled with an inert gas and a
discrete material that is capable of absorbing a
portion of the gas. The amount of gas the material
can absorb varies with temperature. One end of the
tube is connected to a pneumatic pressure switch
called a responder, which consists of a diaphragm
and a set of contacts. [Figure 16-10]
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Figure 16-11. With a Lindberg fire-detection system, power is supplied to both the control unit and test unit by the AC bus. When
a fire or overheat condition exists, the diaphragm switch closes, completing the circuit for both the warning light and the bell.
When the temperature surrounding the sensing element rises because of a fire or overheat condition,
the discrete material within the tube also heats up
and releases the absorbed gas. As the gas is released,
the gas pressure within the tube increases and
mechanically actuates the diaphragm switch in the
responder unit. Once the diaphragm switch closes,
the warning light illuminates and the alarm bell
sounds. Because the Lindberg system works on the
principle of gas pressure, it is sometimes referred to
as a pneumatic system. [Figure 16-11]
To test a Lindberg system, low-voltage alternating
current is sent through the element's outer casing.
This current heats the casing until the discrete
material releases enough gas to close the contacts in
the diaphragm switch and initiate a fire warning.
When the test switch is released, the sensing element cools allowing the discrete material to
reabsorb the gas. Once absorbed, the contacts in the
diaphragm switch open and the fire warning stops.
SYSTRON-DONNER SYSTEM
The Systron-Donner system is another pneumatic
continuous-loop system that utilizes a gas filled
tube with a titanium wire running through its center as a sensing element. The tube itself is made of
stainless steel and is filled with helium gas. The
titanium wire, on the other hand, acts as a
gas-absorption material that contains a quantity of
hydrogen.
For
protection,
the
wire
is
either
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Figure 16-12. The Systron-Donner fire detection and overheat system consists of a helium-filled sensor tube surrounding a hydrogen-charged core. With this system, excessive temperatures increase the gas pressure which forces a diaphragm switch closed.
Once closed, power flows to the warning light and bell.
Figure 16-13. A typical installation of a Systron-Donner system consists of two independent loops attached to a support tube. The support tube establishes the routing of the
detector element and provides attach points to the airplane.
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the photoelectric cell, the smoke detector amplifiers, and associated circuits are all operable.
[Figure 16-15]
SMOKE DETECTORS
To be reliable, smoke detectors must be maintained
so that smoke in a compartment will be indicated as
soon as it begins to accumulate. In order for the
detector to operate properly, smoke detector louvers, vents, and ducts must not be obstructed.
Smoke detection instruments are classified by
method of detection, and, in some cases, an aircraft
will have different types of detectors installed in
various locations.
LIGHT REFRACTION TYPE
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IONIZATION TYPE
Figure 16-16. The ionization-type detector conducts electricity until smoke particles in the detection system cause a
decrease in the amount of current flow.
SOLID-STATE TYPE
FIRE-DETECTION SYSTEM
INSPECTION AND TESTING
Although the airframe structure and engine cowl
provide some protection for the sensing elements of
fire-detection systems, damage can still result from
vibration and handling during removal and installation. This, combined with the relatively small size
of sensing elements, dictates the need for a regular
inspection program. The following procedures are
provided as examples of some general inspection
practices that should be periodically accomplished
on a typical fire-detection system. However, these
procedures should not be used in lieu of the manufacturer's approved maintenance directives or
applicable instructions.
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time period established for the system. On some aircraft, an audible alarm will also sound.
For some spot-type and thermocouple detection
systems, as well as continuous-loop systems, a
Jetcal Analyzer unit may be used to physically test
a sensing element. A Jetcal Analyzer consists of a
heating element that is used to apply a known heat
value to a fire-detector element. The heat value displays on the potentiometer of the Jetcal control
panel. When the alarm temperature is reached, the
cockpit warning light will illuminate. If the light
illuminates before the prescribed temperature setting, the entire detector circuit should be inspected
for dented sensing elements, kinked wires and sensing tubes, or other damage that could affect the electrical resistance of the circuit. [Figure 16-17]
CONTINUOUS-LOOP
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
One of the first items that must be periodically
checked on continuous-loop detection systems is
the routing and security of the detector elements.
Long, unsupported sections can vibrate excessively
and cause damage to the element. Common loca-
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tions of cracked or broken elements are near inspection plates, cowl panels, engine components, or
cowl supports.
The distance between clamps on straight runs is
usually between 8 and 10 inches and is specified by
each manufacturer. To ensure adequate support
when a sensing element ends at a connector, a support clamp should be located about four to six
inches from the connector fitting. On elements that
are routed around certain components, a straight
run of one inch is typically maintained from all connectors before a bend is started. The optimum bend
radius for most continuous-loop type sensing elements is three inches. [Figure 16-18]
Figure 16-19. Grommets should be installed on the sensing
element so both ends are centered on its clamp. The split
end of the grommet should face the outside of the nearest
bend. Clamps and grommets should fit the element snugly.
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TROUBLESHOOTING
Intermittent alarms or false alarms are probably the
most common problems associated with a
fire-detection system. Most intermittent alarms
are caused by an intermittent short circuit in the
detector system wiring. Electrical shorts are often
caused by a loose wire that occasionally touches a
nearby terminal, a frayed wire brushing against a
structure, or a sensing element that has rubbed
against a structural member long enough to wear
through the insulation. Intermittent faults can
often be located by
FIRE-EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Hand-held fire extinguishers and extinguishing systems are installed in many aircraft to provide the
flight crew and maintenance personnel with the
ability to fight fires while the aircraft is operating on
the ground or in flight. Portable extinguishers are
commonly installed in the cockpit and passenger
cabin of many aircraft. More elaborate extinguishing systems are installed in transport category and
corporate airplanes to extinguish fires in the engine,
auxiliary power unit, baggage, and electronic equipment compartments. In addition, many transport
category airplanes have fire-extinguishing systems
located in trash receptacles to protect against fires
that may occur in the lavatories of passenger-carrying aircraft.
FIRE-EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
As previously mentioned, the three elements that
are needed to support combustion are a combustible
fuel, oxygen, and heat. If any one of these elements
is removed, a fire will not burn. The portable and
fixed fire-extinguisher systems used in most aircraft
are designed to displace the oxygen with an inert
agent that does not support combustion. The most
common types of aircraft extinguishing agents that
are used include carbon dioxide and halogenated
hydrocarbons.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a colorless, odorless gas
that is about one and one-half times heavier than
air. To be used as an extinguishing agent, carbon
dioxide must be compressed and cooled until it
becomes a liquid that can be stored in steel cylinders. When released into the atmosphere, carbon
dioxide expands and changes to a gas that cools to
a temperature of about 110. Because of the
cooling effect, the water vapor in the air immediately condenses to form "snow," which causes the
CO 2 to appear to settle over the flames and
smother them. However, the fire is actually extinguished by the CO 2 displacing the oxygen in the
atmosphere, interrupting the chemical reaction
between the fuel and the oxygen. Once the
"snow" warms, it evaporates, leaving almost no
residue.
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
A halogen element is one of the group that consists
of chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Some
hydrocarbons combine with halogens to produce
very effective fire-extinguishing agents that work by
excluding oxygen from the fire source and by chemically interfering with the combustion process.
Halogenated hydrocarbon fire-extinguishing agents
are most effective on Class B and C fires but can be
used on Class A and D fires as well. However, their
effectiveness on Class A and D fires is somewhat
limited.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are numbered according
to their chemical formulas with five-digit Halon
numbers, which identify the chemical makeup of
the agent. The first digit represents the number of
carbon atoms in the compound molecule; the second digit, the number of fluorine atoms; the third
digit, the number of chlorine atoms; the fourth digit,
the number of bromine atoms; and the fifth digit,
the number of iodine atoms, if any. If there is no
iodine present the fifth digit does not appear. For
example, bromotrifluoromethane CF3 Br is referred
to as Halon 1301, or sometimes by the trade name
Freon 13 .
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FIXED FIRE-EXTINGUISHING
SYSTEMS
In an aircraft, it is important that the type of
fire-extinguishing system be appropriate for the
class of fire that is likely to occur. There are two
basic categories of fixed fire-extinguishing systems:
conventional systems, and high-rate-of-discharge
(HRD) systems. Both systems utilize one or more
containers of extinguishing agent and a distribution
system that releases the extinguishing agent through
perforated tubing or discharge nozzles. As a general
rule, the type of system installed can be identified
by the type of extinguishing agent used. For
example, conventional systems usually employ
carbon dioxide as the extinguishing agent while
HRD systems typically utilize halogenated
hydrocarbons.
CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
The fire-extinguishing installations used in most
older aircraft are referred to as conventional systems. Many of these systems are still used in some
aircraft, and are satisfactory for their intended use.
A conventional fire-extinguisher system consists of
a cylinder that stores carbon dioxide under pressure
and a remotely controlled valve assembly that distributes the extinguishing agent.
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Figure 16-25. In a fire-extinguishing system that utilizes carbon dioxide as an extinguishing agent, a sturdy cylinder
assembly is mounted to the airframe and connected to a
distribution line. In addition, an operating valve that is controlled from the cockpit is installed to hold the carbon dioxide in the cylinder until it's needed.
Figure 16-24. If a CO 2 cylinder is mounted vertically, a straight-siphon tube is used. However, if the cylinder is mounted horizontally, a short-flexible siphon tube must be used. The type of siphon tube installed is typically indicated by a stamped code on the
body bushing. If an "SF" appears, a short-flexible siphon is installed. If an "S" appears, a straight siphon tube is installed. Other
manufacturers stamp or stencil the type of siphon used on the cylinder body.
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guisher bottles, removing and re-installing discharge cartridges, testing the discharge tubing for
leaks, and testing electrical wiring for continuity.
The following discussion looks at some of these
common maintenance procedures to provide an
understanding of the operations involved. However,
as an aviation maintenance technician, you must
understand that fire-extinguishing-system maintenance procedures vary substantially, depending on
Figure 16-29. A typical high-rate-of-discharge extinguishing system installed on a twin-engine, turbine-powered aircraft utilizes
two agent containers, each with two discharge ports. This permits two applications of extinguishing agent to any one engine.
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Figure 16-30. This pressure/temperature chart allows you to determine if a specific fire-extinguishing bottle is properly charged.
As an example, assume the ambient temperature is 70 and the fire-extinguishing container needs to be checked to see if it is
properly charged. To do this, find 70 degrees at the bottom of the chart and follow the line up vertically until it intersects the minimum gauge-reading curve. From here, move left horizontally to find a minimum pressure of about 540 psig. Next, go back to the
70 line and follow it up vertically until it intersects the maximum gauge-reading curve. From this point, follow the horizontal line
to the left to determine a maximum pressure of approximately 690 psig. The container is properly charged as long as the pressure
gauge on the container indicates between 540 psig. and 690 psig.
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Figure 16-31. When assembling a discharge cartridge into a bonnet assembly, it is best to use an exploded view drawing like the
one above. Once assembled, the entire bonnet assembly is attached to the container by means of a swivel nut that tightens
against a packing ring gasket.
Once the extinguishing agent leaves a bottle, it proceeds to a two-way shuttle valve that channels the
extinguishing agent into the distribution system.
Once in the distribution system, the extinguishing
agent passes through the appropriate engine selector valve to a series of discharge nozzles within the
engine compartment. If the fire is not extinguished
after discharging one bottle, the second bottle can be
discharged and the extinguishing agent routed to
the same engine. [Figure 16-32 on page 16-24]
The controls for the 727 fire-protection system
consist of three engine fire-warning lights, one
wheel-well fire-warning light, a bottle transfer
switch,
a
fire-bell
cutout
switch,
a
fire-detection-system test switch, and a
detector-inoperative test switch. The fire warning
lights are part of the fire-detection system and
illuminate whenever one of the fire detectors
detects a fire. On the other hand, the bottle transfer
switch allows the pilot to select which bottle of
extinguishing agent is discharged. The fire-bell
disable switch silences the fire bell after it has
been activated by a fire indication. The
fire-detection-system test switch checks the continuity of the detectors and operation of the warning system. The detector-inoperative test switch
tests the circuits that activate the "Detector Inop"
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Figure 16-32. The Boeing 727 aircraft utilizes two fire bottles and three selector valves to provide fire suppression to all three
engines. With this arrangement, the cockpit crew can discharge both bottles to a single
engine.
Tnnn"
Figure 16-33. A typical Boeing 727 fire control panel provides an indication of wheel-well or engine-compartment fires, controls
fire bottle discharge, and permits testing of the fire detector system.
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