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STANDARD IX
Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is inhuman
TAMILNADU
TEXTBOOK CORPORATION
COLLEGE ROAD, CHENNAI 600 006.
Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition 2003
Revised Edition 2004
Reprint 2006
CHAIRPERSON
S. UDAYABASKARAN,
Reader in Mathematics,
Presidency College (Autonomous),
Chennai 600 005.
REVIEWERS
Thiru. E. ARJUNAN,
Thiru K. THANGAVELU,
AUTHORS
Thiru. V. SRIRAM,
Thiru K. ARIVAZHAGAN,
Tmt. S. VIJAYA,
CONTENTS
PAGES
1.
NUMBER SYSTEMS
1.1
1.2
2.
MEASUREMENTS
2.1
2.2
3.
THEORETICAL GEOMETRY
6.1
6.2
7.
Polynomials
Algebraic Identities
Factorization
Division of a Polynomial by a Polynomial
6.
Scientific Notation
Notation of Logarithms
Set Notation
ALGEBRA
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.
4.
Number Systems
The Real Number Line
ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY
7.1
7.2
7.3
1 - 30
1
17
31 - 47
31
36
48 - 87
48
51
71
88 - 117
89
93
103
112
118 - 130
119
127
131 - 163
131
153
164 - 182
164
168
174
8.
TRIGONOMETRY
8.1
8.2
8.3
9.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
9.1
9.2
10.
Trigonometric ratios
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric Ratios for Complementary Angles
Concurrency in a triangle
Geometric interpretation of averages
HANDLING DATA
10.1 Measures of Central Tendency
11.
GRAPHS
11.1 Linear Graphs
11.2 Application of Linear Graphs
183 - 201
185
194
199
202 - 212
203
209
213 - 223
215
224 - 235
224
228
Logarithms
236 - 237
Anti Logarithms
238 - 239
1. NUMBER SYSTEMS
Numbers occur everywhere in our day-to-day life. Numbers are in every thing, said
Pythagoras, an ancient Greek mathematician. If we understand more about numbers, then we
know more about mathematics. Mathematics is the Queen of the Sciences, and the Theory of
Numbers is the Queen of Mathematics, said Carl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician.
Numbers possess very nice properties and the properties will help us to solve problems of
other Sciences. Numbers are my Friends, said Srinivasa Ramanujan, an Indian
mathematician of our modern times. God created the natural numbers and all the rest is the
work of man, exclaimed Kronecker, a German mathematician. In our earlier classes, we
introduced natural numbers, integers, rational and irrational numbers and real numbers.
Natural numbers were introduced as counting numbers and other numbers were developed
from them to fulfill our requirements. In this chapter, we shall study some of the properties of
the numbers.
1.1
Number Systems
1.1.1
The numbers 1, 2, 3,. are called natural numbers. They are also called counting
numbers since they are used for counting objects. The collection of all natural numbers is
denoted by the letter N. Even though it is not possible to list all the elements of N, we write
N = {1, 2, 3, }. In the above representation, we write " " after the element 3 to indicate
that the other elements of N are listed following the pattern of 1, 2, 3. The numbers 1, 3, 5,.
are called odd numbers. The numbers 2, 4, 6, . are called even numbers. In the collection
N, we can solve equations such as x 9 = 0, x16 = 0, x54 = 0. However, we note that the
equations such as x + 5 =5, x + 9 = 9 have no solution in the collection N, since they are
satisfied by the number 0.
1.1.2
The numbers 0, 1, 2, are called whole numbers. The collection of all whole
numbers is denoted by the letter W. We observe that W = {0, 1, 2,}. Now the equations
such as x + 5 = 5 and x + 9 = 9 have solutions in W. We note that all natural numbers are
whole numbers but there is the whole number 0 which is not a natural number. However, we
note that the equations such as x + 25 = 15, x + 12 = 9 have no solution in the collection W,
since they are satisfied respectively by the numbers 10 and 3 which are not whole numbers.
1.1.3
The Integers
2
5
11
numbers
12
24
and
are not in the proper form. But every rational number has an
15
22
12
15
4
5
and
24
22
12
which are in
11
proper form. Every integer is a rational number. For example, the integer 19 can be written
as
19
1
, where 19, 1 are in Z and the denominator 1 0. Thus, we note that all integers are
rational numbers. But there are rational numbers which are not integers. For example,
is a
From our experience with numbers, we observe that the addition '+' and the
multiplication '' have the following properties in Q:
1.
If x, y are rational numbers, then x + y is also a rational number. For example, 11 and
2
11
4 2 2 4.
+ = +
11 3 3 11
33
3 11
33
33
33
addition in Q.
3.
If x, y, z are rational numbers, then x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.
For example, 2 , 4 , 2 are in Q and
3 5 7
2 4 2 2 (28) + (10) = 2 38 = 70 + (114) = 44 .
+
+
+
= +
105
105
35
3 35
3 5 7 3
3 + 5 + 7 =
+ 7
105
105
15
15 7
2 4 2 2 4 2
+
+
= +
+
.
3 5 7 3 5 7
11 11 ( 11) + 11 0
such that
= = 0.
+ =
3 3
7.
8.
If x, y, z are rational numbers, then x(yz) = (xy)z. We observe that
(xy) = [(1)(x)]y = (1)xy, (x) = (1)[(1)x] =[(1)(1)x] = 1x = x.
For example, 2, 3, 7 are rational numbers, and (2) (3) 7 = (2) 21 = 42 ,
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
7 42 So we have
[(2) (3)]
(2) (3)
.
= [(2)(3)]
= (6)
= .
5
5
5
5
5
The number 1 is a rational number and 1(x) = (x)1 = x for all rational numbers x.
5 1 5 5
For example, (1) =
= .
3
3
3
10.
For every non-zero rational number x, 1 is a rational number and
x
1 1
x = x = 1. For example, if x is the rational number
x x
21 we
,
4
4
1
1
4 is a rational number and x 1 = 21 4 = 84 = 1 . The number
=
=
=
x 4 21 84
x 21 21 21
4
1
x
11.
For example, if x = , y =
3
1
, z = 5, we
2
have
2 1 2 1 + 10 2 9
x (y + z) = + 5 =
= = 3,
3 2 3 2 3 2
1 10 (1) + 10 9
2 1 2
xy + xz = + (5) = + =
= = 3.
3
3
3 3
3 2 3
So, x(y+z) = xy + xz.
Similarly, we have
2 1
5
4 + ( 3)
1
(x+y)z = + 5 =
5 = 5 = ,
6
6
6
3 2
10 5 20 + ( 15) 5
2 1
xz + yz = 5 + 5 =
= .
+
=
6
6
3 2
3 2
So, (x+y) z = xz + yz.
These properties are called the distributive properties of multiplication over addition in Q.
The properties 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 and 11 do not depend on any particular element of Q and
they are also valid for the elements of N, W and Z.
The property 4 depends on the number 0. Since 0 is not in N, the property is not valid
in N. Since 0 is in W and 0 is also in Z, the property 4 is valid in W and Z.
31 9 31 40
2
33 2
(3) 11 = ( 3)
=
(
3
)
=
=
,
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
So, (3) 11 [(3) 11] .
3
3
Similarly, we have
11 3
2
33
(3) 11 = (3) = (3)
2
3
1 2
3 33 3 2 2
=
,
=
=
1 2 1 33 11
[(3) 11] 2 = 3 11 2 = 3 1 2
3 1 1 3 1 11 3
3 2 3 3 9
=
.
=
=
11 3 11 2 22
2
2
So (3) 11 [(3) 11] .
3
3
The subtraction operation does not satisfy the closure property in N, since if we
consider the members 5 and 7 in N, we get 5 7 = 2 which is not in N. Similarly the division
5
operation does not satisfy the closure property in N, since 5, 7 are in N but 5 7 = which
7
is not in N.
Using the properties of N, W, Z and Q, we can ascertain whether an equation has a
solution in a particular number system or not. For example, we consider the equation
5x 10 = 0. Solving the equation, we get x = 2. Since 2 is in N, we say that equation
5x 10 = 0 has a solution in N. Next, we consider the equation 5x = 0. Solving the equation,
we get x = 0. Since 0 is not in N but 0 is in W, we say that the equation 5x = 0 has no
solution in N but has solution in W. As another example, we consider the equation
5x + 10 = 0. Solving the equation, we get x = 2. Since 2 is not in N, 2 is not in W and 2
is in Z, we say that equation 5x + 10 = 0 has no solution in N or in W, but has solution in Z.
5
5
Let us consider another equation 3x + 5 = 0. Solving the equation, we get x =
. Since
3
3
5
5
is not in W and
is not in Z, we say that that the equation 3x + 5 = 0 does
is not in N,
3
3
5
not possess a solution in N, W and Z. Since
is in Q, we say that 3x + 5 = 0 possesses a
3
solution in Q. However, since we know that 2 , 3 , , are not rational numbers, the
equations such as x
2 = 0, x
3 = 0, x = 0 have no solutions in Q.
Now we proceed to know about numbers which are not rational numbers. For this, we
review what we have learnt about the decimal representation of rational numbers.
1.1.6
We have already learnt how to obtain the decimal representation of a rational number
15
51
by the long division process. For example, the decimal representations of
and are
32
7
obtained as follows:
15
= 0.46875.
32
51
=7.28571428
7
Let us understand the rule followed in the above long division process. For this, let us
recall the representation of integers. For example, when we consider the integer 324, we mean
that the integer 324 is the sum (addition) of 3 hundreds, 2 tens and 4 ones. That is,
324 = 3 102 + 2 101 + 4 100. Similarly 2003 = 2 103 + 0 102 + 0 101 + 3 100.
Thus, when we write integers, we use the numerals 0, 1, 2, , 9 and fix their face values as
multiples of 100, 101, 102, . In the same way, we can use numerals 0, 1, 2, , 9 and fix their
face values as multiples of 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, . to get fractions.
For example,
6 10-1 + 2 10-2 + 5 10-3 =
6
2
5
600 + 20 + 5 625 5 125 5
+ 2 + 3 =
=
=
=
10 10
1000
1000 8 125 8
10
5
as 0.625. Here the first numeral 6 from the right side of dot called decimal
8
6
2
point has the face value
, the second numeral 2 has the face value
and so on. The first
10
100
numeral 0 from the left side of dot has the face value 0 100 = 0. That is, the dot in the above
representation is used to separate the integral part and the fractional part or decimal part
5
of the rational number .
8
With this notation, 3.025 means
25
1 121
3 100 + 0 10-1 + 2 10-2 + 5 10-3 = 3 +
=3+
=
.
1000
40 40
15
Now, we consider the fraction
. Here
32
15 1 150
=
32 10 32
1
22
=
4 +
10
32
4
1 22
=
+
10 10 32
4
1 220
=
+ 2
10 10 32
4
1
28
=
+ 2 6 +
10 10
32
4
6
1 28
=
+ 2 + 2
10 10
10 32
4
6
1 280
=
+ 2 + 3
10 10
10 32
and we denote
4
6
+ 2
10 10
4
6
=
+ 2
10 10
4
6
=
+ 2
10 10
4
6
=
+ 2
10 10
4
6
=
+ 2
10 10
4
6
=
+ 2
10 10
4
6
=
+ 2
10 10
= 0.46875
1
10 3
8
+ 3
10
8
+ 3
10
8
+ 3
10
8
+ 3
10
8
+ 3
10
8
+ 3
10
+
24
8 +
32
1 24
+ 3
10 32
1 240
+ 4
10 32
1
16
+ 4 7 +
32
10
7
1 16
+ 4 + 4
10
10 32
7
1 160
+ 4 + 5
10
10 32
7
5
+ 4 + 5 (The process terminates.)
10
10
15
= 0.46875.
32
Next consider the following process:
51
2
= 7+
7
7
1 20
= 7 +
10 7
(A)
1
6
= 7 + 2 +
7
10
2
1 6
= 7 + +
10 10 7
2
1 60
= 7 + + 2
10 10 7
2
1
4
= 7 + + 2 8 +
7
10 10
2
8
1 4
= 7 + + 2 + 2
10 7
10 10
2
8
1 40
= 7 + + 2 + 3
10 7
10 10
2
8
1
5
= 7 + + 2 + 3 5 +
7
10
10 10
2
8
5
1
= 7+ + 2 + 3 + 3
10 10
10 10
5
7
8
2
8
5
1 50
= 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4
10 10 7
10 10
2
8
5
1
1
= 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 7 +
7
10 10
10 10
2
8
5
7
1 1
= 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 4
10 10
10 7
10 10
2
8
5
7
1 10
= 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
10 10
10 7
10 10
2
8
5
7
1 3
= 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 1 +
10 10
10 7
10 10
2
8
5
7
1
1
= 7+ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 5
10 10
10 10
10 10
2
8
5
7
1
1
= 7+ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
10 10
10 10
10 10
3
7
30
7
2
8
5
7
1
1
2
= 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 4 +
7
10 10
10 10
10 10
8
5
7
1
4
1 2
2
= 7100+ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 6
10 10
10
10 10 7
10 10
= 7.285714 +
1
10 6
2
.
7
(B)
15
, the process terminates (zero
32
15
has a terminating decimal expansion. But in the decimal
32
51
, the process does not terminate (non zero remainder) at any stage.
7
However, we notice that the remainder that we get at the stage (B) is the same as the
remainder at the stage (A). So the numerals 2, 8, 5, 7, 1, 4 between the two stages (A) and (B)
repeat in the same order in the long division process. In this case, we say that the decimal
representation is non terminating and recurring. We write
representation of
51
= 7 .285714285714285714 = 7.285714 ,
7
where the bar over 285714 indicates that the numerals under the bar repeat endlessly in the
15
same order in the long division process. The terminating decimal expansion 0.46875 for
32
can be considered to be a non-terminating and repeating, since
4
6
8
7
5
0.46875 =
+ 2 + 3+ 4 + 5
10 10
10 10
10
4
6
8
7
5
0
0
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + ..... = 0.468750 .
10 10
10 10
10
10
10
We also have
4
6
8
7
5
0.46875 = + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
10 10
10 10
10
4
6
8
7
1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 (4 + 1)
10 10
10 10
10
4
6
8
7
4 1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 5
10 10
10 10
10
10
4
6
8
7
4
1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 (10 )
10 10
10 10
10
10
4
6
8
7
4
1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 (9 + 1)
10 10
10 10
10
10
4
6
8
7
4
9 1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 6
10 10
10 10
10
10
10
4
6
8
7
4
9
1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 (10 )
10 10
10 10
10
10
10
4
6
8
7
4
9
1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 (9 + 1)
10 10
10 10
10
10
10
4
6
8
7
4
9
9 1
=
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 7 = 0.468749.
10 10
10 10
10
10
10
10
Thus, every rational number has a decimal representation which is either terminating
or non terminating with repetition. This is the characteristic property of rational numbers
which is due to the fact that the remainders that we get in the long division process are non
negative integers less than the divisors. At one stage, one remainder in a previous stage starts
repeating. So the digits in the quotient begin to repeat. Now we ask the following converse
question: What does a terminating or non terminating recurring decimal expansion represent?
We investigate the question through examples.
(i) Consider the decimal expansion 0.45.
4
5
40 + 5 45
9
0.45 =
+ 2 =
=
=
10 10
100
100 20
(ii) Consider the decimal expansion 0.45
Let x = 0.45 = 0.454545. Then 100x = 45.454545
10
45 5
= .
99 11
Irrational numbers
Now let us consider decimal expansions which are non-terminating and non-recurring.
As an example, consider the non-terminating and non-recurring decimal representation
0.101001000100001000001 . We observe that the above decimal expansion has the
numerals 0s and 1s. As we proceed from the right of the dot, the 1s are separated by 1 zero,
2 zeros, 3 zeros, 4 zeros, endlessly. So we find no repeating block in the representation.
Hence the decimal representation can not represent a rational number. Such decimal
expansions are said to represent irrational numbers. Rational numbers and irrational
numbers are called real numbers. A decimal representation can be in exactly one of the
following forms:
(i) Terminating.
(ii) Non-terminating but repeating.
(iii) Non-terminating and non-repeating.
Hence, every decimal representation is a real number. We state that every real number has a
decimal representation. A real number x is said to be positive if it has a decimal
representation in which at least one of the coefficients of 10n is a positive integer. Similarly, x
is said to be negative if it is not positive or zero. For example,
0
0
2
5
2
5
7.00252525 = 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + .... is positive.
10 10
10 10
10
10
0
2
0
2
2
0
The collection of all real numbers is denoted by the letter R. Thus R is the collection
formed by the rational and irrational numbers. We observe that all natural numbers, all whole
11
numbers, all integers, all rational numbers and all irrational numbers are real numbers. We
also observe that no rational number is irrational and no irrational number is rational. The
usual laws of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are satisfied in R. In particular,
the commutative and the distributive properties in R are
(i) x + y = y + x, xy = y x
(ii) x(y + z) = xy + xz
(iii) (x + y)z = xz + yz
where x, y and z are any three real numbers.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
12
2 = 2 is
2 = 1.414213562
13
We observe that the above process neither terminates nor repeats. That is, 2 has a
non-terminating and non-repeating decimal expansion. Therefore, we conclude that 2 is an
irrational number. Similarly, we can show that 3 , 5 , 7 , are all irrational numbers.
We come across two special irrational numbers in mathematics. They are and e.
When we calculate the ratio of the perimeter of any circle to the length of the diameter of the
circle, we observe that the ratio is a fixed real number and it is denoted by the Greek letter .
The decimal expansion of is 3.1415926 which is non-terminating and non-repeating. We
22
recall that we used the rational number
as an approximation for the irrational number in
7
calculations. Ramanujan, the celebrated Indian mathematician has obtained several formulas
involving . Around the year 1973, 1,000,000 decimal digits of were computed. Getting the
decimal expansion of to several billion thousands of decimal places is even today a
fascinating and challenging task. When we calculate the values of the numbers
2
3 4 5 6
, , , , ,
2 3 4 5
we observe that they become closer and closer to a particular real number and this real
number is denoted by the letter e. The decimal expansion of e is e = 2.7182818284. which
is non-terminating and non-repeating. We will study more about this irrational number e in
higher standards.
1.1.8
Order Relation in R
When we arrange certain objects according to some property, we say that the objects
are ordered. For example, when students are arranged standing according to their heights from
the shortest to the highest, we say that they stand ordered. Likewise, we can arrange real
numbers in order. Let x and y be any two real numbers. If y x is a positive real number, then
the real number x is said to be less than the real number y or y is said to be greater than x.
The symbol x < y is used to mean that x is less than y and y > x to mean that y is greater than
x. Thus, x < y and y > x both mean the same fact that y x is positive. If y x is negative,
then (y x) = x y is positive and so y < x which is equivalent to x > y. For example,
consider 19 and 17. Since 19 17 = 2 is a positive number, we get 17 < 19 which is
equivalent to 19 > 17. Next, consider 19 and 17. Since (19) (17) = 19 + 17 = 2 is a
negative number, we get 19 < 17 which is equivalent to 17 > 19.
Let x and y be real numbers. Then three cases arise. (i) x y is negative (ii) x y is
positive and (iii) x y = 0. In the first case, x < y. In the second case, x > y. In the third case,
x = y. If either x < y or x = y, then we say that x is less than or equal to y and write x y.
Similarly, if either x > y or x = y, then we say that x is greater than or equal to y and write
14
7
22
is positive.
7
22
<
.
7
Example 6: Insert any four rational numbers in between the rational numbers 1.201 and
1.202.
Solution: Here 1.202 1.201 = 0.001 > 0 and so 1.201 < 1.202. Consider the numbers
1.2011, 1.2012, 1.2013, 1.2014. Since these have terminating decimal expansions, they are
rational numbers. We find 1.2011 1.201 = 0.0001 > 0 and so 1.201 < 1.2011.
Since 1.2012 1.2011 = 0.0001 > 0, we get 1.2011 < 1.2012.
Since 1.2013 1.2012 = 0.0001 > 0, we get 1.2012 < 1.2013.
Since 1.2014 1.2013 = 0.0001 > 0, we get 1.2013 < 1.2014.
Since 1.202 1.2014 = 0.0006 > 0, we get 1.2014 < 1.202.
1.201 < 1.2011 < 1.2012 < 1.2013 < 1.2014 < 1.202.
15
Example 7: Insert any four irrational numbers between 1.201 and 1.202.
Solution: Since 1.202 1.201 = 0.001 > 0, we get 1.201 < 1.202.
Consider the real numbers
a = 1.2011010010001,
b = 1.2012020020002,
c = 1.2013030030003,
d = 1.2014040040004.
Since these four real numbers have distinct non-terminating and non repeating decimal
representations, they are distinct irrational numbers. We find
a 1.201 = 1.2011010010001 1.2010000000000 = 0.0001010010001 > 0,
b a = 1.2012020020002 1.2011010010001 = 0.0001010010001 > 0,
c b = 1.2013030030003 1.2012020020002 = 0.0001010010001 > 0,
d c = 1.2014040040004 1.2013030030003.= 0.0001010010001 > 0,
1.202 d = 1.2020000000000 1.2014040040004 = 0.0005959959995 > 0.
1.201 < a < b < c < d < 1.202.
Example 8: Insert any two rational numbers in between the irrational numbers
2.003 .
Solution:
2.001 and
From the above examples, we are able to observe that, if a and b are two distinct real
numbers such that a < b, then there is a rational number r such that a < r < b. We note that
the above property holds even if a and b are very close to each other. This property is usually
called the denseness property of Q in R. We also observe as a comparison that, between any
two distinct points on a straight line, there is another point distinct from them. This similarity
between points on a straight line and real numbers enables us to get a line picture
representation of real numbers.
We also observe that all rational numbers are real numbers. But there are real numbers
2,
2 = 0, x 3 = 0, x = 0 have
solutions in R. However, since x is positive for any non-zero real number x, there is no real
number x such that x2 = 1 and so the equation x2 +1 = 0 has no solution in R. We do not
study such equations in our standard.
2
Exercise 1.1
1.
(iv)
11
24
2.
3.
1.2
We have already learnt about real number line in our earlier classes. We know how the
real numbers are represented as points on the line. We review the idea of the real number line.
Let us consider a straight line and fix arbitrarily a point on it. We name this point as O and say
that it represents the number 0. We fix arbitrarily another point A on the line on the right of O
17
and say that this point A represents the number 1. Now we say that line segment OA is of
length 1 unit. We observe that the length of OA will be different for different choices of the
point A. But once we have chosen O and fixed the point A, then, for us, OA is of length 1
unit. Using the segment OA as a scale for measuring unit distances, we can represent any real
number as a point on the straight line. We call this straight line, the real number line or
simply number line.
First, we recall how positive integers are represented as points on the number line.
Already the point O is there to represents the number 0 and A to represents the number 1.
Now we locate points on the number line to the right of O at a distance 2 units (2 times the
lengths of OA), 3 units, . These points correspond to the numbers 2, 3, respectively (see
Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1
Similarly, we can locate the points on the number line to the left of O at distances 1 unit,
2 units, 3 units, . These points correspond to the negative integers 1, 2, 3,
respectively.
Now, we review with an example the
method of locating points for rational numbers
on the number line. Consider the rational
number 2 . To locate the point on the number
3
follows:
Locate the point P corresponding to the
2
positive integer 3 (denominator of ). Draw
3
Figure 1.2
2
) perpendicular to OP. Join OQ.
3
Consider the line through A parallel to PQ. This line meets OQ at the point R. Then the length
2
of AR is
times that of OA. This is so because OAR and OPQ are similar and so
3
PQ OP
2 3
2
=
or
= or AR = . Now, draw a circle with centre at O and radius equal to the
AR OA
AR 1
3
length of AR. This circle cuts the real number line at a point on the right side of O. This point
18
2
(see Figure 1.2). The same circle cuts the real number
3
2
line at a point on the left side of O and this point corresponds to the rational number
.In
3
the same way, we can represent any rational number on the real number line. The real number
line is a straight line. Given any two distinct points P and Q on the line, however close they
may be, we can find a point between P and Q different from P and Q. That is, there is no gap
between any two points on the real number line. We say that the real number line is a
continuum of points. We have shown that every rational number corresponds to a unique
point on the real number line. Let us now ask the question whether all points of the real
number line correspond to rational numbers only. The answer is No. For example, let us
consider the irrational number 2.
Figure 1.3
on the left side of O. The point P represents the irrational number 2 , since OP = OB =
The point Q represents the irrational number 2 , since OQ = OB =
left of O.
2.
Solution: Having plotted the point P for 2 , we can now locate the points for
as given below:
Construct a rectangle OPDC (see Figure 1.4)
3 and 3
Figure 1.4
3 and Q represents 3 .
19
To plot the points for 5 and 5 , the above technique is followed. Locate the point
R on the real number line to right of O at a distance of 2 units from O (we have already
provided a method to locate the points on the number line corresponding to rational numbers).
Construct the rectangle ORFC (see Figure 1.5) with length OR (= 2) and breadth RF = 1.
Figure 1.5
Then, by Pythagoras theorem,
OF2 = OR2 + RF2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5
and so OF = 5 . With O as centre and OF as radius, draw a circle. This circle intersects the
real number line at say S and S on the right and left of O respectively. Since
OS = OS = OF = 5 ,
S represents 5 and S represents 5 .
From the above discussion, we are able to know that any real number corresponds to a
unique point on the real number line and that any point on the real number line represents a
real number. Points on the right side of O correspond to positive real numbers and those on
the left side of O represent negative real numbers. Let P and Q be the points corresponding to
two real numbers a and b respectively.
If a < b, then P lies to the left of Q which is
same as saying that Q lies to the right of P on
the real number line (see Figure 1.6). Further,
Figure 1.6
if x is a real number such that a < x < b, then
the point on the real number line corresponding to x lies between P and Q. If P1 and P2 are
any two points on the real line and if x1 and x2 are the real numbers corresponding to P1 and
P2, then the distance between P1 and P2 is |x1 x2|.
1.2.1
irrational number
x
20
r a radical and
the radical sign. The positive integer n is called the index of the radical
number r is called the radicand of
irrational number. For example,
rational number
p
, then
q
r =
64 = 4,
is known as
p
is a rational number because in this case we have
q
p
= r. On the other hand, if the rational number r is not the nth power of some rational
q
number, then
r is an irrational number. If
r is an
simply write it as r with out the index 2. If the index n is 3, then we call
of r.
(2 + 3 )(2 3 ) = 2 ( 3 ) = 4 3 = 1, (
2
3+ 5
21
)(
) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) = 3 5= 2.
3 5 =
( a ) = a.
( a) ( b)=
n
(iv) p
(v)
n m
=n
ab .
a
.
b
r +q
r = ( p + q)
a = mn a.
(vi) n a = mn a m .
(vii) If a < b, then
a < n b.
We observe that in the laws (ii), (iii) and (iv), the surds are of same index. So, when
surds of different indices are given and if we are asked to perform any of the four fundamental
operations, we first convert the surds into surds of the same index by applying the law (vi)
and then proceed to carry out the operations. Law (vi) is actually the combination of law (i)
and law (v): By (i), a =
am .
a =n
am =
mn
am .
Note:
a is denoted as a n .
Example 10: Answer with reasons whether the following are surds or not:
(a)
121
225
(b)
(d)
144
72
(e)
49
25
32
3
7
5
(c)
(f)
216
4 3 16
Solution:
2
11
11
= a rational number.
=
15
15
(a)
121
=
225
(b
49
7
7
= = = a rational number.
25
5
5
(c)
7
7
is a surd since
is not a square of a rational number.
5
5
(d)
144
= 2 = a surd.
72
22
121
is not a surd.
225
49
is not a surd.
25
(e)
32
3
216
Since
(f)
16 2
3
666
16 2
3
4 2 2 2
=
.
6
3
2 2
is an irrational number,
3
32
3
is a surd.
216
4 3 16 = 3 4 16 = 3 4 4 4 = 3 4 3 = 4 = a rational number.
3 4 3 16 is not a surd.
When we manipulate with surds using the four fundamental operation, some times the
result may be a rational number.
Example 11: Answer with reasons whether the following are surds or not:
(i)
(iii)
Solution:
(i)
(5 + 54 ) + (4 3 2 )
(3 + 4 2 )(3 32 )
3
(5 +
) (
(2 + 3 ) (3 + 3 )
(ii)
(iv)
54 + 4 3 3 2 = (5 + 4) +
=9+
(3
3
432 4 2187
27 2 3 3 2
3 2 3 2
3
= 9 + 3 2 3 2 = 9.
3
This is a rational number and not a surd although 5 + 3 54 and 4 3 3 2 are surds. So the
addition of two surds need not be a surd. This means that the surds do not satisfy the closure
property with respect to addition.
(ii) (2 +
3 ) (3 +
3 ) = (2 3) +
3 3 = 1 + 0 = 1 = a rational number.
(3 + 4 2 )(3
32 = (3 + 4 2 ) (3 16 2 )
= (3 + 4 2 ) (3 4 2 )
= 3 3 3 4 2 + 4 2 3 16 2 2
= 9 12 2 + 12 2 32 = 9 32 = 23.
This is a rational number and so the given expression is not a surd.
(iv) 432 = 2 2 2 2 27 = 24 27.
4 432 = 2 4 27.
2187 = 3 3 3 3 27 =34 27.
4 2187 = 3 4 27.
2 4 27
2
.
3 27 3
This is a rational number and so the given expression is not a surd.
4 432 4 2187 =
23
(i)
(iii) 2 6 27 + 50
Solution:
20 = 4 5 = 4 5 = 2 5 .
(i)
9 25 =
225 =
40 2 3 135
(ii)
9 25 = 3 5 = 15.
80 = 16 5 = 16 5 = 4 5 .
20 225 + 80 = 2 5 15 + 4 5 = 6 5 15.
3
(ii)
40 = 3 8 5 = 3 8 3 5 = 2 3 5 ,
135 = 3 27 5 = 3 27 3 5 = 3 3 5 .
40 23 135 = 2 3 5 2 3 3 5 = ( 2 6) 3 5 = 43 5.
(iii)
27 = 23 33 = 2
33 = 2 3 = 3 and
50 = 2 25 = 5 2 .
2 6 27 + 50 = 2 3 + 5 2 .
3
(iv)
3
128 =
43 2 = 4
2.
2000 = 3 10 3 2 = 10 2 .
3
7 and
3 2
6 =
(ii)
(iii) 8
(iv)
Here
3
4 6
81
3 =
4
12
625
2 =
7
12
83 4
642
5 + 20 =
(iv)
7 is of index 2 and
6 2 = 6 36. So,
4 6
6 =
27 =
=
3
12
7 =
5 + 20
5 + 20
7 =
2 3
7 3 = 6 343, and
625 27 =
81
3.
12
16875 .
4 12 256 4 12 256 4
=
=
3 12 8
3
8
3
81
27 3
5 + 45
24
12
3 3 3
3 5
32.
3
5
6
6
9
125
9
.
125
3=4
We observe
12
3 3 3 = 12 27 and
10 = 6 2 10 10 = 12 100 .
(2 + 3 ) (2 3 ) = (2) 2 3 + 2 3 ( 3 ) = 4 3 = 1 and
( 3 + 5 ) ( 3 5 ) = ( 3 ) 15 + 15 ( 5 ) = 3 5 = 2.
2
x
may be a surd. In such ratios, the
y
denominator can be made as a rational number by a suitable procedure. This procedure is
called the rationalization of the denominator. We give the procedure as below:
(i) If the denominator y is in the form a where a is a rational number, then multiply
both the numerator and denominator by a . For example,
Some times, the denominator y of a ratio
3 5
15
5
5
5 5
(ii) If the denominator y is in the form a +
b ) = a2 a b + a b
2 (3 2)
(3 + 2 )(3 2 )
( b)
23 2 2
3 ( 2)
2
62 2 62 2
=
.
92
7
(3 + 2) (3 + 2)
(3 2 )(3 + 2 )
(3 + 2 ) 2
( )
32 ( 2 ) 2
32 + 2 3 2 + 2
9 + 6 2 + 2 11 + 6 2
=
=
=
.
92
7
7
(iv) If y is in the form a + b , where a and b are rational numbers, then multiply
x
the numerator and denominator of
by a b . For example,
y
25
)
3 + 5 ( 3 + 5 )( 3 5 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 )
2( 3 5 ) 2( 3 5 )
=
=
= 1( 3 5 ) = 5
2
35
2
3 5
2 3 5
2
3.
5 7
5+ 7
5 7
)(
5+
( 5 ) + 5 7 = 5 + 35 = 1 (5 +
=
57
2
7) ( 5) ( 7)
2
5 14
35 .
5 + 14
5 14
) ( 5 ) ( 14 )
5 14 1
= ( 14 5 ).
9
9
5 + 14
5 14
=
5 14
)(
5 14
x
, where x is of the form
y
a or a + b or
Example 17: If
Solution:
( 11 3 ) ( 11 + 3 ) = ( 11) ( 3 )
4 ( 11 + 3 )
4 ( 11 + 3 )
11 3
=
4
11 3
4 11 + 3
1
1 2 + 3
1
1 2 + 3
=
=
(1
4 11 + 3
2
11 + 3
= a + b 2 + c 6 , find a + b +c.
1 1 2 3
)(
2 + 3 1 2 3
1 2 3
(1 2 ) ( 3 )
2
26
1 2 3
(1 2
=
=
2 +2 3
1 2 3
(1
2 3
2 2
2 2
2
2 2 2 3 2
2 2 6
=
=
4
4
2 2 + 6 1 1
1
=
=
2+
6.
4
2 4
4
1 1
1
2+
a+b 2 +c 6 =
6
2 4
4
1
1
1
a= ,b=
,c= .
2
4
4
1 1 1 1
a+b+c = + = .
2 4 4 2
In the surd p + q n a , where p and q are rational numbers and
a is a surd, p is called
the rational part and q n a is called the irrational part. Two surds are said to be equal if their
rational parts are equal and their irrational parts are equal.
3 1
Example 18: If
3 +1
(
=
3 +1 (
3 +1
3 1
= x + y 3, find x2 + y2.
)( 3 1) = ( 3 ) 2 3 + 1 = 3 2 3 + 1 = 4 2
Solution:
3 1
2
3 + 1)( 3 1)
( 3) 1
3 +1
1
1 (2 + 3 )
2+ 3
2+ 3
=
=
=
=
= 2 + 3.
43
3 1 2 3 (2 3 )(2 + 3 ) 2 ( 3 )
3 1
3 1
3 1
3 +1
3 +1
3 1
) (
= 2 3 + 2+ 3 = 4= 4+0 3 .
x+ y 3 = 4+0 3
x = 4, y =0
x2 + y2 = 16 + 0 = 16.
27
= 2 3.
3+ 2
1
, find x + .
x
3 2
Example 19: If x =
Solution: x =
3+ 2
3 2
(
(
)( 3 + 2 )
3 2 )( 3 + 2 )
( 3 + 2)
( 3) ( 2 )
3+ 2
3+ 2
1
1
=
=
x
3+ 2
=
x+
1
=
x
3+
3 2
1
1
3 2
3+ 2
3 2
(
) (
3 2
3+ 2 2
32 2
= 3 + 2.
)
)
( 3) ( 2 )
2 )+ ( 3 2 ) = 2
2
Example 20: If a =
3+ 2
3 2
=
32
3 2
= 3 2.
1
3.
Solution:
(3 + 2 2 ) (3 + 2 2 ) = (3 + 2 2 ) = 3 + 2 2 = 3 + 2 2 .
a=
(3 2 2 ) (3 + 2 2 ) 3 4( 2 ) 9 8
a 6 = (3 + 2 2 ) 6 = 3 + 2 2.
a (a 6) = (3 + 2 2 ) ( 3 + 2 2 ) = [(2 2 + 3)(2 2 3)]
= (2 2 ) 3 = (8 9 ) = 1.
Example 21: If
Solution:
2 +1
2 1
2 +1
2 1
2 +1
2 +1
( 2 + 1) = ( 2 + 1) = ( 2 + 1) .
=
( 2) 1 2 1
( 2 + 1) = 2 + 1 = 1.414 + 1 = 2.414
2
2 +1
2 1
28
2 +1
2 1
Exercise 1.2
1.
(i)
2.
16
(ii)
(5
(iii)
32
)(
2 2 3 4 3+3 2
(v)
5 5
(vii)
4 15 12
729
(iv)
(v)
50
(ii)
(iv)
(vi)
(viii)
320 3 40
20 12
3 3 5
)(
75 + 45
6
25 5
(ix)
2,
5,
4.
(iii)
3.
2 4
3,
5 , 6 11
(ii)
5,
7,
(iii)
18
(ii)
6
1
(iv)
(v)
3+ 5
(iii)
1+ 2 3
2 3
(vi)
2+ 3
5 +1
5 1
3 2 2 3
3 3+2 2
5.
= x + y 35
3 5 3+ 5
5+ 7
5 7
6.
If a =
7.
If a =
8.
If
9.
If
2 = 1.414 and
2+ 3
2 3
2 +1
2 1
1
.
a2
3 +1
3 1
29
1
2+ 3
Answers
Exercise 1.1
1.
2.
3.
(vii) F
Exercise 1.2
1.
2.
(i) surd
4.
(i)
3
4
(vii)
3
11 ,
5, 3
(i) 3 6
(iv)
5.
1
2
5 3
(i) x = 7, y = 4
(iii) x = 7, y = 0
6. a2 (a 4)2 = 1
15
(iv) surd
(iii) 14 6 + 6
(ii) 23 5
(i) 9 2
(vi)
3.
16
3
(viii)
3
(ii)
(ii)
4
2 3 1
11
9,
7,
(v) 2 6 5
(iii)
2,
9. 0.318
(v)
3,
5.
1
3+ 5
2
1
(vi)
13 6 30
19
(iii)
9
40
, y=
59
59
(iv) x = 0, y = 2
30
(ix)
(ii) x =
7. 34 8. 3.732
(iv) 4 15
27
625
12
3125
2. MEASUREMENTS
We do measurements in our routine life in several situations. For example, we
measure the length of a cloth for stitching, the area of a wall for white washing, the perimeter
of a land for fencing and the volume of a container for filling. Based upon the measurements,
we do further calculations according to our needs. The branch of mathematics which deals
with the measurement of lengths, angles, areas, perimeters and volumes of plane and solid
figures is called mensuration. In our earlier classes, we have learnt about the areas and
perimeters of some plane geometrical figures such as triangles, quadrilaterals and circles. (All
geometrical figures are drawn in a plane). In this chapter, we shall study about some
combinations of plane figures which are obtained by placing two or more triangles,
quadrilaterals or circles in juxta position. As all figures we consider lie in a plane, we shall
call a plane figure, simply a figure.
2.1
2.1.1
Rectangle
Area = l b sq.units
Perimeter = 2 (l + b) units
d=
2.1.2
Figure 2.1
l 2 + b 2 units.
Parallelogram:
Area = b h sq.units
Perimeter = 2(a + b) units.
2.1.3
Figure 2.2
1
b h sq.units
2
Figure 2.3
31
2.1.4
Right triangle:
1
Area = b h sq.units
2
Perimeter = b + h + d units
d=
2.1.5
2.1.6
Figure 2.4
b 2 + h 2 units.
Equilateral triangle:
3
a units
altitude = h =
2
3 2
Area =
a sq. units
4
Perimeter = 3a units.
Figure 2.5
Isosceles triangle:
Area = h a 2 h 2 sq. units
Figure 2.6
Perimeter = 2 a + a 2 h 2 units.
2.1.7
Scalene triangle:
Area =
2.1.8
Trapezium:
Area =
2.1.9
Figure 2.7
1
(a + b) h sq. units.
2
Figure 2.8
Quadrilateral:
1
Area = d (h1 + h2)
2
sq.units.
Figure 2.9
2.1.10 Rhombus:
1
Area = d1 d2 sq. units
2
Perimeter = 2 d1 + d 2
2
Figure 2.10
= 4a units.
32
2.1.11 Circle:
Area of the circle = r2 sq. units
Perimeter of the circle = 2r units
1
Area of a semicircle = r2 sq. units
2
Arc length of the semicircle = r units
1
Area of a quadrant circle = r2 sq. units
4
1
Arc length of a quadrant circle = r units.
2
Figure 2.11
Note: A line segment joining the points A and B is denoted by AB or AB. We shall also use
AB to denote the length of AB .
Example 1: A wall in the form of a rectangle has base 15m and height 10m. If the cost of
painting the wall is Rs. 16 per square metre, find the cost for painting the entire wall.
Solution: Let b = 15 and h = 10.
Then the area of the rectangle = b h = 15 10
= 150 sq. metres.
Since the cost of painting 1sq. metre is Rs. 16,
the cost for painting the entire wall = 16 150 = Rs. 2400.
Figure 2.12
Example 2: The dimensions of a rectangular metal sheet are 4m 3m. The sheet is to be cut
into square sheets each of side 4 cm. Find the number of square sheets.
Solution: Area of the metal sheet = 400 300 = 12,0000 cm2.
Area of a square sheet = 4 4 = 16 cm2.
12,0000
No. of square sheets =
= 7500.
16
Figure 2.13
Example 3: Find the base of a parallelogram if its area is 40 cm2 and altitude is 15 cm.
Solution: Area = b h. 40 = b 15.
40 8
b=
= .
15 3
8
Base = cm.
3
Figure 2.14
33
Example 4: If the lengths of the sides of a triangle are 11 cm, 60 cm and 61 cm, find the area
and perimeter of the triangle.
Solution: Area = s ( s a)(s b)(s c) .
Here 2s = a + b + c = 11 + 60 + 61 = 132.
s = 66, s a = 66 11 = 55,
s b = 66 60 = 6, s c = 66 61 = 5.
Area = 66 55 6 5 = 330 sq.cm.
Perimeter = a + b + c = 11 + 60 + 61 =132 cm.
Figure 2.15
Example 5: Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD given in Figure 2.16.
1
1
Solution: Area = d (h1 + h2 ) = 50 (10 + 20)
2
2
= 25 30
= 750 m2
Figure 2.16
Example 6: Find the area of the trapezium ABCD given in Figure 2.17
1
Solution: Area = (a + b) h
2
1
= (12 + 5) 4
2
= 34 sq. units.
Figure 2.17
Example 7: Cost of levelling a land is Rs. 12 per square metre. A land is in the form of a
trapezium whose parallel sides are of lengths 18m and 12 m. If its other two sides are each of
length 5m, find the total cost incurred in levelling the land.
Solution: ABCD is the given trapezium where AB = 18m, CD = 12 m, AD = BC = 5 m. Draw
CE parallel to DA (see Figure 2.18). EBC is isosceles whose height
h = 5 2 3 2 = 16 = 4cm. Now,
the area of the trapezium ABCD
1
1
(a + b) h =
(18 + 12) 4
=
2
2
= 2 30= 60 sq. metre.
The cost of leveling 1 sq. metre is Rs. 12.
So the cost of levelling the entire land = 60 12 = Rs. 720.
34
Figure 2.18
Example 8: The perimeter of a rhombus is 20 cm. One of the diagonals is of length 8 cm.
Find the length of the other diagonal and the area of the rhombus.
Solution: Let d1 and d2 be the lengths of the diagonals.
Then perimeter = 2 d1 + d 2 . But the perimeter is
2
20 cm. 2 d1 + d 2
2
= 20 cm or d 1 + d 2 = 100. Here
2
Figure 2.19
Example 9: A wire of length 264 cm is cut into two equal portions. One portion is bent in the
form of a circle and the other in the form of an equilateral triangle. Find the ratio of the areas
22
)
enclosed by them.(use
7
264
Solution: Perimeter of the circle =
=132 cm.
2
But perimeter of the circle = 2r.
22
2
r = 132 or r = 21 cm.
7
22
21 21 = 1386 cm2.
Area of the circle = r2 =
7
Perimeter of the equilateral triangle = 3a
But perimeter = 132 cm. 3a = 132 or a = 44 cm.
Area of the equilateral triangle =
Figure 2.20
3
a2
4
3
44 2 =484 3 cm2
4
The ratio of the area of circle to that
of the equilateral triangle
= 1386 : 484 3 = 21 3 : 22
Figure 2.21
35
Exercise 2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.2
Combined Figures
Consider a quadrilateral ABCD (see Figure
36
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.26
Figure 2.27
Figure 2.28
Figure 2.29
Figure 2.30
Figure 2.31
Figure 2.32
37
Figure 2.33
Figure 2.34
Figure 2.35
The sides that are in juxta position are shown by dotted lines. We can easily identify
the figures that are combined in Figure 2.24 to Figure 2.35. For example, Figure 2.25 is the
combination of a triangle and a semicircle. It looks like the vertical cross section of a top.
Figure 2.27 is the combined form of a rectangle and a semicircle. It can be viewed as a
rectangular window surmounted by a semicircle. In Figure 2.29, we have the combination of a
rectangle and two quadrant circles. Figure 2.33 is the combined figure of a rectangle, a
triangle and a trapezium. It looks like a rocket. Since the combined figures are the
combination of triangles, quadrilaterals and circles, their perimeters and areas can be
calculated by applying the formulae that we have already learnt in our previous classes.
We now consider two important combined plane figures namely trapeziums and polygons.
2.2.1
Trapezium
Figure 2.36
side, AB is the base and h is the height. For the triangle ACD, CD is the base and h is the
height. So,
1
1
Area of ABC =
a h and Area of ACD =
bh
2
2
1
1
1
Area of the trapezium = a h + b h = (a + b)h sq. units.
2
2
2
38
2.2.2
Polygon
3 2
a . Hence the
4
3 2 3 3 2
a =
a sq. units.
4
2
39
Figure 2.39
Figure 2.40
Area of the trapezium QFES: The parallel sides are ES and FQ and height is QS. We have
ES = 9m, FQ = 8m and QS = AS AQ = 15 7 = 8m. So, the area of QFES is
1 (ES + FQ) QS = 1 (9 + 8) 8 = 17 4 = 68 m2
2
2
1
2
2
DS ES = 1 (AD AS) 9
2
= 1 (17 15) 9 = 1
2
2
1 RD CR = 1 (AD AR) 8
2
2
2 9 = 9 m2.
40
Example 12: Find the area of the design as shown in Figure 2.41. ( 22 )
7
Figure 2. 41
Solution: We observe that the plot is a combination of the rectangle ABDE, the semi-circle
AFE and the equilateral triangle BCD.
The area of the rectangle ABDE = 20 14 = 280 cm2.
The area of the semicircle AFE = 1 r2 = 1 22 7 7 = 77 cm2
2
2
3
4
a = 3 14 14 = 49 3 cm2.
2
Figure 2.42
Solution: We observe that the plot is the combination of the rectangle ABCD, the semi-circle
CDE and the quadrant circles AFD, BCG.
The area of the rectangle ABCD = 12 4 = 48 cm2.
The area of the semi-circle CDE = 1 6 6 = 22 3 6 = 396 = 56 4 cm2.
2
4
The area of the quadrant circle AFD = 1 4 4 = 22 4 = 88 = 12 cm2.
7
4
7
7
4
The area of the quadrant circle BCG = 12 cm2.
7
4
4
4
12
5
The area of the given plot = 48 + 56
+ 12 + 12 = 128
= 129 cm2.
7
7
7
7
7
41
Figure 2.43
Solution: The figure is the combination of the rectangle CDFG, the semi circle DEF and the
trapezium ABCG.
The area of the rectangle CDFG = 28 13 = 364 cm2.
The area of the trapezium ABCG = 1 (36 + 28) 14 = 64 7 = 448 cm2.
The area of the semi-circle DEF =
2
1 22
2
7
14 14 = 22 14 = 308 cm2
The area of the given design = 364 + 448 + 308 = 1120 cm2.
Sometimes, we come across plane figures which are obtained by cutting out and
removing plane figures from a bigger one. Their areas can be found as before but instead of
summing up the smaller areas, we subtract the areas of the removed parts from the area of the
bigger figure.
Area of a circular ring
A circular ring is the region in between two concentric circles (see Figure 2.44). The
area of the ring is equal to the area of the outer circle minus the area of the inner circle; that
is, R2 r2 or (R2 r2).
Figure 2.44
42
Example 15: Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 2.45, where the boundaries of the
region are quadrants of a circle. (Take 22 ).
7
Figure 2.45.
Solution: The given region is that which remains after cutting away four equal quadrants each
of radius 14 cm from a square of side 28 cm.
The area of the square = 28 28 = 784 cm2.
The area of one quadrant circle = 1 14 14 = 1 22 14 14 = 154 cm2.
4
Figure 2.46
Solution: Let r be the radius of the inner semicircles. Then the inside perimeter is
2 140 + 2 ( r) or 280 + 2r. But this is given as 720m.
280 + 2r = 720 or 2r = 440 or r = 440 = 440 7 = 70 m.
2
2 22
Example 17: A cow is tied up for grazing at one outside corner of a square building of length
4.2m. If the length of the rope is 4.9 m, find the area the cow can graze.
Solution: The cow is tied up at the corner point A of the
square (see Figure 2.47). The rope is of length 4.9m and
the side wall is of length 4.2m. As the cow cannot cross
the wall, its rope can go upto D and G at the corners B
and E of the square. Thus, the cow can graze the 3 th of a
4
4
4
3 22 4.9 4.9 + 1 22 0.7 0.7
4
7
2
7
33 0.7 4.9 + 11 0.1 0.7= 56. 595 +
2
Figure 2.47
0.77 = 57.365m2.
Example 18: Find the area of the shaded portion in Figure 2.48 (Take 22 )
7
Figure 2.48
Solution: The area of the shaded portion is equal to
the area of the semicircle of radius 14 cm minus the area of the semicircle of radius 7 cm.
That is, 1 (14)2 1 (7)2
or
1
2
2
22
7
14 14
1
2
22 7 7 = 11 2 14 11 7
7
44
Exercise 2.2
1.
From each of the following notes in the field book of a surveyor, make a rough plan of
the field and find its area
(i)
(ii)
Figure 2.49
Figure 2.50
(iii)
Figure 2.51
2.
3.
Figure 2.52
22 )
7
A trapezium has parallel sides of lengths 22 cm and 12 cm. Find its area, if the other
two sides are each of length 10 cm.
45
4.
Figure 2.53
6. Find the area of the shaded region in the following figures:
(i)
(ii)
Figure 2.55
Figure 2.54
(iii)
(iv)
Figure 2.57
Figure 2.56
7.
A circle has diameter 54 cm. One of its diameter is AB . C is a point on the line
segment AB such that BC = 10 cm. A circle is drawn on AC as diameter. Find the
area included between them. Take 22 .
7
46
8.
Find the area and perimeter of the shaded portion in Figure 2.58.
Figure 2.58
9. Four cows are tied to the four corners of a square plot of side measuring 14 m. so that
each can reach just two of the other cows. These cows eat the grass inside the plot
within their range. Find what area of the plot is left ungrazed. Take 22 .
7
10.
ABCD is a rectangular plot of dimensions 36m 24m. 4 horses are tied to the four
corners of the plot, each with a rope of length 10m. Each horse reaches as far as
possible for grazing. Find the area of the portion of the plot which is left ungrazed.
Take 22 .
7
Answers
Exercise 2.1
1.
(i) 27 cm2
2.
704 cm2
3. 60cm2
4. 112 m, 3696 m2
5.
34 cm
6. 4 cm
7. 10 cm
8.
62.22cm
Exercise 2.2
1.
2.
4,956 sq.m
5.
140 m2
6.
7.
770 cm2
3. 147.22 cm2
(ii) 25m2
4. 10cm
(iii) 37.71cm2
8. 354.37cm2, 94cm
9. 42m2
47
Scientific Notation
48
Here after, by a number, we shall mean a positive number only. We again mention
that, when a number is written in scientific notation a 10n, the integral part of the number, a
is a digit from 1 to 9 and the power of 10 is an integer (positive, negative or zero). We also
observe that while converting a given number into the scientific notation, if the decimal point
is moved r places to the left, then this movement is compensated by the factor 10r; and if the
decimal point is moved r places to the right, then this movement is compensated by the factor
10 r .
When very large or very small numbers are put in the scientific notation, they can be
multiplied or divided easily in this form.
Example 1: Write the following numbers in scientific notation:
(i) 7493
(ii) 105001
(iii) 3449099.93
(iv) 0.00567
(v) 0.0002079
(vi) 0.000001024
Solution:
49
325
105 = 325 105 2 = 325 103 = 325000
2
10
186
7
(ii) 1.86 10 = 2 107 = 186 1072 = 186 105 = 18600000.
10
987
(iii) 9.87 109 = 2 109 = 987 109 2 = 987 107 = 9870000000.
10
402
(iv) 4.02 104 = 2 104 = 402 104 2 = 402 106 = 0.000402.
10
1423
(v) 1.423 106 =
106 = 1423 106 3 = 1423 109 =0.000001423.
10 3
325
(vi) 3.25 109 = 2 109 = 325 109 2 = 325 1011 =0.00000000325.
10
Example 3: Perform the calculation and write the answer of the following in scientific
notation.
(i) (3000000)3
(ii) (4000)5 (200)3
(iii) (0.00005)4
(iv) (2000)2 (0.0001)4
Solution :
(i) 3000000 = 3.0 106.
(3000000)3 = (3.0 106)3 = (3.0)3 (106)3
= 3 3 3 1063
= 27 1018
= 2.7 10 1018 = 2.7 1019.
(ii) 4000 = 4.0 103, 200 = 2.0 102
(4000)5 (200)3 = (4.0 103)5 (2.0 102)3
= (4.0)5 (103)5 (2.0)3 (102)3
= 1024 1035 8 1023
= 1024 1015 8 106
= 8192 1021= 8.192 103 1021= 8.192 1024.
(iii) 0.00005 = 5.0 105
(0.00005)4 = (5.0 105)4
= (5.0)4 (105)4 = 625 1054
= 625 1020 = 6.25 102 1020 = 6.25 1018.
50
(2.0 10 3 ) 2
(2.0) 2 (10 3 ) 2
4 10 32
=
=
(1.0 10 4 ) 4 (1.0) 4 (10 4 ) 4 1 10 44
4 10 6
= 4 10 6( 16 ) = 4 10 22 .
10 16
Exercise 3.1
1.
2.
3.
3.2
Notation of logarithm
4.02 105
1.432 103
4.02 105
1.432 103
8
3
For example, 5 =
( 5)
3
,7
4
11
( 7)
11
51
When x is an irrational number, ax can be defined to represent a real number. But the
definition requires some advanced topics in mathematics. Although it is not required in our
standard, we accept now that, for any a > 0, ax can be defined and that it represents an unique
real number u and write u = ax. In this situation, we say that the real number u is written in the
exponential form or in the exponential notation. Here the positive number a is called the
base and x, the index or the power or the exponent. The laws of indices which we have
stated for integer exponents can be obtained for all real exponents. We state them here and
call them, the laws of exponents:
(i) a x a
=a
x+ y
ax
x y
=a
y
a
y
xy
(iii) a x = a
(ii)
(iv) a x =
1
ax
(v) a x b x = (a b ) x
(vi) a 0 = 1
Logarithmic notation
Let b be a positive number and b 1. We have already understood that, for any real
number x, bx represents a unique real number, say a. If we write a = bx, then the exponent x is
called the logarithm of a to the base b. We also call x, the value of log a. Thus, x = log a
b
b
x
is an equivalent form of a = b . We say that x = log a is the logarithmic form of the
b
x
exponential form a = b . In both the forms, the base is same. We observe that x = log a is an
b
x
equivalent way of writing a = b . The notation x = log a is called the logarithmic notation
b
x
and it means the equation a = b .
For example,
(i) 3 = log 9 729 is equivalent to 93 = 729;
1
1
(ii)
= log 8 2 is equivalent to 8 3 = 2;
3
(iii) 3 = log 10 0.001 is equivalent to 103 = 0.001;
1
= log 9 3 is equivalent to 9 2 = 3 or 9 = 3 ;
2
3
3
1
1
(vi) = log 4 is equivalent to 4 2 = .
2
8
8
(v)
52
Note: The base must be specified in logarithmic notation. If we write y = log x, then it is
meaningless since its equivalent can not be written unless the base is given. However, in some
situations, we write logarithms, omitting their bases. In such cases, it is understood that all
logarithms have the same base.
Example 4: Change the following from logarithmic form to exponential form:
1
1
1
1
(ii) log 2 = 2 (iii) log 216 6 =
(iv) log 3 = 2
(i) log 25 5 =
2
3
4
9
Solution: As base is same in both forms,
1
1
(i) log 25 5 = is equivalent to (25) 2 = 5.
2
1
1
2
(ii) log 2 = 2 is equivalent to (2 ) = .
4
4
1
1
(iii) log 216 6 = is equivalent to (216 ) 3 = 6.
3
1
1
(iv) log 3 = 2 is equivalent to (3)2= .
9
9
Example 5: Change the following from exponential form to logarithmic form:
2
1
1 3 1
(i) 2 = 64
(ii) 9 =
(iii) =
4
729
8
Solution: As base is same in both forms, we have
1
1
(i) 2 = 64 6 is equivalent to
= log 64 2.
6
1
1
(ii) 93 =
is equivalent to 3 = log 9
.
729
729
1
6
(iv)
1
= 7 1
7
2
13 1
1
(iii) = is equivalent to = log 1 .
4
3
4
8
8
1
1
(iv)
= 71 is equivalent to 1 = log 7 .
7
7
Example 6: Evaluate
1
(iii) log 9
(iv) log 3 ( 243) 1 .
27
x
1
Solution : (i) Let x = log 9 729. Then 9 = 729 = 93.
(iii) Let x = log 9 .
27
x = 3.
1
1
(ii) Let x = log 4 8. Then 4x = 8 = 23
Then 9x=
= 3 = 3 3
27 3
But 4x = (22)x = 22x.
x
2 x
But
9
=
(3
) = 32x
3
2x
3
2 = 2 . 2x = 3 or x =
3
.
32x = 33, 2x= 3 or x =
2
2
(ii) log 4 8
53
or
x = 5.
1
1
= 5 = 35
243 3
Solution:
(i) log 3 x = 2
32 = x or x =
1
1
= .
2
3
9
1
(iii) x = log 1 512. = 512 = 8 3 .
8
8
(iv) x + 2 log 27 9 = 0
x
x = 2 log 27 9 or
= log 27 9
2
(27)
x
2
= 9 or (33 )
x
2
= 3 2 or (3)
or (81)x = 83 or 8x = 83.
x = 3 or x = 3.
3 x
2
= 32
3x
4
.
= 2 or x =
2
3
Now we proceed to state and prove some properties of logarithms of positive numbers.
All positive numbers other than 1 are considered.
(i) Product rule: If a, m and n are positive numbers and a 1, then
log ( mn) = log m + log n
a
a
a
Proof: Let log m = x and log n = y .
a
a
Then, m = ax and n = ay.
m n = ax ay or mn = ax+y.
or
In words, the above rule states that the logarithm of the product of two positive numbers is
equal to sum of the logarithms of the numbers.
(ii) Quotient rule: If m, n and a are positive numbers and a 1, then,
m
log = log m log n .
a n
a
a
54
m
log = log m log n.
a n
a
a
In words, the quotient rule states that the logarithm of the quotient
difference log m log n .
a
a
m
is equal to the
n
(iii) Power rule: If a and m are positive numbers, a 1 and n is a real number, then
log m n = n log m .
a
a
x
Proof: Let log m = x . Then m = a . Raising to the power n on both sides, we get
a
mn = (ax)n =ax n . This is in exponential form. Writing this in the notation of logarithm, we get
log m n = nx or
a
log m n = n log m.
a
a
(iv) If a is a positive number, then log 1 = 0
a
Proof: Let x = log 1 . Then ax = 1 = a0.
a
x = 0 or
log 1 = 0.
a
(v) If a is a positive number, then log a a = 1.
Proof: Let x = log a . Then ax = a = a1.
a
log a = 1.
x = 1 or
a
(vi) Change of base rule: If m, n and p are positive numbers and n 1, p 1, then
log m = log m log p .
n
p
n
(n )
y x
= m or n xy = m.
55
log n m =
1
.
log m n
log a
(viii) If a and b are any two positive numbers and b 1, then b b = a .
Proof: Let x = log a . Then bx = a. Substituting for x in this equation, we get
b
log a
b
= a.
56
1
1000
Solution: (i) Since the expression is the sum of two logarithms and the bases are equal, we
can apply the product rule.
log 3 27 + log 3 729 = log (27 729)
= log 3 (33 3 6 )
= log 3 39 = 9 log 3 3 = 9 1 = 9.
(ii) log 5 8 + log 5
1
1
= log 5 8
1000
1000
1
= log 5
125
1
= log 5 3 = log 5 (5 3 )
5
= (3) log 5 5 = (3) 1 = 3.
Example 9: Simplify:
(ii)
1
log 9 36 + 2 log 9 4 3 log 9 4
2
98
Solution: (i) log 7 98 log 7 14 = log 7 = log 7 7 = 1.
14
12
1
(ii)
log 9 36 + 2 log 9 4 3 log 9 4 = log 9 36 + log 9 4 2 log 9 4 3
2
1
1
log 5 36 log 5 8 + 20 log 32 2.
2
3
= log 10 10 4 log 10 8
= log10 10000 log10 8
10000
= log 10
= log 10 1250 = L.H.S.
8
57
(ii)
1
1
R.H.S. = log 5 36 log 5 8 + 20 log 32 2 = log 5 (36) 2 log 5 (8) 3 + 4 5 log 32 2
2
3
= log 5 6 log 5 2 + 4 log 32 2 5
6
6
= log 5 + 4 log 32 32 = log 5 + 4
2
2
= log 5 3 + 4 log 5 5 = log 5 3 + log 5 5 4
= log 5 3 + log 5 625
= log 5 (3 625) = log 5 1875 = L.H .S .
Example 11: Prove that log 3 4 log 4 5 log 5 6 log 6 7 log 7 8 log 8 9 = 2 .
Solution: L.H.S. = (log 3 4 log 4 5) (log 5 6 log 6 7 ) (log 7 8 log 8 9)
= log 3 5 log 5 7 log 7 9 = log 3 5 (log 5 7 log 7 9)
3
log
2
9
3 log 9 2 2
Solution: 81
= 9
log 2 6
6 log 9 2
log a
= 9 9
=9
= 2 6 . (Since b b = a )
1
1
= 6 = .
64
2
Example 14: Solve log 6 2 x log 6 ( x + 1) = 0.
2x
Solution: Using the quotient law, we can write the equation as log 6
= 0. Changing
x +1
into exponential form, we get
2x
= 6 0 = 1 or 2x = x + 1 or x = 1.
x +1
58
or
3
log 5 9 log 9 x = log 5 3 log 5 5 = log 5 .
5
3
3
Using the change of base rule, we get log 5 x = log 5 . x = .
5
5
Exercise 3.2.1
1. Write true or false in the following:
(i) log 3 243 = 5
(ii) log 1 27 = 3
3
16
16
(v) log 1 a = 1
(i) 5 2 = 0.04.
(iv) 36= 729.
1
(ii)
8
(v) 36
3
2
2
3
= 4.
(iii) 4 4 = 256.
1
216
(vi) 10 3 = 0.001.
(iv) log 9
(vii) 10
1
3
2 log 6
10
(v) log 1 81
(viii) 25
(ii) log 1 x = 7
(iii) log
(vi) log 2 4 2
3
log 8
5
(ix) 9
log 2 x = 3
(vii) log 5 25 c = 4
59
2 log 2
9
N
(viii) log 3 = 4
2
1
(ix) log 10
=1
1000
1
(v) log 2 = 5
x
(x) 2 log 9 N = 1
5. Choose the correct answer from the alternatives given for each of the following:
(i) If 3 log x 5 = 1, then x is
(A) 5
(B) 25
(C) 125
(D) 625
1
(ii) log14
+ log12 144 =
196
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3
(iii) The value of log 4 1024 =
(A) 10
(B) 8
(C) 7
(D) 5
(iv) If log a 4 = 2 log a x, then x =
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3
(v) If 2 log16 x = 1, then x =
(A) 4
(B) 8
(C) 16
(D) 32
(vi) If log 5 x = 2 then x =
(A) 5
(B) 25
(C) 125
(D) 625
60
(ii)
(iii) x log16 8 + 1 = 0
(i)
(iii)
(v)
(vii)
10. If a, b and c are positive numbers other than one, prove that log b a log c b log a c = 1.
3.2.3
Common logarithms
1
= log 10 10 3 = 3 .
1000
1
1
,
, 1, 10, 100, 1000, , we correspondingly get
100 10
2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .
Similarly, for x =
61
1
for x in
1000
x
log10 x
103
3
102
2
101
1
100
0
101
1
102
2
103
3
We observe that as x increases along the positive real axis, log10 x also increases. We also
observe that log10 x is positive for all values of x > 1 and is negative whenever
x < 1. We observe that the values of log10 x is as given in the table below:
Location of log10 x
5 + 0.a1a2
10 < x < 10
4 + 0.b1b2
Range of x
10 < x < 10
3 + 0.c1c2
2 + 0.d1d2
10 < x < 10
100 < x < 101
1 + 0.e1e2
0 + 0.f1f2
1 + 0.g1g2
10 < x < 10
2 + 0.h1h2
3 + 0.i1i2
4 + 0.j1j2
10 < x < 10
10 < x < 10
From the above table, we note that the value of the common logarithm
expressed as
log10 x can be
In this form, the integer part is called the characteristic of log10 x and the decimal part is
called mantissa of log10 x . We usually write the mantissa in 4 decimal places. We observe
that the mantissa of log10 x always represents a positive number between 0 and 1, and the
characteristic of log10 x is a positive integer or negative integer or zero depending on the
value of x. If x < 1, then the characteristic is a negative integer. If
x >10, then the characteristic of log10 x is a positive integer. If x lies between 1 and 10, then
the characteristic of log10 x is 0.
Example 18: Find the characteristics of the common logarithms of
(i) 2003
(ii) 200.3
(iii) 20.03
(iv) 2.003
(v) 0.2003 (vi) 0.02003 (vii) 0.002003 (viii) 0.0002003
(ix) 0.00002003
(x) 0.000002003
Solution: (i) As 2003 lies between 103 and 104, log10 2003 is 3 + 0. d1d2d3d4. Then the
characteristic of log10 2003 is 3 and the mantissa is 0.d1d2d3d4.
Alternatively, writing
2003 in the scientific notation,
62
63
(ii) If the integral part of x is zero and the decimal (fractional) part has n zeros before the
first non zero digit on the right side of the decimal point, then the characteristic of log10 x is
(n + 1).
(iii) The numbers 2003, 200.3, , 0.000002003 have the same mantissa irrespective of the
position of the decimal point. Thus, the mantissa is the same for all numbers with identical
significant digits in a given order.
Example 19: Given that log 162 = 2.2095, find (i) log 1620
(ii) log 16.2 (iii) log 1.62
(iv) log 0.162
(v) log 0.0162
Solution: The mantissa of log 162 is 0.2095.
(i) log 1620 = 3.2095
(ii) log 16.2 = 1.2095
(iii) log 1.62 = 0.2095
(iv) log 0.162 = 1 + 0.2095.
(v) log 0.0162 = 2 + 0.2095
(vi) log 0.00162 = 3 + 0.2095
2003
2500
Solution: log 0.25 = 1 .3979 = 1 + 0.3979. So the mantissa of log 0.25 is 0.3979.
log 2003 = 3.3016 = 3 + 0.3016. So the mantissa of log 2003 is 0.3016.
3.3016
1.3979
1.9037
2.0000
1.9037
0.0963
2.003
(iv) log
= log 2.003 log 2500
2500
= 0.3016 3.3979
= 4 + 4. 3016 3.3979
= 4 .9037.
64
3.2.4
Table of Logarithms
Common logarithms of positive numbers from 1.000 to 9.999 (3 digit decimal part)
have been calculated and listed in the form of a ready-made table. This table is called Table
of logarithms. Using this table, we can find the common logarithm of any positive number.
Before we proceed to know the use of common logarithms, we shall familiarize our self with
the method of reading the common logarithms from the logarithms table.
Example 21: Find log 36.78.
Solution:
36.78 = 3.678 101.
The characteristic is 1. To get the mantissa, we consider 3.678 and locate the number
3.6 in the extreme left column of the table. Read along the row corresponding to 3.6 and down
the column under 7. We find 0.5647. We go further along the row and reach the column under
8 in the mean difference. Here we find 10. We add this 10 to 0.5647 and get 0.5657 as the
common logarithm of 3.678. This is the required mantissa of the given number and hence
log 36.78 = 1.5657.
Example 22: Find log 0.00200316.
Solution: 0.00200316 = 2.00316 103.
The characteristic = 3. To get the mantissa, consider 2.00316. Common logarithms
have been tabulated for numbers with 3 digits in the decimal part. So we approximate 2.00316
as 2.003(since 1 in the 4th decimal place is less than 5). Now, we get as before from the tables,
Table of antilogarithms
If log x = y, then x is called the antilogarithm of y. That is, if log10 x = y, then
65
1.8658
(iv) 2.0578
To get the antilog of y, consider first the mantissa only, locate the antilogarithm
corresponding to the first three digits of the mantissa and to this add the mean difference
corresponding to the fourth digit of the mantissa.
Solution:
(i) antilog of 1 .2305 = 10 1 .2305
from antilogarithm tables 0.230
1.698
= 101 + 0.2305
mean
difference
= 10 1 100.2305
corresponding to 5
2
1
1.700
=
1.700
10
= 0.1700
(ii) antilog of 3 .4629 =103 + 0.4629
= 10 3 100.4629
1
= 3 2.903
10
= 0.002903.
2.897
6
2.903
7.328
13
7.341
1.140
2
1.142
Characteristic
0
1
2
3
4
66
(ii) If the characteristic of log x is a negative integer, say n, then the decimal point in the
antilog (log x ) is inserted such that the first significant digit occurs at the nth place; that is, the
first n 1 digits are zero.
Characteristic
1
2
3
4
5
In the above table, d1. d2d3d4 is the antilogarithm corresponding to the mantissa of the given
logarithm.
3.2.6
x = antilog of 2.1854
= 102.1854
= 102 + .1854
= 102 10.1854
= 102 1.532= 153.2
1.531
1
1.532
67
3.3016
1.2103
2.0913
(ii) (0.3749)7
0.2713
1
0.2713 = (0.2713) 5 .
1
68
1
1
1 + 0.4335
5 + 4.4335
. log 0.2713 = . 1 .4335 =
=
5
5
5
5
= 1 + 0.8867 = 1 .8867.
x = antilog of ( 1 .8867) =0.7702
175.23 22.159
1828.46
175.23 22.159
Solution: Let x =
. Then we have
1828.46
log x = log 175.23 + log 22.159 log 1828.46
We have to make the following approximations since the table of logarithms has been
prepared for numbers ranging from 1.000 to 9.999 (with three digits in the fractional part).
175.23 = 1.7523 102
1.752 102.
22.159 = 2.2159 101
2.216 101.
1828.46 = 1.82846 103
1.829 103.
log x = 2.2435 + 1.3456 3.2622
= 3.5891 3.2622 = 0.3269.
x = antilog of (0.3269) = 2.122.
(76.25) 3 3 1.928
(42.75) 5 0.04623
Solution: Let x be the given expression. Then
log x = log (76.25)3 + log 3 1.928 [log (42.75)5 + log 0.04623]
1
= 3 log 76.25 + log 1.928[5 log 42.75 + log 0.04623]
3
1
= 3 1.8823 + 0.2851 [5 1.6309 + 2 .6649]
3
= 5.6469 + 0.0950 [8.1545 + 2 .6649]
= 5.7419 6.8194
= 2 + (7.7419 6.8194)
= 2 + 0.9225 = 2 .9925
x = anti log 2 .9925 =0.08366.
69
= log 10 4.3562
1
log 10 12
0.6391
= x say. Then log x = log
1.0792
= 1 .8056 (0.0331)
= 1 + (0.8056 0.0331)
= 1 + (0.7725) = 1 .7725
x = antilog ( 1 .7725) = 0.5923
0.6391
1.0792
Exercise 3.2.2
1.
2.
Find the number of digits in the integral part of the numbers whose common
logarithms are
(i) 2.345
(ii) 1.456
(iii) 3.4567
(iv) 0.1234
(v) 0.9876
(vi) 3 0.982
3.
The common logarithms of numbers are given below. Find the number of zeros after
the decimal point of the numbers.
(i) 1 .3456
(ii) 2 .2345
(iii) 3 .123
(iv) 4 .7877
(v) 5 .7245
(vi) 4 .102
4.
The mantissa of the common logarithm of 32740 is 0.5151. Write down the common
logarithms of the following.
(i) 32740
(ii) 3274
(iii) 327.4
(iv) 32.74
(v) 3.274
(vi) 0.3274
(vii) 0.0003274
(viii) 0.03274 105
5.
Find the common logarithms of the following numbers using the table of logarithms.
(i) 8273
(ii) 843250
(iii) 0.001439
(iv) 0.0000324 (v) 0.00468
(vi) 0.2356
(iii)
(vi)
(ix)
(xii)
70
2.0411
4.1083
2.1 5.4
5 .5 3
(ix)
0.08745
(4.23) 3 27.5
(132.4) 2
(xiii) log 5 1.326
(xi)
3.3
Set Notation
A collection of well defined objects is called a set. For example, the collection of all
natural numbers, the collection of all equilateral triangles in a plane, the collection of all IX
Standard students of Government Boys Higher Secondary School, Tiruthani, the collection of
all real numbers, the collection of all vowels in English alphabet are some examples of sets
since we can definitely say what objects are there in each of the collections. Consider the
following statements:
(i) The set of all tall students in your class.
(ii) The set of good books you have studied.
Both the above statements are not well defined, since there is no criteria for tall and good
and so we cannot list the elements described by the above statements.
Note: In a set, the objects are all distinct.
An object of a set is called an element or a member or an individual of the set. We
usually denote a set by an upper-case letter like A or B and an element of a set by a lower-case
letter such as x or y. If x is an element of a set A, we indicate this fact symbolically by writing
x A. The symbol stands for is an element of or is a member of or belongs to. When
an object x is not an element of the set A, we denote this fact by writing x A. Here, the
71
symbol stands for is not an element of or is not a member of or does not belongs to.
For example, if A is the set {1, 3, 4, 5}, then the elements of A are 1, 3, 4 and 5; that is, we
have 1 A, 3 A, 4 A and 5 A. We note that 6 A, 11 A, 9 A, Kumar A.
To represent a set, we adopt two methods:
the tabular or roaster method
(i)
the set-builder or rule method.
(ii)
3.3.2 Tabular or Roaster representation of a set
A set is usually written by listing all its objects, separating them by commas between
the braces { }. For example, the set of vowels in the word mathematics is {a, e, i}. We note
here that although the object a appears twice in the word mathematics, it is listed within the
braces once only, since the objects of a set are distinct. When a set is written by listing all its
objects separated by commas within braces { }, we say that the set is represented in the
tabular or roaster form. Some sets in their tabular representation are given below:
(i) The set of prime numbers less than 13 is {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}.
(ii) The set of letters in the word FOOTBALL is{F, O, T, B, A, L,}
(iii) The set of all natural numbers 1, 2, 3, is {1, 2, 3,}. Here by writing , we
mean that the elements occur one after other in the representation without any
omission. This set is specially denoted by the letter N.
(iv) The set of all whole numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, is {0, 1, 2, 3,}.This set is specially
denoted by the letter W.
(v) The set of all integers 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, is {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, }. This
set is specially denoted by the letter Z.
Example 32: Write the following set in the tabular form. Even natural numbers which are
multiples of 5 and less than 50.
Solution: The even natural numbers divisible by 5 are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
The set of even natural numbers divisible by 5 and less than 50 = {10, 20, 30, 40}.
3.3.3
A set can also be written by another form known as set-builder form. To write a set in
this form, we first find a common property of the elements of the set. This common property
should be such that it should specify the objects of the set only. For example, let us consider
the set {6, 36, 216}. The elements of the set are 6, 36 and 216. These numbers have a
common property that they are powers of 6. So the condition x = 6n, where n = 1, 2 and 3
yields the numbers 6, 36 and 216. No other number can be obtained from the condition. Thus
we observe that the set {6, 36, 216} is the collection of all numbers x such that x = 6n, where
n = 1, 2, 3. This fact is written in the following form { x | x = 6n, n = 1, 2, 3}. In words, we
read it as the set consisting of all x such that x = 6n, where n = 1, 2, 3. Here also, the braces
72
{ } are used to mean the set consisting of . The vertical bar | within the braces is used to
mean such that . The common property x = 6n, where n = 1, 2 and 3 acts as a builder for
the set and hence this representation is called the setbuilder or rule form. If P is the
common property possessed by each object of a given set A and no object other than these
objects possesses the property P, then the set A is represented by { x | x has the property P}
and we say that A is the set of all elements x such that x has property P.
Example 33: Represent the following sets in Rule Form:
(i) The set of all natural numbers less than 6.
(ii) The set of vowels in English alphabet.
(iii) The set of the numbers 2, 4, 6, .
Solution: (i) A natural number less than 6 can be described by the statement:
x N, x < 6.
the set is { x | x N, x < 6}.
(ii) A vowel in English alphabets can be described by the statement: x is a vowel in
English alphabet.
the set is {x | x is a vowel in English alphabet}.
(iii) A number x of the form 2, 4, 6, can be described by the statement:
x = 2n,
n N. the set is { x | x = 2n, n N}.
Note: The set-builder method is also called descriptive method since here the elements are
not listed but are indicated by the description of their characteristics.
Example 34: Write the following set in the tabular form A = {x | x + 5 = 7, x N}.
Solution: x + 5 = 7 x = 7 5 = 2. Here 2 N. A = {2}.
1 1 1 1 1 1
Example 35: Obtain the set builder representation of the set A = 1, , , , , , .
2 3 4 5 6 7
Solution: Since the given elements are the reciprocals of the first seven natural numbers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, we have
1
A = x | x = , n N and n 7 .
n
73
Suppose that we count the number of elements one by one in a set A. If we come to an
end in the process, then the set A is said to be a finite set. If we never come to an end in
counting the elements, then the set A is said to be an infinite set. The number of elements in a
set A is called the cardinal number of the set A and is denoted by the symbol n(A) which is
read as the number of elements in the set A. We observe that if A is a finite set, then n(A) is a
whole number.
Example 36: Identify finite and infinite sets from the following:
(i) A = {x | x W, x < 5}.
(ii) {All schools in Tamil Nadu}.
(iii) {Students in IX standard in your school}.
(iv) N.
(v) W.
(vi) Z.
(vii) The set of all prime numbers.
Solution:
(i) x W, x < 5 x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. When we count elements of A one by one as 1 for 0, 2
for 1, 3 for 2, 4 for 3, 5 for 4, we come to an end . n(A) = 5 and so A is a finite set.
(ii) All schools in Tamil Nadu can be counted one by one and we come to an end in the
counting process. So the set {All schools in Tamil Nadu} is a finite set.
(iii) When we count the students of IX standard in your school, we come to an end in the
counting process. So the set {Students in IX standard in your school} is a finite set.
(iv) N = {1, 2, 3,}. When we count elements of N one by one as 1 for 1, 2 for 2, 3 for 3, 4
for 4, we are not able to come to an end in the counting process. the set N is an infinite
set.
(v) W = {0, 1, 2, 3,}. When we count elements of W one by one as 1 for 0, 2
for 1, 3 for 2, 4 for 3, we are unable to come to an end in the counting process. the set W
is an infinite set.
(vi) Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2,}. When we count elements of Z one by one as 1 for 0, 2
for 1, 3 for 1, 4 for 2, 5 for 2 and so on, we are not able to come to an end in the counting
process. the set Z is an infinite set.
(vii) When we write the prime numbers one by one as 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and so on, we are
unable to come to an end in the counting process. the set of all prime numbers is an
infinite set.
3.3.5
74
Equivalent sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they contain the same number of
elements. If the set A is equivalent to the set B, then n(A) = n(B) and we write A B. For
example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {11, 9, 23}, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3. So A B.
3.3.7
Equal Sets
If two sets A and B contain the same elements, then they are said to be equal and we
write A = B. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {x | x N, x < 5}, then A and B are
equal sets since if we list the elements of B, we get the tabular form of B as {1, 2, 3, 4}. We
observe that the equality of two sets is ensured by the presence of the same elements in the
two sets. Hence, the elements of a set can be listed in the set in any order we like. For
example, the sets {1, 2 ,3, 4} and {4, 3, 1, 2} are equal.
Note: If two sets are equal, then they must be equivalent. However two equivalent sets need
not be equal. For example, {1, 1, 2, 2} and {1, 2, 1, 2} are equal as well as equivalent
sets, but , {1, 1, 2, 2} and {1, 2, 3, 4} are equivalent sets. But they are not equal sets, since
the elements 1, 2 {1, 1, 2, 2} and 1, 2 {1, 2, 3, 4}.
3.3.8
Singleton set
A set which has only one element is called a singleton set.
For example, the set of all even prime numbers. We know that the only even prime number is
2. So {All even prime numbers} = {2} and n(A) = 1. Hence it is a singleton set.
75
3.3.9
Universal Set
The elements of all sets which occur in a mathematical investigation belong to a set.
This set is called the universal set. The universal set is denoted by the symbol U or by the
symbol . For example, suppose the sets of a mathematical investigation are A = {2, 3, 4, 5},
and B = {1, 3, 7, 11}. Then we can take the universal set U as
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11,} or U = N or U = W or U = Z.
3.3.10 Subset
Let A and B be two sets. If every element of A is also an element of B, then A is called
a subset of B or B is a super set of A. We write this fact by the symbol A B or B A. Here
the symbol stands for is a subset of or is contained in and means is a super set of or
contains. For example, we consider two sets A = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3} and
B = {1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 3}. We observe that 1, 2, 1, 2, 3 A and 1, 2, 1, 2, 3 B. That is,
every element of the set A is also an element of the set B. So A is a subset of B, that is, A B.
We also observe here that 3 B and 3 A. So B is not a subset of A and this fact is written
as B A. Here the symbol stands for is not a subset of or is not contained in.
Note: If a set X is a subset of a set Y and the set Y is a subset of the set X, then the two sets X
and Y have the same elements and so they are equal. If X = Y, then every element of X is also
an element of Y and every element of Y is also an element of X. We should note that the sets
X and Y are not numbers, still we use the equality sign = between them whenever they are
equal. The equality symbol is used with the understanding that all elements of X are in Y and
all elements of Y are in X; that is X and Y have precisely the same elements.
Note: Every set A is a subset of itself since every element of A is in A itself. The empty set
is a subset of every set A because if cannot be a subset of A, then there would be an element
in the empty set which would not be in A. Thus, A A and A.
3.3.11 Proper Subset
76
The collection of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted
by the symbol p(A). For example if A = {a, b}, then p(A) is {{}, {a}, {b}, {a,b}} and the
cardinal number of p(A) is n[p(A)] = 4 = 22. Similarly, if A = {a, b, c}, then p(A)
n[p(A)] =
is {{}, {a}, {b}, {c},{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,a},{a, b,c}} and the cardinal number of p(A) is
8 = 23. Thus, we observe that if n(A) = m, then n[p(A)] = 2m.
Exercise 3.3.1
1. Rewrite the following sets using tabular form:
(i) A = {The Vowels in the word SUNDAY}.
(ii) B = {The Seasons of the year}.
(iii) C = {The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS}.
(iv) D = {The set of all letters in the word TAMILNADU}.
2. Write the following sets in the roaster form:
(i) P = {x | x is a letter of the word TAMILNADU}.
(ii) Q = {x | x is a whole number and 3 x < 7}.
(iii) R = {x | x is a two digit natural number such that sum of its digits is 9}.
3. Write the following sets in the builder form:
(i) {3, 6, 9, 12}
(ii) {5, 25, 125, 625}
(iv) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}.
4. Match each of the sets on the left described in the roaster form with the same set on
right described in set builder form.
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6}
(a) {x | x is a prime number and a divisor of 6}.
(ii) {2, 3}
(b) {x | x is an odd natural number less than 10}.
(iii) {2, 4, 6, 8}
(c) {x | x is a positive integer and a divisor of 6}.
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x | x is an even natural number less than 10}.
5. Find the cardinal number of the following sets:
(i) The set of vowels in English alphabet.
(ii) The set of all perfect square numbers less than 100.
(iii) A = { x | x is a letter in the word mathematics}.
(iv) B = {x | x < 0, x W}.
(v) C = {x | 3 x < 4, x Z}.
(vi) The set of all prime numbers between 10 and 20.
6. Write down the elements that have been left out in the following finite sets:
(i) A = {1, 10, 100, ______, _______, 1,00,000}.
(ii) B = {2, 5, 8, 11, ______, _______, 20, 23}.
77
the
7. Write down the next three elements of the following infinite sets:
(i) C = {3, 6, 12, 24, ______, ______, ______, .}.
(ii) D = {4, 3, 2, 1, ______, ______, _____, }.
8. State whether the following sets are empty sets:
(i) A = {Even natural numbers divisible by 3}.
(ii) B = { x | x R , x2 + 1 = 0}.
(iii) C = {Polygons with four sides}.
(iv) D = {Quadrilateral with five sides}.
9. Let A = {p, q, r, s}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7}, C = {q, r}, D = {8, 4, 6, 2}, E = {r, q, s, p}
F = {2, 6, 4, 8}. Write true or false:
(i) A and C are equivalent sets.
(ii) A and E are equal sets.
(iii) F and B are equivalent sets.
(iv) A and B are equal sets.
(v) F and D are equal sets.
10. Write down the power set for each of the following sets:
(i) A = {1, 2} (ii) B = { x, y, z} (iii) C = {a, b, c, d}
11. (i) If n(A) = 5, find n[p(A)]
Let A and B be two given sets. The set of all elements that belong either to A or to B
or to both is called the union of A and B. We denote the union of A and B by A U B. Thus,
A U B = { x | x A or x B or x A and B}.
We write A U B = {x| x A or x B} where it is understood that the word or is used in the
inclusive sense; that is, x A or x B stands for x A or x B or x A and B.
Example 38: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6}, find A U B.
Solution: Listing all the elements A and B together and omitting the repetition, we get
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 4, 6. Thus, A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.
78
Let A and B be two given sets. The set formed by the elements that are common to
both A and B is called the intersection of A and B. We denote the intersection of A and B by
A I B. Thus A I B = {x | x A and x B}.
Example 39: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}, find A I B.
Solution: All elements in A and B: 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4
Common elements in A and B: 2, 3, 2, 3
A I B = {2, 3}.
3.3.14 Disjoint Sets
If two sets A and B have no elements in common, then they are called disjoint sets;
i.e., if A I B = or { }, then A and B are disjoint sets. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 7} and
B = {4, 5, 6}, then A I B = { } and so A and B are disjoint sets.
3.3.15 Difference Set
Let A and B be two given sets. The set of all elements of A which are not in B is called
the difference set. It is denoted by A B. Thus, A B = {x | x A, x B}.
Note: B A = {x | x B, x A}
Example 40: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {1, 3, 7}, find A B and B A.
Solution: AB = {2, 4, 5, 6}. B A = {7}.
Note: A B B A.
3.3.16 Complement of a set
Let A be a given set and U be the universal set. The set of all elements of U which are
not in A is called the complement of the set A and is denoted by A or Ac or A .
Note: Ac = U A.
Example 41: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {3, 4}, find Ac.
Solution: Ac = {1, 2, 5}.
3.3.17 An Identity in set theory
There is an useful identity in set theory which provides the number in the union of the
sets. It is stated as follows:
If A and B are two sets, then n(A U B) n(A) + n(B) n(A I B).
79
Example 42: If A = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, find n(A), n(B), n(A U B)
and n(A I B) and verify the identity n(A U B) n(A) + n(B) n(A I B).
Solution: We observe that A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} A I B ={1, 3, 5, 7}.
n(A) = 8, n(B) = 5, n(A U B) = 9 and n(A I B) = 4.
As an aid to visualize the operations (forming union and intersection and taking
complement) on sets, John Venn, an English mathematician introduced a diagrammatic way
of representing sets. The diagrams representing sets are called Venn Diagrams. Usually the
Universal set is represented by a rectangle and its proper subsets are by circles drawn within
the rectangle. We now give the representation of different sets in Venn diagram:
Universal set
Figure 3.1
80
A UB
Figure 3.2
AI B
Figure 3.3
Ac
Figure 3.4
Bc
Figure 3.5
(A U B) c
Figure 3.6
(A I B) c
Figure 3.7
AB
Figure 3.8
BA
Figure 3.9
81
Example 43: From the diagram given below(see Figure 3.10), find the sets
(i) A U B
(ii) A I B
(iii) (A U B)c
Solution: Here U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
(i) A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
(ii) A I B = {2, 5}.
(iii) (A U B) c = {7}.
Figure 3.10
Example 44: Using Venn Diagram, exhibit the sets A = {2, 3, 5, 7} and B = {3, 9, 11}.
Verify the formula: n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A I B).
Solution:
A U B = {2, 3, 5, 7} U {3, 9, 11} = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}
n(A U B) = 6.
(1)
A I B = {2, 3, 5, 7} I {3, 9, 11} = {3}
n(A I B) = 1.
We have n(A) = 4, n(B) = 3. n(A) + n(B) = 4 + 3 = 7.
Figure 3.11
(2)
n(A) + n(B) n(A I B) = 7 1 = 6.
From (1) and (2) we get (A U B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A I B)
Note: If A and B are disjoint then A I B = and n(A I B) = 0.
This gives n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B).
Example 45 : The number of girls in a village who attended tailoring classes was 45, the
number of girls who attended classes on gardening was 70. If 30 of these attended both the
classes, using Venn Diagram, find
(i) how many attended only one type of class
(ii) how many totally attended either of these classes.
Solution: If A and B represent respectively,
the set of girls who attended the tailoring classes and the
set of girls who attended classes in gardening we have
n(A) = 45, n(B) = 70 By data n(A I B) = 30. From the
82
Figure 3.12
Example 46: Out of 45 houses in a village 25 houses have T.V and 30 houses have radio.
Find how many of them have both.
Solution:
Let A = {the number of houses having T.V}
B = {the number of houses having Radio}
A I B = {The number of houses having both T.V and Radio}.
Let n(A I B) = x
Figure 3.13
Since there are 35 students in the class, the number of students who have failed in both
subjects = 35 32 = 3. Using Venn diagram we find that the
(i) Number of students passed in History alone = n(H ) n(H I M) = 25 18 = 10
(ii) The number of students who passed in Mathematics alone = n(M) n(H I M)
= 22 18 = 4.
83
Exercise 3.3.3
1.
2.
3.
A student in IX standard has to attend at least one of two tests A and B. If 40 students
attend test A, 30 students attend test B and 20 students attend both the tests. Find the
number of students in the class.
4.
In a survey taken among 400 residents of a colony, 250 bought English news papers,
170 bought Tamil news papers and 65 bought both. How many residents did not buy
any paper at all.
5.
In a village there are 200 families. Two brands of soaps A and B were popular there
160 families used brand A and 140 families used brand B. If all the families used at
least one of these brands find how many families used both the brands.
6.
In a party attended by 250 persons, 210 took coffee, 50 took tea and some persons
took both coffee and tea. If 20 persons did not drink coffee or tea. Find the number of
persons who took both coffee and tea.
7.
A college magazine reported that 150 students had combined membership in physics
club and mathematics club. Find the membership in physics club if 70 students were
members of the mathematics club and 50 students were members of both the clubs.
8.
In a class of 30 girls, 20 girls took part in singing competition and 10 took part in
singing and dancing. If 5 girls did not take part in any one of them. Find how many
took part in dance competition only.
9.
84
Answers
Exercise 3.1
1.
2.
(i) 0.00000325
(v) 3250000
(ii) 0.0000402
(vi) 402000
(iii) 0.0004132
(vii) 41320
(iv) 0.001432
(viii) 1432
3.
Exercise 3.2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(i) T
(ii) F
(iii) F
(iv) F
(v) T
(vi) F
2
(i) log 5 0.04 = 2
(ii) log 1 4 =
(iii) log 4 256 = 4
3
8
3
(iv) log 3 729 = 6
(v) log 36 216 =
(vi) log10 0.001 = 3
2
1
(i) 4
(ii) 3
(iii) 4
(iv)
(v) 4
2
5
1
(vi)
(vii) 36
(viii) 64
(ix)
2
4
1
1
1
(i) 10
(ii)
(iii)
(iv) 5 (v)
128
10
32
1
(x) 3
(vi) 512
(vii) 2(viii) 162
(ix)
3
(i) C
(ii) A
(iii) D
(iv) C
(v) A
(vi) D
8
350
(i) log10 18 (ii) log 3
(iii) 13
(iv) log 2
81
3
72
5
(vi) log 10
(v) log 10
25
48
(i) x + y
(ii) 2x
(iii) y x
(iv) 3y
(v) t y
(viii) y + z
(ix) z + t
(vi) 3x + y + 2 z (vii) 3(x y)
(xi) 2t x z
(xii) x y z + t
(x) 2x + y
11
10
5
4
(i) 2 2
(ii)
(iii)
(iv) 16
(v)
(vi)
7
3
3
6
7
2
(x) 243
(xi)
(vii) 9
(viii) 9
(ix)
3
7
Exercise 3.2.2
85
(iv) 1
(viii) 2
1.
(i) 3
(v) 2
(ii) 1
(vi) 3
(iii) 0
(vii) 5
2.
(i) 3
(v) 1
(ii) 2
(vi) 3
(iii) 4
(iv) 1
3.
(i) 0
(v) 4
(ii) 1
(vi) 3
(iii) 2
(iv) 3
4.
(i) 4.5151
(v) 0.5151
(ii) 3.5151
(vi) 1.5151
(iii) 2.5151
(vii) 4.5151
5.
(i) 4.9177
(iv). 5.5105
(ii) 5.926
(v). 3.6702
(iii) 3.158
(vi) 1.3722
6.
(i) 776.7
(iv) 0.002668
(ii) 2.705
(v) 0.00003312
7.
(i)
(v)
(viii)
(xi)
200700
(ii)
0.4059
(vi)
0.0005012
(ix)
0.00000001698 (xii)
82.56
0.00007789
0.0005012
0.03162.
8.
(i)
(v)
(viii)
(xi)
(xiv)
2041
0.00002079
7.670
0.02263
1.893.
30550
3285000
0.6142
0.8339
(ii)
(vi)
(ix)
(xii)
(iv) 1.5151
(viii) 7 .5151
(iii) 0.2873
(vi) 0.001239
(iii) 0.01099
(vii) 0.00003981
(x) 0.03981
(iii)
(vii)
(x)
(xiii)
0.01034
5851 1018
412.3
0.1752
(iv) 0.0006
(iv) 1380
Exercise 3.3.1
1.
(i) A = {U, A}
(iii) C = { M, A, T, H, I, C, S, E.}
2.
(i) P = { T, A, M, I, L, N, D, U}
(ii) Q = {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(iii) R = { 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90}
3.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
4.
5.
(i) (c) ;
(i) 5
A = {x | x = 3n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {x | x = 5n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4}
C = {x | x N, x is odd}
D = {x | x N, x = n2, 0 < n 10}
(ii) (a);
(ii) 9
(iii) (d);
(iii) 8
86
(iv) (b)
(iv) 0
(v) 7
(vi) 4
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
(i)
(i)
(i)
(i)
(i)
1000, 10000
(ii) 14, 17
48, 96, 192
(ii) 0, 1, 2
No
(ii) Empty set
F
(ii) T
p(A)= {{1}, {2}, {1,2}, { }}
(ii) p(B)=
(iii) No
(iii) T
{{x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}, { } }
(iii) p(C)= {{a},{b},{c},{d},{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c},{b, d},{c, d}, {a, b, d},
{b, c, d},{c, d, a}, {a, b, c},{a, b, c, d},{}}
11.
(i) 32
(ii) 7
Exercise 3.3.2
A
A
A
A
1.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
2.
3.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Ac = {b, d, e, f, h}
Bc = {g, h}
(A U B) c = {h}
(Ac I B) c= {a, c, g, h}
Ac I B c= {h}
Ac U B c = {b, d, e, f, g, h }
Exercise 3.3.3
1.
2.
6.
(i) 7
62
30
(ii) 1
3. 50
7. 130
(iii) 3
4. 45
8. 5
(iv) 4
5. 100
9. 5
87
4. ALGEBRA
The word algebra is derived from the Arabic word aljabr. In Arabic language, al
means the and jabr means reunion of broken parts. The usage of the word can be
understood by a simple example. In the equation x + 5 = 9, the left hand side is the addition
(sum) of two parts x and 5. If we add (unite) (5) to each side of the equation, we get
(x + 5) + (5) = 9 + (5) or x + [5 + (5)] = 9 5 or x + 0 = 4 or x = 4.
Here 9 and 5 are reunited to get 4. This type of mathematics is called algebra. Indian
mathematicians like Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Mahavir, Sridhara, Bhaskara II have
developed this subject very much. The Greek mathematician Diophantus has developed this
subject to a great extent and hence we call him the father of Algebra.
In this branch of mathematics, we use letters like a, b, x and y to denote numbers.
Performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division or extraction of roots on these
symbols and real numbers, we obtain what are called algebraic expressions. The following
are some examples of algebraic expressions:
25 x + 12
2x + 3, (3a + b) (2x y),
, 14 x + 19 y .
19 x + 7
If two algebraic expressions are equated, we get what are called algebraic equations. The
following are some examples of algebraic equations:
7 x
2x + 3 = x + 6,
= 5 x 2 + 2 , 2x + 11 = 0.
2 + 3x
Symbols in an algebraic expression are called variables of the expression. For example, in
ax + b, if a and b are specific numbers and x is not specified, then x is the variable of ax + b.
In 2x2 + 3xy + y2, x and y are variables. If the variables in an algebraic expression are replaced
with specific numbers, then the expression yields a number and this number is called a value
of the expression. For example, 2x2 + y is an algebraic expression and x and y are variables of
the expression. When we substitute 2 for x and 1 for y, the value of 2x2 + y is 2(2)2 + 1 = 9. If
we substitute (1) for x and 2 for y, then the value of 2x2 + y is 2(1)2 + 2 = 4. An algebraic
expression may not have a real number value for some real number values of the variables of
the expression. For example, the expression x 3 has no real number value when x = 1
because the square of a real number can not be a negative real number and hence the square
root of a negative real number cannot be a real number. In this chapter, we shall study about
algebraic expressions in one or several variables, the variables and the algebraic expressions
represent real numbers only. Here after, by a number we shall mean real number only.
88
4.1 Polynomials
An Algebraic expression of the form axn is called a monomial in x, where a is a
known number, x is a variable and n is a non-negative integer. The number a is called the
coefficient of xn and n, the degree of the monomial. For example, 7x3 is a monomial in x of
degree 3 and 7 is the coefficient of x3. The sum of two monomials is called a binomial and
the sum of three monomials is called a trinomial. For example, 2x3 + 3x is a binomial and
2x5 3x2 + 3 is a trinomial. The sum of a finite number of monomials in x is called a
polynomial in x. The coefficients of the monomials in a polynomial are called the coefficients
of the polynomial. If all the coefficients of a polynomial are zero, then the polynomial is
called the zero polynomial. Hereafter, by a polynomial, we shall mean nonzero polynomial
in x only, that is, a polynomial with at least one nonzero coefficient. The monomials in a
polynomial are called the terms and the highest degree of the terms, the degree of the
polynomial. The coefficient of the highest power of x in a polynomial is called the leading
coefficient of the polynomial. For example, 3x 1 + 3x2 + 6x5 4x3 is a polynomial of degree
5 with terms 3x, 1, 3x2, 6x5 and 4x3 and leading coefficient 6. Since the terms of a
polynomial are real numbers, they can be rearranged using the properties of real numbers such
that the terms of the polynomial occur in the descending powers of x.
For example, the polynomial 3x2 1 5x 3x3 is rewritten as 3x3 + 3x2 5x 1.
When we write a polynomial in descending powers of x, we say that the polynomial is in the
standard form. Special names are given to lower degree polynomials. A first degree
polynomial is called a linear polynomial. A second degree polynomial is called a quadratic
polynomial. A third degree polynomial is called a cubic polynomial and a fourth degree
polynomial is called a bi-quadratic polynomial. We shall denote polynomials in x by
symbols such as f(x), g(x), p(x), q(x), r(x). The degree of a polynomial f(x) is denoted by the
symbol deg(f(x)). For example, if f(x) is the polynomial 1 3x2 + 5x3 2x, then deg(f(x)) = 3.
Since the terms of a polynomial are numbers, all polynomials represent numbers. So we can
add, subtract, multiply and divide polynomials. We shall know about the division of one
polynomial by another polynomial later.
4.1.1 Addition of Polynomials
We add two polynomials by adding the coefficients of the like powers.
Example 1: Find the sum of 2x4 3x2 + 5x + 3 and 4x + 6x3 6x2 1.
Solution: Using the associative and distributive properties of real numbers, we obtain
(2x4 3x2 + 5x + 3) + (6x3 6x2 + 4x 1) = 2x4 + 6x3 3x2 6x2 + 5x + 4x + 3 1
= 2x4 + 6x3 (3+6)x2 + (5+4)x + 2
= 2x4 + 6x3 9x2 + 9x + 2.
89
90
x3 2x2 4
2x2 + 3x 1
x3 (2x2 + 3x 1) :
2x2 (2x2 + 3x 1) :
4(2x2 + 3x 1) :
2x5 + 3x4 x3
4x4 6x3 + 2x2
8x2 12x + 4
2x5 x4 7x3 6x2 12x + 4
91
x2 xy + y2
= 2x (x2 xy + y2) + 3y (x2 xy + y2)
2x(x2 xy + y2) : 2x3 2x2y + 2xy2
= 2x3 2x2y + 2xy2 + 3x2y 3xy2 + 3y3
3y(x2xy + y2) :
3x2y 3xy2 + 3y3
=2x3 + (2x2y + 3x2y) + (2xy2 3xy2) + 3y3
2x3 + x2y xy2 + 3y3
= 2x3 + x2y xy2 + 3y3.
The process of division of one polynomial by another polynomial is discussed in section 4.4.
Exercise 4.1
1.
92
93
(x + a)(x + b) x2 + (a + b) x + ab
94
(d) (x 8) (x + 2)
1
2
1
2
95
So
1
4
1
4
[4ab] = ab.
(iii) (a + b)2 2ab = (a2 + 2ab + b2) 2ab = a2 + 2ab + b2 2ab = a2 + b2.
(iv) (a + b)2 4ab = (a2 + 2ab + b2) 4ab = a2 + 2ab + b2 4ab
= a2 2ab + b2 = (ab)2.
(v) (a b)2 + 2ab = (a2 2ab + b2) + 2ab = a2 2ab + b2 + 2ab = a2 + b2.
(vi) (a b)2 + 4ab = (a2 2ab + b2) + 4ab = a2 2ab + b2 + 4ab
= a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2.
Thus we have the following useful identities:
1
2
1
4
96
(a b)2 = (a + b)2 4 ab
= (12)2 4(32) =144 128 = 16.
Example 13: If the values of a b and ab are 6 and 40 respectively, find the values of
a2 + b2 and (a + b)2.
Solution: a2 + b2 = (a b)2 + 2ab
(a + b)2 = (a b)2 + 4ab
= 62 + 2(40) = 36 + 80 = 116.
= 62 + 4(40)= 36 + 160 = 196.
Example 14: If (x + p)(x + q) = x2 5x 300, find the value of p2 + q2.
Solution:
By product formula, we have (x + p) (x + q) = x2 + (p + q)x + pq.
So, by comparison, we get p + q = 5, pq = 300.
Now, we have p2 + q2 = (p + q)2 2 pq = (5)2 2(300) = 25 + 600 = 625.
Also we have
(a + b + c)2 2 (ab + bc + ca) = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) 2(ab + bc + ca)
= a2 + b2 + c2.
Thus, we get another algebraic identity
(a + b + c)2 2(ab + bc + ca) a2 + b2 + c2
97
Hence,
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) x3 + (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x + abc
98
Solution:
(i) Comparing with (x + a)(x + b)(x +c ), we get a = 3, b = 5, c = 6.
Coefficient of x2 = a + b + c = 3 + 5 + 6 = 14,
Coefficient of x = ab + bc + ca = (3 5) + (5 6) + (6 3) = 15 + 30 + 18 = 63,
Constant term = abc = 3 5 6 = 90.
(iv) Let A be algebraic expression (2x 3)(2x 5)(7 2x) and put y=2x. Then,
A = (y 3)(y 5)(7 y) = (y 3)(y 5) [(y 7)] = [(y 3)(y 5 )(y 7)]
= [y3 + {(3) + (5) + (7)}y2 + {(3)(5) + (5)(7) + (7)(3)}y + (3)(5)(7)]
= [y3 15y2 + (15 + 35 + 21)y 105] = y3 + 15y2 71y + 105
= (2x)3 + 15(2x)2 71(2x) + 105 = 8x3 + 60x2 142x + 105
Coefficient of x2 = 60, Coefficient of x = 142, Constant term = 105
Alternately,
(2x 3)(2x 5)(7 2x) =
3
5
7
3
5
7
2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 2 = 8 x + 2 x + 2 x + 2
3 5 7
15
Coefficient of x2 = 8(a + b + c) = 8 = 8 = 60,
2
2 2 2
3 5 5 7 7 3
Coefficient of x = 8( ab + bc + ca) = 8 + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
15 + 35 + 21
15 35 21
= 8 + + = 8
= (2) (71)= 142,
4
4
4 4
105
3 5 7
= 105.
Constant term = 8(abc) = 8 = 8
8
2 2 2
99
Based on the identities for (a+b)3 and (ab)3, we deduce the following identities:
(i) (a+b)33ab(a+b) = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 3a2b 3ab2 = a3+b3.
(a + b)3 3ab(a + b) a3 + b3
a3 + b3 (a + b)3 3ab(a + b)
(a b)3 + 3ab(a b) a3 b3
a3 b3 (a b)3 + 3ab(a b)
a3 + b3 (a + b)(a2 ab + b2)
(a + b)(a2 ab + b2) a3 + b3
a3 b3 (ab)(a2 + ab + b2)
(a b)(a2 + ab + b2) a3 b3
100
Identity for a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca
We have
1
(2a 2 + 2b 2 + 2c 2 2ab 2bc 2ca )
2
1
= (a 2 2ab + b 2 ) + (b 2 2bc + c 2 ) + (c 2 2ca + a 2 )
2
1
= ( a b ) 2 + (b c ) 2 + ( c a ) 2 .
2
a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca =
1
(a b ) 2 + (b c ) 2 + (c a ) 2
2
1
(a b) 2 + (b c)2 + (c a)2 a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca
2
Identity for (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca)
Thus, we have
(a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca) a3 + b3 + c3 3abc
Reversing the sides, we get
a3 + b3 + c3 3abc (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca).
101
Alternately,
a3 + b3 = (a+b)(a2 ab + b2) = (a+b)(a2 + b2 ab)
= (2) [8 (2)] = 2(10) = 20.
4
4
a + b = (a2)2 + (b2)2 = [(a2) + (b2)]2 2 (a2)(b2)
= (a2 + b2)2 2a2b2 = (a2 + b2)2 2(ab)2
= (8)2 2(2)2 = 64 2(4)= 64 8 = 56.
Exercise 4.2
1.
2.
(x + 8) (x 2)
(p 4)(p 3)
59 62
53 55
3.
4.
102
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
(iii) x
x
12.
13.
If x +
14.
15.
1 1 1
+ +
a b c
and a2 + b2 + c2.
1
1
1
= 3, find x2 + 2 and x3+ 3 .
x
x
x
4.3. Factorization
In the previous section, we have learnt how to multiply two or more polynomials to
get another polynomial. Now, we proceed to learn how to write a polynomial as a product of
two or more polynomials. The process of writing a polynomial as a product of two or more
simpler polynomials is called factorization. Each simpler polynomial in the product is called
a factor of the given polynomial. For example, x + 3 and x 3 are factors of x2 9 because
x2 9 = (x + 3)(x 3).
Here x2 9 is a second degree polynomial whereas x + 3 and x 3 are first degree
polynomials. Thus factorization is useful in simplifying expressions. The process of
factorization is also known as the resolution into factors.
103
+
6x4y3 4x2y2 + 10xy3 = 2xy2
2
2
2
2 xy
2 xy
2 xy
Step 2: (Grouping the terms) When the terms of an algebraic expression do not have a
common factor, the terms may be grouped in an appropriate manner and a common factor is
determined.
Example 24 : Factorize x2 2xy x + 2y.
Solution: The terms of the expression do not have a common factor. However, we observe
that the terms can be grouped as follows:
x2 2xy x + 2y = (x2 2xy) (x 2y) = x(x 2y) + (1) (x 2y)
= (x 2y) [x + (1)] = (x 2y) (x 1).
Example 25 : Factorize 6x5y2 + 6x4y3 + 9x2y4 + 9xy5.
Solution : Applying both step 1 and step 2, we have
6x5y2 + 6x4y3 + 9x2y4 + 9xy5 = 3xy2(2x4 + 2x3y + 3xy2 + 3y3)
= 3xy2 [(2x4 + 3xy2) + (2x3y + 3y3)] = 3xy2 [x(2x3 + 3y2) + y(2x3 + 3y2)]
= 3xy2 (2x3 + 3y2) (x + y).
Exercise 4.3.1
Resolve into factors by finding a common factor in the following :
1. 9m 3n
2. 4a3 8a2 + 16a
3. x5 + 4x
4. 6x5y5 + 3x2y3 + 14xy3
5. 7pq 21p2q2
Resolve into factors by finding a common factor or by grouping method:
6. mn 2p pn + 2m
7. x3 2x2 2x + 4
3
2
8. x x ax + a
9. 2p3 p2 + 2p 1
3
2
10. 8x + 4x + 4x + 2
105
Factorization using X 3 Y 3 (X Y) (X 2 + XY + Y 2)
Example 30 : Factorize 216p38q3.
Solution: We can write 216p3 = (6p)3 and 8q3 = (2q)3. So, taking X = 6p and Y = 2q,
we get 216p3 8q3 = (6p)3 (2q)3
X 3 Y 3 = (X Y) (X 2 + XY + Y 2)
= (6p 2q) [(6p)2 +(6p)(2q) +(2q)2]
= (6p 2q)(36p2+12pq+4q2).
Factorization using X 3 + Y 3 + 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 (X + Y)3
Example 31: Factorize 8x3 + y 3 + 12x2y + 6xy2.
Solution: 8x3 + y3 + 12x2y + 6xy2 = (2x)3 + y3 + 3(2x)2y + 3(2x)y2= [(2x) + y]3 = (2x + y)3.
Factorization using X 3 Y 3 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 (X Y)3
Example 32: Resolve into factors 8x3 27y3 36x2y + 54xy2.
Solution : 8x3 27y3 36x2y + 54xy2 = (2x)3 (3y)3 3(2x)2(3y) + 3(2x)(3y)2= (2x 3y)3.
Factorization using X 2+ Y 2 + Z 2 + 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX (X + Y + Z)2
Example 33 : Factorize x2+ 9y2 6xy + 4x 12y + 4.
Solution : The expression contains a sum x2 + 9y2 + 4. This is a sum of three squares. So, we
write x2 + 9y2 6xy + 4x 12y + 4 = x2 + (3y)2 + 22 + 2x (3y) + 2x(2) + 2(2)(3y)
= [x + (3y) + 2]2 = (x 3y + 2)2.
Factorization using X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 3XYZ (X + Y + Z) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 XY YZ ZX)
Example 34: Factorize x3 8y3 + 27z3 + 18xyz.
Solution: Since 8y3 = (2y)3 and 27z3 = (3z)3, the given expression P contains a sum of
three cubes. So, we write
P = (x)3 + (2y)3 + (3z)3 3(x)(2y)(3z)
= [(x) + (2y) + (3z)] [(x)2 + (2y)2 + (3z)2 (x) (2y) (2y)(3z) (3z)(x)]
= (x 2y + 3z) (x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 + 2xy + 6yz 3zx)
Factorization of X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 when X + Y + Z =0
X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 = (X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 3XYZ) + 3XYZ
= (X + Y + Z) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 XY YZ ZX) + 3XYZ
= (0) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 XY YZ ZX) + 3XYZ = 3XYZ.
Note: When X + Y + Z = 0 , X + Y = Z. (X + Y)3 = ( Z)3 = Z3 . That is
X 3 + Y 3 + 3XY(X +Y ) = Z3 . That is, X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 + 3XY( Z) = 0.
X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 = 3XY Z.
Example 35: Factorize (x y)3 + (y z)3 + (z x)3.
Solution: Put X = x y, Y = y z, Z = z x. Then
X + Y + Z = (x y) + (y z) + (z x) = x y + y z + z x = 0.
3
X + Y 3 + Z 3 = 3XYZ
106
107
108
Factors
{1, 54}
{1, 54}
{2, 27}
{2, 27}
{3, 18}
{3, 18}
{6, 9}
{6, 9}
Hence x2 15x + 54 = (x 6) (x 9).
Sum
55
55
29
29
21
21
15
15
1
2
Instead of applying the final result of the rule, we can also do the factorization by
splitting the middle term and grouping as follows:
2x2 + 7x + 3 = 2x2 + (6 + 1)x + 3
= 2x2 + 6x + x + 3
= 2x(x + 3) + (1)(x+3) = (2x+1) (x+3).
Example 48: Factorize 8a2 + 2a 3.
Solution : Here, we find 8 3 = 24 = 6 4, 6+(4) = 2
By splitting and grouping, we get
8a2 + 2a 3 = 8a2 + 6a 4a 3
= 2a(4a + 3) (1)(4a+3) = (4a + 3) (2a 1)
Example 49: Factorize 6 +
11
x
2
+ x2.
11
x
2
+ x2 =
1
(2x2 + 11x + 12).
2
Here 2 12 = 24 = 8 3 and 8 + 3 = 11
Hence, by splitting the middle term and grouping,
1
1
1
11
6 + x + x2 = (2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12) = [2x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)] = (x + 4) (2x + 3).
2
2
2
2
The method of splitting the middle term and grouping can also be tried to factorize
ax2 + bx + c when a, b, c are real numbers.
110
3
3 3
Note: x + 3x 1 = x + 2 x + 1 = x +
2
2 2
3
13
3
13
x+
.
= x + +
2
2
2
2
111
3 13
= x +
2 4
2
3 13
2 2
Exercise 4.3.3.
Resolve into factors each of the following:
1. x2 + 7x + 12
2. x2 + 9x + 20
2
3. d + 10d + 21
4. z2 7z 98
5. a2 a 72
6. x2 + x 90
2
7. p 8p + 15
8. y2 13y + 42
2
9. y 20y + 99
10. t2 28t + 195
Factorize each of the following:
11. 2a2 + 13a + 15
12. 4x2 + 8x + 3
13. 4x2 + 12x + 9
14. 6x2 + x 1
2
15. 6p + 17p + 10
16. 4a2 11a 15
17. 7m2 + 16m 15
18. 8p2 + 29p 12
2
19. 6x + 5x 6
20. 15y2 13y 6
21. 14x2 x 3
22. 9a2 9a + 2
2
23. 2a 13a + 18
24. 12x2 7x + 1
25. 16x2 32x + 7
Resolve into factors each of the following :
26. 9x2 + 24xy + 15y2
27. 4x2 16xy 9y2
28. 6c2 + 11cd 10d2 29. 5x2 11xy + 6y2 30. 2a2 15ab + 28b2
Factorize the following:
13
3
10
8
1
1
31. x 2 x
32. u 2 u +
33. x 2 x +
10
10
3
3
2
16
7
5
1
34. 4 x 2 8 x +
35. 4 x 2 x +
36.
2 x 2 + 3x + 2
4
3
6
2
37.
3 x + 11x + 6 3
38. 5 5 x 2 + 20 x + 3 5
39. 2 x 2 + 3 5 x + 5
40. 7 x 2 + 2 14 x + 2
112
= 2 x 2 of the quotient.
obtain the first term
x
Step 3: We multiply the divisor (x + 1) by the first term (2x2) of the quotient and subtract the
product (2x3 + 2x2) from the dividend. We obtain the remainder (x2 + 5x + 2). The degree of
this remainder is greater than that of the divisor.
Step 4: We take the above remainder (x2 + 5x + 2) as the new dividend and repeat step 2 to
x2
Step 5 : We multiply the divisor (x + 1) by the second term (x) of the quotient and subtract
this product (x2 + x) from the new dividend. We obtain the remainder (4x + 2). The degree of
this remainder is equal to that of the divisor.
Step 6 : We take the remainder (4x + 2) as the new dividend and repeat step 2 to obtain the
4x
third term = 4 of the quotient.
x
Step 7 : We multiply the divisor (x + 1) by the third term (4) of the quotient and subtract this
product (4x + 4) from the new dividend. We obtain the remainder (2). The degree of this
remainder is 0 which is less than that of the divisor. So we stop the process and write the
quotient and the remainder.
The above steps are presented in the following form:
2x2 + x + 4
3
x + 1 2x + 3x2 + 5x + 2
2x3 + 2x2
x2 + 5x + 2
x2 + x
4x + 2
4x + 4
2
Thus, we have
Quotient q(x) = 2x2 + x + 4, Remainder r(x) = 2.
f(x)=q(x) g(x) + r(x)
113
2 x3
= 2 x 2
x
x2
= x
x
4x
= 4
x
Method 2 :
Divisor Factorization Method:
In this method, the aim is to get f(x) as a sum of two terms. The first term has g(x) as a
factor and the next term is a polynomial whose degree is less than that of g(x). In order to
achieve this, we add and subtract suitable terms to f(x).
Example 56: Divide 9x3 + 3x2 5x + 7 by 3x2 + 2x 1.
Solution:
9x3 + 3x2 5x + 7 = [(3x2 + 2x 1) (3x) 6x2 + 3x] + 3x2 5x + 7
= (3x2 + 2x 1)(3x) + [6x2 + 3x2] + [3x 5x] + 7
= (3x2 + 2x 1)(3x) + (3x2) + (2x) + 7
= (3x2 + 2x 1) (3x) + [(3x2 + 2x 1) (1) + 2x 1] + (2x) + 7
= (3x2 + 2x 1) (3x) + (3x2 + 2x 1) (1) + [(2x) + (2x)] + [(1) + 7]
= (3x2 + 2x 1)(3x) + (3x2 + 2x 1) (1) + 6
= (3x2 + 2x 1) (3x 1) + 6
So, the quotient is 3x 1 and the remainder is 6.
Example 57: Divide 4 17x 22x2 12x3 2x4 by x2 3x + 4.
Solution: We find the solution by both methods.
Divisor Factorization method:
4 17x 22x2 12x3 2x4 = 2x4 12x3 22x2 17x + 4
= [(x2 3x + 4) (2x2) 6x3 + 8x2] 12x3 22x2 17x + 4.
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2) 6x3 + 8x2 12x3 22x2 17x + 4
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2) 18x3 14x2 17x + 4
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2) + [(x2 3x + 4) (18x) 54x2 + 72x] 14x2 17x + 4
=(x2 3x + 4) (2x2) + (x2 3x + 4) (18x) 54x2 + 72x 14x2 17x + 4
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2) + (x2 3x + 4) (18x) 68x2 +55x+ 4
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2) + (x2 3x + 4) (18x) + [(x2 3x + 4) (68) 204x + 272] +55x + 4
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2) + (x2 3x + 4) (18x) + (x2 3x + 4) (68) 204x + 272 + 55x + 4
= (x2 3x + 4) (2x2 18x 68) + (149x + 276)
So, the quotient is 2x2 18x 68 and the remainder is 149x + 276.
Long Division method:
2x2 18x 68
x2 3x + 4
+
3
18x 14x2 17x + 4
18x3 + 54x2 72x
+
+
68x2 + 55x + 4
68x2 + 204x 272
+
+
149x + 276
2x 4
2 = 2 x 2
x
3
18 x
= 18 x
2
x
68 x 2
= 68
2
Exercise 4.4
1. Find the quotient and the remainder when 4x3 3x2 + x 7 is divided by
(i)
2x + 1
(ii) x 4
(iii) 1 x
Answers
Exercise 4.1
1.
2.
4.
6.
8.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
(i) F
(ii) F
(iii) F
3
2
x + 2x x + 4
3x3 + 5x2 13x + 2
x4 4x2 + 4x 8
6x4 26x3 + 51x2 66x + 27
x5 + 4x4 + 9x3 38x2 + 21x
(v) T
3x 2x2 + 10x 8
x3 + 5x2 7x + 10
3x5 + x3 8x2 + 6x 8
10x5 + x4 + 9x3 + 2x2 9x 28
4
Coefficient of x3
Coefficient of x2
Coefficient of x
2
7
20
6
10
3
18
9
9
acx2 + bdy2 + (ad + bc)xy
15. 2x3 x2y 5xy2 2y3
7
x4 + x2y2 + y4 17. p = 9
18. a=
19. m = 12
2
Exercise 4.2
1.
(i)
(v)
2. (i)
(iv)
3.
(iv) F
3.
5.
7.
9.
41
2
4. 60, 20
5. 12, 8
115
23
, 35
15
11. (i) 8x3 + 12x2y2 + 6xy4 + y6 (ii) 8u3 84u2v + 294uv2 343v3
3 1
(iii) x 3 3x + 3
(iv) x6y9 + 6x4y6 + 12x2y3 + 8
x x
12. 304
13. 7, 18
14. 20,72
15. 2, 180,1016
10. 9,
Exercise 4.3.1
1.
3.
5.
7.
9.
2.
4.
6.
8.
10.
3(3m n)
x(x4 + 4)
7pq (13pq)
(x + 2 ) (x 2 ) (x 2)
(p2 + 1) (2p 1)
4a(a2 2a + 4)
xy3 (6x4y2 + 3x + 14)
(m p) (n + 2)
(x + a ) (x a ) (x 1)
2(2x + 1) (2x2 + 1)
Exercise 4.3.2
1. T
2. F
3. F
2
6. (1 + 3x)
7. (12x 3)2
4. F
5. T
8. (2ab + 5cd)2
9. (x + y + a b) (x + y a + b)
2x2 (x4 + 3)
2y(3x2 + y2)
(3x + y)3
(2x 3y)3
(a + b 3c)2
24.
25.
27.
28.
30.
Exercise 4.3.3
1.
4.
7.
10.
(x + 3) (x + 4)
(z + 7) (z 14)
(p 3) (p 5 )
(t 13) ( t 15)
2.
5.
8.
11.
(x + 4) (x + 5)
(a + 8) (a 9)
(y 6) (y 7)
(a + 5) (2a + 3)
116
3.
6.
9.
12.
(d + 3) (d + 7)
(x + 10) (x 9)
(y 9) (y 11)
(2x + 1) (2x + 3)
13.
16.
19.
22.
25.
28.
31.
34.
37.
40.
(2x + 1)(3x 1)
(m + 3) (7m 5)
(3y + 1) (5y 6)
(a 2) (2a 9)
(x + y) (9x + 15y)
(x y) (5x 6y)
1
32.
(u 2) (3u 4)
3
1
35.
(4x 1) (6x 1)
6
(2x + 3) (2x + 3)
(a + 1) (4a 15)
(2x + 3) (3x 2)
(3a 1)(3a 2)
(4x 1) (4x 7)
(2c + 5d) (3c 2d)
1
(2x 3) (5x +1)
10
1
(4x 1) (4x 7)
4
14.
17.
20.
23.
26.
29.
( 3 x + 2) (x + 3 3 )
38. ( 5 x + 3) ( 5x +
7x + 2
)(
7x + 2
Exercise 4.4
1.
2.
Quotient
5
7
(i) 2x2 x +
2
4
2
(ii) 4x + 13x + 53
(iii) 4x2 x 2
(i) x2 3x 1
(ii) x2 + 4x + 4
(iii) x
Remainder
35
4
205
5
9x + 17
1
10x2 + 15
117
15.
18.
21.
24.
27.
30.
(p + 2) (6p + 5)
(p + 4) (8p 3)
(2x 1) (7x + 3)
(3x 1) (4x 1)
(2x + y) (2x 9y)
(a 4b) (2a 7b)
1
33.
(4x 1)(4x 1)
16
36. ( 2 x + 1) ( x +
5 ) 39. (x +
5 ) (2x +
2)
5)
a b = 4.
a + b = 5.
9
(1) + (2) 2a = 9 a = .
2
(1) (2) 2b = 1 b =
(1)
(2)
1 1
= .
2 2
a
9 2
= = 9.
2 1
b
Technique 2:
2a ( a + b) + ( a b)
a
5+4 9
=
=
=
= = 9.
2b (a + b) (a b)
b
54 1
118
Technique 3:
(1)
ab=4
a+b=5
(2)
a
a x
Let = x. Then = or a = bx.
b
b 1
(1) bx b = 4 b (x 1) = 4.
(2) bx + b = 5 b (x + 1) = 5.
b( x 1) 4
x 1 4
= or
= or 5x 5 = 4x + 4 or 5x 4x = 4 +5 or x = 9.
b( x + 1) 5
x +1 5
Thus, we observe that our insight, skill, ability and experience are required in
developing strategies and techniques to solve problems. The techniques presented above may
not be exhaustive. New techniques may be developed whenever we solve the same problem
again and again. Further, our mind should be more flexible in thinking and kept very well
open but not blank to receive the flow of ideas. If a technique is not working in solving a
problem, then another method may be tried to solve the problem until we exhaust all
techniques known to us. In this chapter, we shall discuss some of the techniques that are quite
often used in solving problems.
5.1
119
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7),
the 9 th term = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12 +14 + 16
= 57 + 16
= 73
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8).
Looking at the way in which the terms occur, we make the statement that the general term
(i.e., the n th term, where n = 1, 2, 3, .) of the pattern is 1 + 2[1 + 2 + 3 + + (n1)].
But, in this statement, we have an unknown sum, namely, 1 + 2 + 3 + .+ (n 1). Unless,
this sum is found, we can not say that we have found the general term of the pattern. Consider
for example the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + .+ 100. This is a sum of 100 consecutive
natural numbers starting with 1. If S is its sum, then S = 1 + 2 + 3 + .+ 98 + 99 + 100. We
can get S in the reverse way also as S = 100 + 99 + 98 + .+ 2 + 1. That is,
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + 98 + 99 + 100
S =100 + 99 + 98 ++ 3 + 2 + 1
2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + + 101 + 101 + 101. Remember that there are 100 such 101s.
100 101
So 2S=100 101 or S =
= 5050.
2
Looking at the pattern through which the sum was obtained, we can guess and make the
statement
(n 1)n
1 + 2 + 3 + ..+ (n 1) =
.
2
We can put n = 1, 2, 3, and verify that the statement is true. But we have only made a
statement. We have not given a proof of it. That is, we have not proved it for a general n.
(Gauss, the famous German mathematician while he was 10 years old studying in his 4 th
Standard gave the answer immediately as 5050, when his teacher asked the whole class to
compute the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + . + 100. When the teacher asked how he could immediately
arrive at the answer, Gauss gave the arguments as above.) So, the general term in our pattern
is
n(n 1)
1+2
= 1 + n(n1) = n2 n +1.
2
Thus, the general term in the pattern 1, 3, 7, 13, . is n2 n +1.
In the above discussion, we have observed a pattern and made a statement. In fact,
many theorems in every branch of mathematics such as algebra and geometry have been
developed by observing and making statements on patterns of numbers and figures. We shall
now discuss various types of statements made in mathematics and also provide various
techniques followed in analysing statements.
Statements are simply assertions made. Some examples of statements are given below:
120
x + 7 = 5 where x N.
The diagonals of a square are perpendicular to each other.
(a + b) (a b) = a2 b2 where a, b R.
2 is a rational number.
The diagonals of a rhombus are not perpendicular to each other.
n( n + 1)
(vi)
1 + 2 + .+ n =
.
2
A statement made may be true or false. For example, the statements (i), (iv) and (v) are false
while (ii) (iii) and (vi) are true.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Axiom
There are certain statements which are assumed to be true. These statements are called
axioms. Following are some axioms which we come across in Geometry and Algebra.
(i)
There is exactly one and only one straight line passing through two given
points.
(ii)
For any two real numbers, x + y and xy are real numbers.
(iii) If n is a natural number, then n + 1 is also a natural number.
(iv)
A straight line segment has one and only one mid point.
(v)
An angle has one and only one bisector.
5.1.3
121
122
2 is an irrational number.
(vi)
(vii) (a + b)2=a2 + 2ab + b2.
(viii) log a(mn)=log am + log an.
5.1.5
There are several techniques by which a proof may be given. The techniques are
broadly classified as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Direct Proof.
Indirect Proof or Proof by contradiction.
Proof by counter examples.
Geometrical Proof Technique
Proof by construction
(i)
Direct Proof Technique: Suppose that we want to prove that P Q. First, take P to
be true. Applying the step by step reasoning, we get that Q is true. This method of proving
that Q is true from that P is true is called the direct proof method.
ab 2
a
= 5, show that
= .
a+b 3
b
a
Solution: Let = 5.
b
Then a= 5b.
a b 5b b 4b 2
=
= .
=
a + b 5b + b 6b 3
Example 1: If
123
a
c a b cd
= ,
=
.
b
d a+b c+d
a c
a
a c
c
Solution: Let = . Put = u. Then a = ub. Since = , we have = u.
b d
b
b d
d
c = ud.
ub b (u 1)b u 1
ab
=
=
.
=
a+b
ub + b (u + 1)b u + 1
Similarly
c d ud d (u 1)d u 1
=
=
=
.
c + d ud + d (u + 1)d u + 1
ab cd
.
=
a+b c+d
(ii)
Indirect Proof Technique: Suppose that we want to prove that a statement P implies
the statement Q. In order to do this, first assume that P is true and Q is not true. Then,
applying a step by step reasoning, we arrive at a contradiction (a statement opposite to the
assumption). The above method of proof is called the indirect method of proof or
contradiction method of proof.
Example 3: Prove, by contradiction method, that 2 is an irrational number.
Solution: Assume that 2 is a rational number. We know that every rational number has a
p
p
simplest form. Let
be the proper (simplest) form of 2 . Then 2 = ,where p and q are
q
q
positive integers having no common factor other than 1. But
p
2 =
p = 2 q p2 = 2q2 p2 is an even integer
q
p is an even integer
p = 2m, where m is an integer
4m2 = 2q2
q2 = 2m2
q2 is an even integer
q is an even integer
q = 2n, where n is an integer
p and q have 2 as a common factor
a contradiction.
Hence
2 is an irrational number.
124
Example 4: Prove, by indirect technique, that if 100 balls are placed in 9 boxes, then there is
at least one box which contains 12 or more balls.
Solution: If possible, let us assume that 100 balls are placed in 9 boxes and that no box has 12
or more balls. Then each box has at most 11 balls. Then the total number of balls placed in 9
boxes is 9 11 = 99. But this contradicts the assumption that 100 balls have been placed in
the 9 boxes. Hence there is some box which contains 12 or more balls.
Example 5: Prove, by indirect technique, that, if P is a point which divides the line segment
AB in the ratio m: n internally, then P is unique.
Solution: Assume that P divides AB in the ratio m: n internally. Assume that P is not unique.
Then there is another point P1 on AB which divides AB in the ratio m: n internally
(see Figure 5.1). Then
AP1 m
AP m
= .
and
=
P1 B n
PB n
Figure 5.1
n AP = m PB and n AP1 = m P1B
n AP =m (AB AP) and n AP1 = m (AB AP1)
n AP =m AB m AP and n AP1 = m AB m AP1
(m + n) AP = m AB and (m + n) AP1 = m AB
mAB
mAB
AP =
, AP1 =
.
m+n
m+n
AP = AP1
P and P1 are the same point.
This is a contradiction. Hence P is unique.
(iii)
Proof by Counter-example: Let P1 and P2 be two statements. Suppose that we want
to know whether P1 P2. If we can find an example where P1 is true but P2 is false, then we
conclude that P1 P2. The example which we have found is called a counter-example.
Example 6: If x is a real number, does x2 x?
Solution: P1: x is a real number.
P2: x2 x.
1
1
1
For x = , P1 is true but x2 =
<
= x and so P2 is not true. Hence P1 P2.
2
4
2
1
Here is a counter example and we conclude that x2 x for all real x is false.
2
125
Figure 5.2
Proof by construction:
126
Example 10: Prove that if two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite to them
are equal.
Solution: Let ABC be a triangle. Assume that
AB = AC. We want to prove that B = C.
Let D be the mid point of BC. Join AD.
Consider the triangles ADB and ADC. In these
triangles, BD = DC, AD is common and AB =
AC. So the triangles are congruent. Then the
corresponding angles are equal. B = C.
Figure 5.3
Exercise 5.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
127
2
24
3
36
5
60
6
72
8
96
10
120
We observe that when the number of note books increases, the cost also increases and when
the number of note books decreases, the cost also decreases. Hence we come across two
variables which decrease or increase together. Such variables are said to be in direct
variation. In the above example, the number of note books and their cost are directly
proportional or they are in direct variation.
Let us now take a real life problem. We have recorded the number x of people in the
age group 10 through 15 and the number y among them attending high schools in a town for
the years 1999 to 2002. The recordings are tabulated as given below:
x
y
9200
4140
10200
4590
11600
5220
12400
5580
Here x stands for the number of people of age group 10 through 15 years and y stands for the
number of them enrolled in high schools in a year. We observe that, for each year, the ratio
y
= 0.45.
x
Then, we get y = 0.45 x as an equation connecting the two variables x and y. Based upon the
previous years observations, we make the assumption that this ratio remains a constant in
future years also. Then we find that if 15,000 people of the age group 10 through 15 years are
expected in the town for the next year, the number enrolled in high schools will be 6,750
among them. Thus, the equation y = 0.45x is said to be a mathematical model representing the
relationship between number of persons enrolled in high schools of the town and the number
in the age group 10 through 15 years. It is an algebraic model since it is represented by an
algebraic equation. In this example, the ratio of the number y enrolled in high schools to the
number x of people in the age group 10 through 15 is a positive constant. In this situation, we
say that y varies directly as x or that y has a direct variation with x. The equation y = 0.45 x is
a direct variation mathematical model. In general, a direct variation mathematical model is of
the form y = k x, where k is a constant. Although our problem is not a problem of geometry,
we may try to draw a figure and the figure may be an important step towards the solution of
the problem. For example, the algebraic model formulated above may be provided with a
geometric description as follows. Let us draw the graph of the equation y = 0.45 x. This graph
is a straight line (see Figure 5.4) and it provides a geometric model of the direct variation.
Figure 5.4
128
Consider next the following example. Suppose that a train runs with a uniform speed.
If the train takes 4 hours to cover the distance of 160 km, then the speed of the train is
160
= 40 k.m.p.h.
4
If the train takes 2 hours to cover the distance of 160 k.m., then the speed of the train is
160
= 80 k.m.p.h.
2
We observe that, when t, the number of hours is halved, the speed v is doubled. If the train
takes 8 hours to cover the distance of 160 k.m., the speed v is
160
= 20 k.m.p.h.
8
We observe that, when t, the number of hours is doubled the speed v is halved. From the
above discussion, we note that faster the train goes, the lesser will be the time taken, and
slower the train goes, more will be the time taken. That is, if v increases, t decreases and vice
versa. That is, v is inversely proportional to t. Two such quantities are said to be in inverse
variation. Thus, two quantities are said to in inverse variation if an increase in one quantity
makes the other quantity decrease and a decrease in one quantity makes the other quantity
increase. The following table gives the speed (v) in k.m. per hour and time (t) taken in hours
at that speed to cover a specific distance.
Times (t) hour 2
Speed (v) k.m. 80
4
40
5
32
8
20
129
Figure 5.5
In physics we come across the equation PV = constant. This is an example of inverse
variation. Under constant temperature, as the pressure (P) increases, the volume (V) decreases
and if volume increases, the pressure decreases. The inverse variation can also be understood
by considering a rectangle of given area. Suppose x and y are the length and breadth of the
rectangle whose area is A. Then xy = A.
A
A
y=
or x = . As the breadth y increases, the length x decreases; and as the length x
x
y
increases, the breadth y decreases.
Exercise 5.2
1. What is a mathematical model?
2. Explain direct variation.
3. Explain inverse variation.
130
6. THEORETICAL GEOMETRY
The word geometry is derived from the combination of two Greek words geo and
metron. The word geo means earth and metron means measurement. Thus the
subject of earth measurement was originally named as geometry. In the early
development of this subject, Egyptians applied geometrical principles in surveying and
construction of temples, tombs and pyramids. Later, Greeks emphasized the logical reasoning
of geometrical facts and they dedicated their knowledge on geometry to the world of
mathematics through the works of Pythagoras and Euclid. This culminated into the birth of
the subject theoretical geometry. In this subject, the emphasis is on giving proofs of
geometrical facts through deductive reasoning without the need of any geometrical
instruments. Euclid, a distinguished Greek mathematician, called the father of geometry who
lived about 330 B.C. contributed geometry of his times in thirteen volumes called The
Elements. Studying theoretical geometry develops creative thinking and generates skills in
other subjects also.
6.1
In our earlier classes, we have learnt about certain basic undefined terms in geometry
such as point, line, plane and angle. We have also studied some principles of triangles,
parallel lines and some special quadrilaterals. However, we recall them here before we
proceed to know more about them.
6.1.1
131
Points are denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C and D. If A and B are two points on a line,
then the line is denoted by writing AB and is read as the line AB. The double headed arrow
indicates the fact that the line extends infinitely in two directions. For brevity, we shall
refer to a line by a single letter l. If A and B are two points on a line, then the portion of the
line between A and B, including the points A and B, is called the line segment between A and
B and is denoted by the symbol AB . The length of AB is denoted simply by writing AB. A
ray is the portion of a line starting from a point on the line extending in one of the two
directions of the line. The starting point is called the initial point of the ray.
If A is the initial point and B is any point on a ray, then the ray is denoted simply by AB and is
read as the ray AB. The single headed arrow over AB represents the direction of the ray. A ray
AB is simply written as the ray AB without the arrow mark over AB.
Note: A line AB is simply written as the line AB where the double headed arrow is
omitted. Similarly, the line segment AB is simply written as AB without the bar over AB.
Figure 6.1
132
1
1
(360) = 90 is formed. When a ray makes th part of one complete rotation, an angle of
4
6
1
1
measure
(360) = 60 is formed. When a ray makes
th part of one complete rotation,
6
360
1
(360) = 1 is formed.
an angle of measure
360
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.4
If m BAC = 90 then BAC is called a right angle (see Figure 6.3). If m BAC is greater
than 90, then BAC is called an obtuse angle (see Figure 6.4). If m BAC is less than 90,
then BAC is called an acute angle (see Figure 6.5). If m BAC = 180, then BAC is
called a straight angle (see Figure 6.6). If BAC is a straight angle, then BC is a line
segment and the points A, B and C are collinear; that is,
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.6
they lie on a straight line. When two lines BD and CE intersect at the point A, the two angles
BAC and DAE are called vertically opposite angles. We observe that CAD and BAE
are also vertically opposite angles (see Figure 6.7). If m BAC is greater than 180 but less
than 360, then the angle is called a reflex angle (see Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
133
Figure 6.10
If two angles have a common vertex and lie on the opposite sides of a common arm, then the
angles are called adjacent angles. (see Figure 6.9). In the Figure 6.9, BAD and DAC are
adjacent angles since they have the common vertex A and lie on the opposite sides of the
common arm AD . We observe that BAC and BAD are not adjacent angles since they are
on the same side of the common arm AB .Two adjacent angles are said to be complementary
angles if the sum of their measures is 90 (see Figure 6.10). In Figure 6.10,
m BAD + m DAC = 90 and so BAD and DAC are complementary angles. Here
m BAD = 90 m DAC and we say that one angle is the complement of the other.
If the sum of the measures of two adjacent angles is
180, then the two angles are called supplementary
angles and we say that one angle is the supplement of
the other (see Figure 6.11). In figure BAD and
DAC are supplementary angles and we observe that
m DAC = 180 m BAD .
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
Through A, we can draw several (infinite number of ) lines (see Figure 6.12). Of these lines,
there is one and only one line, namely AB which passes through the point B. Similarly,
through B, we can draw infinite number of lines. Of these lines, there is one and only one line,
134
Figure 6.13
From the above activity, we enunciate the following property.
Property 2: Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common.
Note: If two distinct lines have a common point, then the lines are called intersecting lines. If
two distinct lines in a plane have no point in common, then the two lines are called
non-intersecting lines. Two non-intersecting lines are called parallel lines.
Activity: Draw a line AB and mark a point P not on the line. Draw lines through P. We
observe that there is a unique line passing through P and parallel to AB (see Figure 6.14).
From this activity, we have the following property.
Figure 6.14
Property 3: Given a line and a point not on it, there is one and only one line that passes
through the given point and is parallel to the given line.
Note: If three or more lines pass through the same point, then the lines are called concurrent
lines.
135
Activity: Draw two intersecting lines AB and CD. Make the point of intersection as O.
Measure the angles AOC , BOD , AOD and BOC (see Figure 6.15
We observe that
m AOD = m BOC ,
m AOC = m BOD.
The angles AOC and BOD are said to form a
pair of vertically opposite angles. Similarly BOC
and AOD are vertically opposite angles.
Figure 6.15
From the above activity, we get the following:
Property 4: If two lines intersect, then the vertically
opposite angles are equal.
Note: Let m AOC = x and m AOD = y. Then, using the above axiom, m BOD = x and
m BOC = y. But m AOC + m BOC + m BOD + m AOD = 360
or x + y + x + y = 360 or 2x + 2y = 360 or x + y = 180. So x and y are supplementary
angles. Thus, we observe that m AOC + m BOC = 180 and mBOD + mAOD = 180,
mAOC + mAOD = 180 and m BOC + m BOD = 180. That is, AOC and BOC,
BOD and AOD, AOC and AOD and BOC and BOD form pairs of supplementary
angles.
Activity: Draw two parallel lines AB and CD . Draw a line PQ not parallel to AB
(see Figure 6.16).
Figure 6.16
and the common point of CD and PQ as M. Measure the angles PLB , PLA,
BLM , ALM , LMD , LMC , CMQ and QMD . We observe that
m PLB = m LMD ,
m BLM = m DMQ,
m PLA = m LMC ,
m ALM = m CMQ. From the above activity, we get the following property.
136
Property 5: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of corresponding
angles are equal.
Note: (i) The angles ALM and LMD are said to form a pair of alternate interior angles.
The angles BLM and LMC are alternate interior angles. In the above activity, we
observe that BLM = LMC and ALM = LMD . We state this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 1: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of alternate interior
angles are equal.
(ii) The angles PLA and DMQ are said to form a pair of alternate exterior angles. The
angles BLP and CMQ are alternate exterior angles. We observe from the activity that
m PLA = m DMQ, m BLP = m CMQ.
We state this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 2: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of alternate (interior or
exterior) angles are equal.
(iii) The angles BLM and LMD are said to form a pair of interior angles on the same
side of the transversal. Similarly, the angles ALM and LMC are interior angles on the
same side of the transversal. We observe from the activity that
m BLM + m LMD = 180,m ALM + m LMC = 180. We state this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 3: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of interior angles are
supplementary.
Figure 6.17
137
Example 1: In Figure 6.18, the line L1 is parallel to the line L2 and the line L3 is the
transversal of the lines L1 and L2 . If the measures of the angles 1 and 2 are in the ratio
4:5, find the measures of the angles 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , and 8 .
Figure 6.18
m1 4
4
= m 1 = m 2 .
m2 5
5
But m 1 + m 2 = 180 since they are supplementary angles.
4
4 m2 + 5 m2
= 180
m 2 + m 2 = 180 or
5
5
or 9 m 2 = 180 5 or m 2 = 100.
m 1 = 180 m 2 = 180 100 = 80.
Solution: m 1 : m 2 = 4 : 5
Figure 6.19
Solution:
138
supplementary. Hence AC and BD are parallel. Then the corresponding angles XCA and
CDB are equal. So m XCA = 130. Now, we observe that AC is a transversal to the lines
AB and CD and m XCA = m CAB = 130. That is, the alternate angles XCA and
Figure 6.20
CA as the triangle ABC. The line segments AB, BC and CA are called the sides of the
triangle ABC. The points A, B and C are called the vertices of the triangle ABC. The angles
BAC , ABC and BCA are called the interior angles or simply the angles of the triangle
ABC.
They are also simply denoted by A , B and C respectively. The angle PAB is called
an exterior angle of the triangle ABC. We observe that the angles DBA ,
YBC , BCQ , ECA and CAX are exterior angles of the triangle ABC.
From what we have studied in our earlier classes, we recall the following definitions:
(i) If no two sides of a triangle are of equal length, then the triangle is called a scalene
triangle.
(ii) If two sides of a triangle are of equal length, then the triangle is called an isosceles
triangle.
(iii) If all the sides of a triangle are of equal length, then the triangle is called an equilateral
triangle.
(iv) If each of the three angles of a triangle is an acute angle, then the triangle is termed an
acute angled triangle or simply acute triangle.
(v) If one angle of a triangle is an obtuse angle, then the triangle is called an obtuse angled
triangle or simply obtuse triangle.
139
(vi) If one angle of a triangle is a right angle (i.e., of measure 90), then the triangle is called
a right angled triangle or simply right triangle.
We now state certain theorems on triangles.
Theorem 6: The sum of the measures of the three angles of a triangle is 180.
Theorem 7: If a side of a triangle is produced, then the exterior angle so formed is equal to
the sum of the interior opposite angles.
Proof: ABC is a given triangle. Produce BC and
take a point X on the extension of BC as in
Figure 6.21. Now mACX is an external angle
and A and B are interior opposite angles. We
have to show that mACX = A + B . Now
Figure 6.21
ACX and C are supplementary.
ACX + C = 180.
But A + B + C = 180.
ACX + C = A + B + C .
Cancelling C on both sides, we get
ACX = A + B .
Activity: Draw a triangle PQR as in Figure 6.22. Measure the lengths of the sides PQ ,
QR and RP .Compute the sums PQ + QR, QR + PR and PR + PQ. We observe that
(i) PQ + QR > PR,
(ii) QR + PR > PQ,
(iii) PR + PQ > QR.
From the above activity, we have the following property.
140
Figure 6.22
Figure 6.23
Figure 6.25
141
Activity: Draw two triangles ABC and PQR such that AB = PQ, A = P and AC = PR.
Now, cut out the two triangles ABC and PQR. Place the triangle PQR on ABC and try to fit
one triangle with the other (see Figure 6.26).
Figure 6.26
We are able to adjust them and we observe that the triangles fit exactly such that the vertex P
coincides with A, Q coincides with B and R coincides with C. The A is called the included
angle between the sides AB and AC. Similarly, P is the included angle between the sides
PQ and PR. Thus, we have the following property.
Property 9: If any two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to any two sides
and the included angle of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
142
Note: The above property is known as Side-Angle-Side criterion or simply SAS criterion for
congruence of triangles.
Activity: Draw two triangles ABC and PQR such that
B = Q, BC = QR and C = R (see Figure 6.27)
Figure 6.27
Now cut out the two triangles and place them one over the other and adjust them in such a
manner that they fit exactly as one triangle. From this activity, we state the following criterion
which can be proved. However, we do not give the proof here and simply state the important
criterion as a theorem.
Theorem 8: Two triangles are congruent if any two angles and the included side of one
triangle are equal to the two angles and the included side of the other triangle.
Note: The above criterion is known as Angle-Side-Angle criterion or simply as ASA
criterion. We observe that in this criterion, a side and the angles on this side of one triangle
should correspond to a side and the angles on it of another triangle for congruency.
Activity: Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that A = D, B = E and BC = EF (see
Figure 6.28).
Figure 6.28
Since ABC is a triangle, A + B + C = 180
Since DEF is a triangle, D + E + F = 180
But D = A, E = B. A + B + F = 180
From (1) and (2), we get A + B + C = A + B + F .
C = F .
143
(1)
(2)
Now, in triangles ABC and DEF, we observe that the side BC and the angles B and C on
it correspond to the side EF and the angles E and F on it. Hence by ASA criterion,
ABC DEF. Thus, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 9: Two triangles are congruent if any two angles and a side of one triangle are equal
to the two angles and the corresponding side of the other triangle.
Note: The above criterion for congruency is known as the Angle-Angle-Side or AAS
Criterion.
Activity: Draw the triangles ABC and DEF such that BC = EF, CA = FD, AB = DE (see
Figure 6.29).
Figure 6.29
Cut the triangle DEF and place it over ABC and adjust such that they fit exactly as one. In
this position D stands on A, E stands on B and F stands on C and ABC DEF. The result
of the activity is stated as the theorem given below.
Theorem 10: Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one triangle are equal to the
three sides of the other triangle.
Note: The above criterion is known as Side-Side-Side or SSS criterion for congruence of
two triangles.
Now, we shall examine whether we can have SSA criterion or AAA criterion for
congruency of two triangles.
Activity: Draw a triangle ABC and a line XY parallel to the side BC (see Figure 6.30). Mark
the point of intersection of line XY and the side AB as D, and the point of intersection of the
line XY and the side AC as E. Since the side AB and the side AC are transversal of the parallel
line segments XY and BC, D = B, E = C (corresponding angles).
Figure 6.30
144
The two triangles ABC and ADE have AAA property. However, they are not congruent
since the corresponding sides are not equal. Hence, we conclude that AAA correspondence
cannot be a criterion for congruency of triangles.
Activity: Draw a line AX sufficiently long. Draw a line segment AB of length a such that the
angle BAX has some specified measure. Draw a circle with B as its centre and some radius
b (< a). We observe that the circle crosses the line AX at two points C and D (see Figure
6.31).
Figure 6.31
In triangles ABC and ABD, we have SSA correspondence. But AC AD. So ABC ABD.
Hence, we conclude that SSA correspondence cannot be taken as a criterion for congruency of
two triangles.
Activity: Draw line segments BC and QR such that BC = QR = a units. Mark the mid points
a
of BC and QR as X and Y respectively. Draw circles with X and Y as centres and radius
2
units. Now cut arcs of radius b(< a) units with centres at B and Q. Mark the points of
intersection of these arcs with the circles as A and P respectively (see Figure 6.32). Join AB,
AC, PQ and PR. We observe that AC = PR. Hence ABC PQR. From the above activity,
we conclude the following theorem.
Figure 6.32
Theorem 11: Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and a side of one triangle
are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and a side of the other triangle.
Note: The above criterion is known as the Right-Hypotenuse-Side or RHS criterion for
congruence of right triangles.
145
6.1.5
Properties of parallelogram
We know that a quadrilateral is a closed figure formed by four line segments and a
parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel to each other.
Figure 6.34
Figure 6.33
In Figure 6.33, ABCD is a quadrilateral. In Figure 6.34. PQRS is a parallelogram in which
PQ || SR (i.e., PQ is parallel to SR) and PS || QR.
Property 1: In a parallelogram, the opposite sides are of equal length.
Proof: Let ABCD be a parallelogram. Join BD (see Figure 6.35). Consider the triangles ABD
and BDC. Since AB || CD and BD is a transversal of AB and CD, m ABD = mBDC. Since
AD|| BC and BD is a transversal of AD and BC,
m ADB = mDBC. The side BD is common to
both ABD and BDC. Hence, by AAS property,
ABD BDC.
The corresponding sides are equal. Hence
AB = CD and AD = BC.
Property 2: In a parallelogram, the opposite angles are
Figure 6.35
of equal measure.
Proof: Let ABCD be the parallelogram. Join BD (see Figure 6.36). Since AB || DC and BD is
a transversal to AB and DC,
m ABD = mBDC.
Since AD || BC and BD is a transversal
to AD and BC,
m ADB = mCBD.
m ABC = mABD + mDBC
= m BDC + mADB
= m ADC.
Similarly, m BAD = mBCD.
Figure 6.36
Property 3: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Proof: ABCD is a parallelogram. AC and BD are diagonals.
By ASA criterion, AMB CMD (see Figure 6.37).
AM = CM, BM = DM.
The diagonals bisect each other.
Figure 6.37
146
Property 4: If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are of equal length, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
Proof: Let ABCD be a quadrilateral where AB = CD, AD
= BC. Join AC. Consider the triangles, ACB and ADC.
By SSS criterion, ABC CDA (see Figure 6.38).
Then m BAC = mACD , m CAD = mACB.
AB || CD and AD || BC. Hence ABCD is a
parallelogram.
Figure 6.38
Property 5: If the opposite angles in a quadrilateral are of equal measure, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Proof:
ABCD is a quadrilateral (see Figure 6.39).
m BAD = mBCD. and m ABC = mADC .
Join BD. Consider the triangles ABD and CDB.
Now, m1 + m2 + mBCD = 180
and m3 + m4 + mBAD = 180
m1 + m2 + mBCD = m3 + m4 + mBAD
Figure 6.39
mBCD = mBAD
m1 + m2 = m3 + m4
(1)
But m1 + m3 = mABC , m2 + m4 = mADC
m1 + m3 = m2 + m4
i.e., m1 m2 = m4 m3
2)
(1) + (2) 2m1 = 2m4 m1 = m4.
AD || BC.
(1) (2) 2m2 = 2m3 m2 = m3
AB || CD. Hence ABCD is a parallelogram.
Property 6: If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
Proof:
ABCD is a quadrilateral. AC and BD are diagonals.
AC and BD bisect each other at M (see Figure 6.40).
AM = CM, BM = DM.
mAMB = mCMD , mAMD = mBMC .
By SAS criterion, AMB CMD, AMD CMB
AB || CD, AD || BC.
Hence ABCD is a parallelogram.
Figure 6.40
147
Theorem 12: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if one pair of opposite sides are parallel and
equal.
Given: ABCD is a quadrilateral where AB || CD and AB = CD.
To prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.
Construction: Draw the diagonal AC (see Figure 6.41).
Proof: In triangles ABC and ADC,
(i) AB = CD (given)
(ii) AC is common
(iii) mBAC = mACD
Figure 6.41
By SAS criterion, ABC ADC.
AB || CD,
Corresponding sides are equal;
AC is a transversal to AB and CD,
and corresponding angles are equal
alternate angles are equal.
AD = BC, mDAC = mACB.
AD || BC.
Hence ABCD is a parallelogram. The theorem is proved.
Property 7: If there are three or more parallel lines and the intercepts made by them on a
transversal are equal, then the corresponding intercepts on any other transversal are also
equal.
Proof:
The lines l1, l2, l3 are parallel to each other. PQ
and XY are transversals to l1, l2, l3, AC = CE.
We have to prove that BD = DF.
Draw AG || BD and CH || DF (see Figure 6.42).
We observe that AGDB and CHFD are parallelograms.
AG = BD, CH = DF
(1)
In triangles ACG and CEH,
CE = AC,
mGAC = mHCE (corresponding angles)
Figure 6.42
mACG = mCEH (corresponding angles).
by ASA criterion ACG CEH.
AG = CH
(2)
From (1) and (2) BD = DF.
Property 8: In a triangle, the line joining the mid points of two sides is parallel to the third
side and is equal to one half of it.
Proof:
ABC is a triangle. D and E are mid points of AB and AC respectively.
1
To prove DE || BC and DE = ( BC ).
2
Draw CF || BD to meet DE extended at F (see Figure 6.43). Consider the triangles ADE and
CFE. AD || CF and AC is transversal to them
mDAE = mECF
AD || CF and DF is a transversal to them
mADE = mCFE
Also AE = EC, since E is the mid point of AC.
148
Figure 6.43
Property 9: In a triangle, the line drawn through the mid-point of one side, parallel to another
side, bisects the third side.
Proof:
Figure 6.44
Let ABC be the given triangle and D be the mid point of AB. Draw DE parallel to BC to meet
AC at E (see Figure 6.44). We have to prove that E is the mid point of CA.
BC || DE and AB is a transversal to BC and DE.
mADE = mABC,
(1)
AD || CF and DF is a transversal to AD and CF.
mADE = mEFC
(2)
and mAED = mBCE,
(3)
From (1) and (2), mABC = mEFC,
(4)
AD || CF and AC is a transversal to AD and CF.
mBAC = mACF.
(5)
Now mBCF = mBCE + mECF
= mAED + ACF by (3)
= mAED + mDAE by (5)
= mBDE (since ext. angle = sum of int. opp. angles)
i.e., mBCF = mBDE
(6)
From (4) and (6), BCFD is a parallelogram.
BD = CF, BC = DF
Consider the triangles ADE and CFE.
Here CF = AD, since CF = BD = AD.
by ASA criterion, ADE CFE.
DE = EF, AE = EC.
E is the mid point of AC.
149
6.1.6
Concurrency of lines
If three or more lines pass through the same point P, the lines are said to be
concurrent and the point P is called the point of concurrence.
Activity : Draw a triangle ABC. Draw the
perpendicular bisectors DX and EY of the
sides BC and CA (see Figure 6.45). Mark
their point of intersection as S. Now draw the
perpendicular bisector FZ of the side AB. We
observe that FZ passes through S. From the
Figure 6.45
above activity, we understand the following
theorem.
Theorem 13: The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
Note: The point of concurrence of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle is
called the circumcentre of the triangle and denoted by the letter S.
Activity: Consider a triangle ABC. Find out the circumcentre S of ABC. Join SA, SB and SC.
Measure the lengths of SA, SB and SC. We observe that SA = SB = SC. Draw a circle with
centre at S and radius equal to SA. We observe that this circle passes through the three vertices
of the triangle. This circle is called the circumcircle of the triangle and its radius namely
SA(= SB = SC) is called the circumradius of the triangle.
Figure 6.46
150
Figure 6.47
Figure 6.48
Figure 6.49
151
Note: The point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid of the
triangle and is denoted by the letter G.
Activity: Draw a line segment AB and a line l parallel to AB.
Mark two points C and D on l such that AB = CD. We
observe that ABCD is a parallelogram. Draw AL perpendicular
to l. Measure the length of AL. Now, calculate the area of the
parallelogram ABCD. It is equal to base height = AB AL.
Now, mark two other points P and Q, on l such that PQ = AB
Figure 6.50
(see Figure 6.50). We observe that ABPQ is also a
parallelogram. Its area is equal to base height = AB AL.
Thus, we understand the following theorem.
Theorem 17: Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in
area.
Activity: Draw a line segment AB. Draw a line l parallel
to AB. Mark a point C on l. Draw AL perpendicular to l.
Measure the length of AL. (see Figure 6.51).
We find the area of the triangle ABC as
1
base height
2
1
AB AL. Mark another point P on l. We find the
2
1
1
base height = AB AL. thus,
area of ABP as
2
2
we observe that the area of the triangle remains the same
for all positions of the vertex C on the line l. From this
activity, we are able to understand the following theorem.
Figure 6.51
Theorem 18: Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in area.
Exercise 6.1
Which of the following statements are true and which are false:
1. If two lines are intersected by a transversal, then the alternate angles are equal.
2. If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are
equal.
3. If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then the interior angles on the same
side of the transversal are equal.
152
6.2
So far we have performed certain activities and verified certain axioms and theorems.
Now, we proceed to give logical proofs for certain theorem on angle and triangles
Theorem 19: If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the adjacent angles so formed is 180.
Given: The ray PQ stands on the line XY.
To Prove: mQPX + mYPQ = 180.
Construction: Draw PE perpendicular to XY.
Proof: mQPX = mQPE + mEPX
= mQPE + 90
(1)
mYPQ = mYPE mQPE
= 90 mQPE
(2)
Figure 6.52
(1) + (2) mQPX + mYPQ = (mQPE + 90) + (90 m QPE) = 180.
Thus the theorem is proved.
Theorem 20: If two lines intersect, then the vertically opposite angles are of equal measure.
Given: Two lines AB and CD intersect at the point O (see Figure 6.53).
To prove: mAOC = mBOD, mBOC = mAOD.
Proof: The ray OB stands on the line CD.
mBOD + mBOC = 180
(1)
The ray OC stands on the line AB.
mBOC + mAOC = 180
(2)
From (1) and (2),
mBOD + mBOC = mBOC + mAOC
mBOD = mAOC.
Since the ray OA stands on the line CD,
mAOC + mAOD = 180
(3)
Figure 6.53
From (2) and (3), we get
mBOC + mAOC = mAOC + mAOD
mBOC = mAOD.
Hence the theorem is proved.
Theorem 21: The sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180.
Given: ABC is a triangle (see Figure 6.54).
To prove: A + B + C = 180.
Construction: Through the vertex A, draw the line
XY parallel to the side BC.
Proof: XY || BC.
153
Figure 6.54
Figure 6.55
Theorem 23: The side opposite to the larger of two angles in a triangle is longer than the side
opposite to the smaller angle.
Given: ABC is a triangle, where B is larger than C, that is mB > mC.
To prove: The length of the side AC is longer than
the length of the side AB.
i.e., AC > AB (see Figure 6.56).
Proof: The lengths of AB and AC are positive
numbers. So three cases arise
(i) AC < AB
(ii) AC = AB
(iii) AC > AB
Figure 6.56
Case (i) Suppose that AC < AB. Then the side AB has longer length than the side AC. So the
angle C which is opposite to AB is larger measure than that of B which is opposite to the
shorter side AC. That is, mC > mB. This contradicts the given fact that mB > mC.
Hence the assumption that AC < AB is wrong.
AC < AB.
Case (ii) Suppose that AC = AB. Then the two sides AB and AC are equal. So the angles
opposite to these sides are equal. That is B = C. This is again a contradiction to the given
fact that B > C. Hence AC = AB is impossible. Now Case (iii) remains alone to be true.
Hence the theorem is proved.
154
AB = BC = CD = AD.
Figure 6.57
Hence ABCD is a rhombus. The theorem is proved.
Example 3: Find the complement of the following angles:
(i) 30
(ii) 45
(iii) 55
(iv) 81
Solution: Since the sum of complementary angles is 90
(i) the complement of 30 is 90 30 = 60.
(ii) the complement of 45 is 90 45 = 45.
(iii) the complement of 55 is 90 55 = 35.
(iv) the complement of 81 is 90 81 = 9.
Example 4: Find the supplement of the following angles:
(i) 70
(ii) 45
(iii) 120
(iv) 155
Solution: Since the sum of supplementary angles is 180,
(i) the supplement of 70 is 180 70 = 110.
(ii) the supplement of 45 is 180 45 = 135.
(iii) the supplement of 120 is 180 120 = 60.
(iv) the supplement of 155 is 180 155 = 25.
Example 5: Find the angles in each of the following:
(i) The angles are supplementary and the larger is twice the small.
(ii) The angles are complementary and the larger is 20 more than the other
(iii) The angles are adjacent and form an angle of 120. The larger is 20 less
than three times the smaller.
(iv) The angles are vertically opposite and complementary.
Solution:
(i) Let the smaller angle be x.
Then the larger angle = 2x.
Since the two angles are supplementary x + 2x = 180
or
3x = 180 or x = 60.
smaller angle = 60, larger angle = 120.
Figure 6.58
155
Figure 6.60
Figure 6.61
Example 6: In Figure 6.62 the line l3 is a transversal to the parallel lines l1 and l2.
Find the angles x and y.
Solution: Alternate angles are equal.
x = 130.
Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.
Figure 6.62
y + 130 = 180 or y = 180 130 = 50.
Example 7: Find x and y in Figure 6.63 where the
line l4 is a transversal to the parallel lines l1, l2 and l3.
Solution:
Corresponding angles are equal.
x = 75.
Interior angles on the same side of the
transversal are supplementary.
y + 75 = 180 or y = 180 75 = 105.
156
Figure 6.63
Example 8: Find the angles x and y in Figure 6.64 where the lines l1 and l2 are parallel and l3
is a transversal to l1 and l2.
Solution: 4y + 92 = 180 (since the interior angles on
the same side of the transversal are supplementary).
4y = 180 92 = 88 or y = 22.
Now, since the corresponding angles are equal,
x + 2y = 92 x + 44 = 92
x = 92 44 = 48.
Figure 6.64
Example 9: If the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5, find them.
Solution: Let the angles be 3x, 4x, 5x.
Then 3x + 4x + 5x = 180 or 12x = 180 or x = 15.
The angles are 3 15, 4 15, 5 15, or 45, 60, 75.
Figure 6.65
(ii)
Figure 6.66
Figure 6.67
Solution:
(i) AD = BC, AB = CD.
ABCD is a parallelogram.
2x = 24, 3y = 60 (alternate angles are equal)
x = 12, y = 20.
(ii) In triangles ACD and ACB, AD = AB, CD = BC and AC is common.
ADC ABC.
Corresponding angles are equal. x + 20 = 26, y 5 = 42 or
x = 26 20, y = 42 + 5 or x = 6, y = 47.
157
Example 12: Prove that the bisector of the vertex angle of an isosceles triangle is a median to
the base.
Solution: Let ABC be an isosceles triangle where
AB = AC. Let AD be the bisector of the vertex
angle A. We have to prove that AD is the median
of the base BC. That is, we have to prove that D is
the mid point of BC. In the triangles ADB and
ADC,
Figure 6.68
we have AB = AC, mBAD = mDAC AD is an
angle (bisector), AD is common.
By SAS criterion, ABD ACD.
The corresponding sides are equal.
BD = DC.
i.e., D is the mid point of BC.
Example 13: ABC is a triangle and D is the mid point of BC. DA is drawn. If DA = DC, prove
that BAC is a right angle.
Solution:
Given DA = DC. Since D is the mid point of BC, BD = DC. The triangles ABD and ACD are
isosceles.
DAB = DBA
(1)
DAC = DCA
(2)
(1) + (2) DAB + DAC = DBA + DCA
BAC = DBA + DCA
BAC = CBA + BCA
(3)
But BAC + CBA + BCA = 180
(4)
Figure 6.69
(4) BAC + (CBA + BCA) = 180
BAC + BAC = 180 (using (3)) 2BAC = 180
BAC = 90.
Example 14: Prove that the sum of the four angles of a quadrilateral is 360.
Solution: Let ABCD be the given quadrilateral. We
have to prove that A + B + C + D = 360.
Draw the diagonal AC. From the triangles ACD and
ABC, we get
DAC + D + ACD = 180
(1)
CAB + B + ACB = 180
(2)
(1) + (2) DAC + D + ACD + CAB
Figure 6.70
+ B + ACB = 360
(DAC + CAB) + B + (ACD + ACB)+ D = 360
A + B + C + D = 360.
158
Figure 6.71
Example 16: AD and BE are two altitudes of a triangle ABC such that AE = BD.
Prove that AD = BE.
Solution: In triangles ADB and AEB, we have
(i) ADB = AEB = 90
(ii) AB is common.
(iii) BD = AE.
By RHS criterion, ADB AEB. AD = BE.
Figure 6.72
Example 17: In a rectangle ABCD, E is the mid point of BC.
Prove that AE = ED (see Figure 6.73)
Solution: In triangles ABE and DCE, we have
(i) ABE = DCE = 90
(ii) BE = CE (since E is the mid point of BC)
(iii) AB = CD (ABCD is a rectangle)
By SAS criterion, ABE DCE.
AE = ED.
Figure 6.73
Example 18: In a rhombus, prove that the diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
Solution: Let ABCD be a rhombus, Draw the diagonals AC and
BD. Let them meet at O. We have to prove that O is the mid
point of both AC and BD and that AC is perpendicular () to
BD.
Since a rhombus is a parallelogram, the diagonals
AC and BD bisect each other.
OA = OC, OB = OD.
In triangles AOB and BOC, we have
(i) AB = BC
(ii) OB is common
(iii) OA = OC
Figure 6.74
AOB = BOC, by SSS criterion.
AOB = BOC.
Similarly, we can get BOC = COD, COD = DOA.
AOB = BOC = COD = DOA = x (say)
But AOB + BOC + COD + DOA = 360.
159
x + x + x +x = 360
360
4x = 360 or x =
= 90.
4
The diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
Example 19: Prove that a diagonal of a rhombus bisects each vertex angles through which it
passes.
Solution: Let ABCD be the given rhombus. Draw
the diagonals AC and BD. Since AB || CD and AC is
a transversal to AB and CD. We get
BAC = ACD (alternate angles are equal) (1)
But AD = CD (since ABCD is a rhombus)
ADC is isosceles.
ACD = DAC
(angles opposite to the equal sides are equal) (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
Figure 6.75
BAC = DAC
i.e., AC bisects the angle A.
Similarly we can prove that AC bisects C, BD bisects B and BD bisects D.
Example 20: AB and CD are parallel lines.
A point O lies in between AB and CD (see Figure 6.76)
such that APO = 45 and OQC = 35. Find POQ
Solution: Produce PO to meet CD at X.
Produce QO to meet AB at Y. Since AB || CD
and PX is a transversal to AB and CD,
OXQ = OPY = 45 (alternate angles).
Figure 6.76
In the triangle OXQ, POQ is the exterior angle
and it is equal to the sum of the interior opposite angles
OXQ and OQX. So POQ = OXQ + OQX = 45 + 35 = 80.
Example 21: In the ABC the angle B is bisected
and the bisector meets AC in D. If ABC = 80 and
BDC = 95, find A and C.
Solution: See the Figure
From BDC, 40 + 95 + C = 180
C = 180 135 = 45
From ABC, A + B +C = 180
A + 80 + 45 = 180 or A =180 125 = 55.
160
Figure 6.77
Figure 6.78
(1)
(2)
Exercise 6.2
1.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Which of the following statements are true and which are false:
If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed is 180
If two lines intersect, then vertically opposite angles are equal.
A triangle can have two obtuse angles.
The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 180
If ABC PQR, then A = Q
If DEF XYZ, then DE = XY
In a parallelogram, the diagonals bisect each other.
2.
Find the complement of the following:
(i) 20
(ii) 65
(iii) 70
(iv) 78
3.
Find the supplement of the following?
(i) 50
(ii) 130
(iii) 80
(iv) 152.
4.
Find the angles in each of the following:
(i) The angles are complementary and the smaller is 40 less than the other.
(ii) The angles are complementary and the larger is 4 times the smaller.
(iii) The angles are supplementary and the larger is 58 more than the smaller.
(iv) The angles are supplementary and the larger is 20 less than three times the smaller.
(v) The angles are adjacent and form an angle of 140. The smaller is 28 less than the
larger.
(vi) The angles are vertically opposite and supplementary.
161
5.
(ii)
Figure 6.80
Figure 6.79
(iii)
(iv)
Figure 6.82
Figure 6.81
6.
(ii)
Figure 6.83
(iii)
Figure 6.84
Figure 6.85
162
Answers
Exercise 6.1
1. F 2. T 3. F
Exercise 6.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(i) T
(ii) T
(iii) F
(iv) F
(vi) F
(vii) T
(i) 70
(ii) 25
(iii) 20
(i) 130
(i)
(v)
(i)
(iii)
(ii) 50
(iii) 100
(v) F
(iv) 12
(iv) 28
25, 65 (ii) 18
(iii) 61 , 119 (iv) 50, 130
56, 84 (vi) 90, 90
x = 130, y = 50
(ii) x = 80, y = 70
x = 20, y = 30
(iv) x = 50, y = 130
(i) x = 19, y = 8
163
7. ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY
In Chapter 1, we saw that every point on a straight line is associated with exactly one
real number. In this chapter, we shall examine how a point in a plane can be represented by
real numbers. Rene Descartes, a renowned French mathematician first introduced an
algebraic method (method of using numbers and the four fundamental operations) to analyse
geometry and hence the subject of analysing geometry using algebraic method is known as
algebraic geometry or analytical geometry. As the formulation of this subject was first
made by Rene Descartes, he is known as the father of analytical geometry.
7.1
We want to study the properties of some figures drawn in a plane. A figure in a plane
is a collection of points of the plane. So a point is a fundamental concept in geometry. We
now proceed to associate a pair of real numbers to every point in the plane.
Consider the plane of the paper as the plane and in the plane, draw two fixed
perpendicular straight lines. We usually draw one straight line horizontally and the other line
vertically as in Figure 7.1. However, they can be drawn in any way as indicated in Figure 7.2.
These two lines intersect at the point named as O and called the origin. The point O is
fixed since the perpendicular lines are fixed. Now, let us scale the lines with the point O
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
representing the number 0 for both the lines. We use the same scaling on the two lines. Now
the two perpendicular lines become two perpendicular number lines. The positive numbers for
164
the horizontal line are to the right of O and the positive numbers for the vertical line are above
O. Similarly the left of O and below of O are for negative numbers. This procedure is
indicated by placing arrow heads on the lines as shown in the Figure 7.1. The arrow heads
indicate the ordering of the numbers on the lines. We call the horizontal number line, xaxis
and the vertical number line, the yaxis. The two lines divide the plane into four regions,
called quadrants. These quadrants are named I quadrant, II quadrant, III quadrant and IV
quadrant as shown in Figure 7.1. The point O is common to all the four quadrants. Consider
any point P in the plane. This point P lies in a quadrant. From P, draw a straight line parallel
to the yaxis to meet the xaxis at the point L, and draw a straight line parallel to the xaxis
to meet the yaxis at the point M. Let a be the real number representing the point L on the
xaxis and b be the real number representing the point M on the yaxis. If P lies on the
x axis, then we observe that b = 0. If P lies on the yaxis, then we observe that a = 0. If P is
not on the x and y axes, but lies within the I quadrant, then a > 0 and b > 0. If a < 0 and b > 0,
then P lies within the II quadrant. If P lies within the III quadrant, then a < 0 and b < 0.
If a > 0 and b < 0, then P lies within the IV quadrant. If P is the point O, then a = 0 and b = 0.
The number a is called the abscissa or xcoordinate of the point P and the number b the
ordinate or ycoordinate of P (see Figure 7.3). We write the numbers a and b within
the parentheses ( , ) separated by a comma as
(a, b) and call it the ordered pair of a and b. It
is called an ordered pair because the number to
the left of the comma is the xcoordinate and
the number to the right of the comma is the
ycoordinate of the point P. The ordered pair
(a, b) is unique for the point P. That is, there is
no other ordered pair of numbers for the same
point P. The point P is represented as P(a, b)
or simply (a, b). We say that P has coordinates
(a, b). Thus, every point in the plane is
Figure 7.3
represented as an ordered pair of real
numbers.
The plane now is called the Cartesian plane to honour the great work of Rene
Descartes. It is also called the rectangular coordinate plane or the xyplane. The system of
representation of points in the plane by ordered pairs of numbers is called the Cartesian or
rectangular or xy- coordinate system. The two axes are called rectangular or coordinate
axes.
165
We observe that,
(i) The origin O has coordinates (0, 0).
(ii) Any point on the xaxis has its ycoordinate 0.
(iii) Any point on the yaxis has its xcoordinate 0.
(iv) Whenever an ordered pair of real numbers is given, we can locate a unique point in
the Cartesian plane and plot it by a dot at an appropriate place in the plane.
(v) If a point lies within the I quadrant, then both of its coordinates are positive. If the point
lies within the II quadrant, then its xcoordinate is negative and ycoordinate is positive.
If the point lies within the III quadrant, then both of its coordinates are negative. If the
point lies within the IV quadrant, then its xcoordinate is positive and the ycoordinate
is negative. The algebraic signs of the coordinates of any point are as shown in Figure
7.4.
Figure 7.4
(vi) All points on a line parallel to x-axis have
the same y-coordinate(see Figure 7.5)
Figure 7.5
(vii) All points on a line parallel to y-axis have the same x-coordinate (see Figure 7.6).
Figure 7.6
166
If A(x1, ,y1) and B(x2, y2) are any two points in the Cartesian plane, then the horizontal
distance between A and B is
x2 x1 if x2 > x1,
x1 x2 if x1 > x2,
0 if x1 = x2
and the vertical distance between A and B is
y2 y1 if y2 > y1,
y1 y2 if y1 > y2,
0 if y1 = y2.
Figure 7.7
They are respectively denoted by x2 x1 and
Figure 7.8
Example 1: Plot the points A (3, 0), B (0, 2 ), C (4, 4), D (3, 3), E (2.5, 1), F (1, 3),
G (1, 0) and H (0, 4). Also specify the quadrant in which each point lies.
Solution:
The points are plotted in the coordinate plane as in Figure 7.9. The point A lies on the
positive side of the xaxis, the point B lies
on the positive side of the yaxis, the point
C lies within the IV quadrant, the point D
lies in the I quadrant, the point E lies in the
II quadrant, the point F lies in the III
quadrant, the point G lies on the negative
side of the xaxis and the point H lies on
the negative side of the yaxis.
Figure 7.9
167
Example 2: Find the horizontal and the vertical distances between the points (3, 4) and
(9, 11).
Solution: The horizontal distance between the points (3, 4) and (9, 11) is a distance
between the point corresponding to x coordinates3 and 9 on the number line x- axis; i.e.,
(3) (9) = 9 3 = 6. and the vertical distances between (3, 4) and (9, 11) is the
distance between the points corresponding to y co-ordinates 4 and 11 on the number line y
axis; i.e., (11) (4) = 15.
Exercise 7.1
1. Plot the following points and specify in which quadrant each point lies.
(i) (2, 3)
(ii) (7, 6)
(iii) (2, 3)
(iv) (6, 2)
(v) (9, 0)
(vi) (5, 0)
(vii) (0,11)
(viii) (3, 2)
2. Answer true or false
(i) (9, 1) lies in the II quadrant.
(ii) (1, 0) lies on the yaxis..
(iii) (3,1) lies to the right of yaxis.
(iv) (1, 1) lies below the xaxis.
(v) (0, 0) is the point of intersection of the coordinate axes.
(vi) ( 2, 2 ) lies in the II quadrant.
(vii) (, 3 ) lies in the III quadrant.
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
7.2
Slope of a line
First let us proceed to define the slope of a straight line LL which is not parallel to x-axis or
parallel to y-axis. For this, we think of a man as a point P(x, y) running along the line. We
observe that the point P can run in one of the two directions (see Figure 7.10 or Figure 7.11).
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
168
As P moves in one particular direction along the line, the x-coordinate of P increases (see
Figures 7.12 and 7.13). We call this particular direction, the positive direction of the line.
Figure 7.12
Figure 7.13
The other direction is called the negative direction of the line. We observe that if P moves in
the negative direction, then its x-coordinate decreases.
Let a point P move along the line in the positive direction from the point P1(x1, y1) to
the point P2(x2, y2).Then x2 > x1. We observe that the x-coordinate of P changes from the
value x1 to x2 and the y-coordinate of P correspondingly changes from the value y1 to the
value y2. The change in the x-coordinate value is x2x1 and is called the run of the moving
point P. The corresponding change in the y-coordinate values is y2 y1 and is called the rise
of the moving point P. We observe that the run x2 x1 is positive (see Figures 7.12 and 7.13)
In Figure 7.12, the point P is moving up the line, that is it is rising up the line from P1 to P2
and the point P2 is at a higher position than the point P1. So the rise y2y1 is positive and
y y1
is positive. In Figure 7.13, the point P is moving down the line; that
hence the ratio 2
x 2 x1
is, it is falling down the line from P1 to P2 and the point P2 is at a lower position than the
y y1
is negative. Thus, the ratio
point P1. So the rise y2 y1 is negative and hence the ratio 2
x 2 x1
y 2 y1
y y1
is positive for a rising line and it is negative for a falling line. The ratio 2
is
x 2 x1
x 2 x1
called the slope of the line.
Next, we shall examine the slope of a
line parallel to the x-axis. In Figure 7.14, the
line LL is parallel to the x-axis and we observe
that all points on the line have the same ycoordinate. If P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) are two
points on the parallel line, then y1 = y2 and so
the rise y2 y1 = 0.
y y1
Hence the slope 2
= 0.
x 2 x1
169
Figure 7.14
y1
x1
y1
x1
y1
x1
y1
x1
Figure 7.15
y 2 y1
( y1 y 2 )
y y2
=
= 1
.Thus, the slope of the line joining the two
x 2 x1
(x1 x 2 )
x1 x 2
y y1
y y2
= 1
.
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is 2
x 2 x1
x1 x 2
From this, we observe that the slope is
independent of the direction of the line. The
y y1
slope 2
of the line is also independent of
x 2 x1
the particular choice of the points P1 and P2.
To understand this fact, consider any other
two points P3 (x3, y3) and P4 (x4, y4) on the line
Figure 7.16
(see Figure 7.16). Then the slope of the line
y y3
from P3 to P4 is 4
.
x4 x 3
y y1
The slope of the line from P1 and P2 is 2
.
x 2 x1
We note that
170
171
y 2 y1
1
78
=
= not defined.
=
x 2 x1 2 + 2 0
The line is perpendicular to the x-axis.
(ii) Slope of the line =
3
which passes through the point
5
(2, 3).
3
(i.e., with the denominator as a positive
5
number). Designate the given point (2, 3)
as P (see Figure 7.19). From P, move 5
units to the right (since the run = 5) to
reach the point Q (2 + 5, 3); i.e., Q (3,3).
From Q, move 3 units down (since the rise
= 3) to reach the point R (3, 3 + (3));
i.e., R (3,0). The point R (3,0) is another
point on the line. We can verify that the
slope of the line joining P and R is
Figure 7.19
03
3
or
.
3 (2)
5
7.2.1 The equation of a straight line
Let P (x, y) be a variable point on a given straight line. Then an algebraic equation
connecting the variables x and y is called the equation of the straight line. The co-ordinates x
and y of any point on the straight line satisfy the equation of the line. By plotting the ordered
pairs (x, y) as points in the Cartesian plane, we get the graph of the straight line. A straight
line is hereafter called simply a line. The graph crosses the x-axis at a unique point A and it
crosses the y-axis at a unique point B. Since A lies on the x-axis its y-coordinate is 0. If a is the
x-coordinate of A, then (a, 0) should satisfy the equation of the line. Substituting a for x and 0
for y in the equation of the line, we can solve for the value of a. This value of a is called the
x-intercept of the line. That is, the x-intercept of the line is the x-coordinate of the point
where the line crosses the x-axis. Similarly, since B lies on the y-axis, its x-coordinate is 0.
So, if b is the y-coordinate of B, then (0, b) should satisfy the equation of the line. Replacing x
by 0 and y by b in the equation of the line, we can solve for b. This value b is called the
y-intercept of the line. Thus, the y-intercept of the line is the y-coordinate of the point
where the line crosses the y-axis.
172
Now, let us derive the equation of the line whose slope is m and y-intercept is c.
Since the y-intercept of the line is c,
the point P1 (0, c) is the point at which the
line crosses the y-axis (see Figure 7.20). Let
P (x, y) be any point on the line. Then the
slope of the line is
yc
yc
or
.
x0
x
But the slope of the line is given to be m.
yc
= m or y c = mx or y = mx + c.
x
The above equation is called the slope
intercept formula for the equation of a line.
Figure 7.20
Note: If the line passes through the origin (0,0), then its y-intercept is c =0. So the equation
of the line is y = mx + 0 or y = mx.
1
and y-intercept 3.
2
Solution: Applying the slope-intercept formula, the equation of the line is
1
1
y=
x + (3)
m=
2
2
or
2y = x 6
c = 3
or
x 2y 6 = 0.
y = mx + c
Example 8: Find the slope and the y-intercept of the line whose equation is 3x + 4y + 5 = 0.
3
5
Solution: Rewriting the equation, we get 4y = 3x 5 or y =
x+
.
4
4
3
5
Comparing this equation with y = mx + c, we get slope m =
and y-intercept c =
.
4
4
Exercise 7.2
1. Find the slope of the line joining the two given points
(i) (4,1) and (5, 2).
(ii) (4,8) and (5,2).
(iii) (5,0) and (0, 8).
(iv) (0,0) and ( 3 , 3).
(v) (2a, 3b) and (a, b).
(vi) (a, 0) and (0, b).
2. Find another point on the line
(i) through (5, 6) with slope 1.
173
3. Find the equation of the line whose slope and y-intercept are
(i) 3 and 7.
(ii) 5 and 9.
(iii) 2 and 15.
(iv) 6 and 11.
(v) 3 and 1.
(vi)
5
2 and 8 .
5
5
7.3
The distance between any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
The distance between two points is a basic concept in geometry. We now give an
algebraic expression for the same.
Let P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) be two distinct points in the Cartesian plane and denote
the distance between P1 and P2 by d(P1, P2) or by P1P2. Draw the line segment P1 P2 . Three
cases arise.
Case (i): The segment P1 P2 is parallel to the
x-axis (see Figure 7.21). Then y1 = y2. Draw P1L
and P2M, perpendicular to the x-axis. Then
d(P1,P2) is equal to the distance between L and M.
But L is (x1, 0) and M is (x2, 0). So the length
LM = x1 x2 . Hence d (P1, P2) = x1 x2 .
Figure 7.21
y1 y 2 . Hence
d(P1, P2) = y1 y 2 .
Figure 7.22
174
Figure 7.23
( x 2 x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 y1 ) 2 .
This is called the distance formula which gives the distance d between the two given points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2). We observe that d(P1, P2) = d(P2, P1). The formula has been derived for
two points which are not on a horizontal line or vertical line. But the formula holds for these
cases as well. When P1 and P2 lie on the same horizontal line, then y1 = y2 and so
d(P1, P2) =
( x 2 x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 y1 ) 2 =
x 2 x1 + 0 2 = x 2 x1 .
2
( x1 x 2 ) 2 + ( y1 y 2 ) 2 =
0 2 + y1 y 2
= y1 y 2 .
Note: Since the origin O is (0,0), then, for any point P (x, y), we have
OP =
( x 0) 2 + ( y 0) 2 =
This distance
(i)
(ii)
x2 + y2 .
x 2 + y 2 is called the radius vector of the point (x, y) from the origin.
175
Example 9: Find the distance between the points A(15, 3) and B (7, 1).
Solution: Let d be the distance between A and B.
( x 2 x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 y1 ) 2
Then d (A, B) =
=
(7 + 15) 2 + (1 + 3) 2
=
=
=
22 2 + 4 2
484 + 16
(x1, y1)
(15, 3)
(x2, y2)
(7, 1)
500 = 10 5 .
Example 10: Show that the points (4, 9), (2, 0) and (4, 3) are collinear.
Solution: Let A, B and C be the given points respectively. Then
AB =
(4,9)
(2, 0)
( 2 + 4) 2 + ( 0 + 9) 2
Rough Sketch
= 6 2 + 9 2 = 36 + 81
= 117 = 9 13 = 3 13 .
Figure 7.24
B
(2, 0)
(4, 3)
BC =
=
AC =
( 4 2 ) 2 + (3 0 ) 2
2 2 + 32 =
4 + 9 = 13
( 4 + 4 ) 2 + (3 + 9 ) 2
= 8 2 + 12 2 = 64 + 144 = 208 = 16 13 = 4 13
We observe that AB + BC = AC.
3 13 + 13 = 4 13 .
A, B and C are collinear.
Example 11: Show that the points (3, 2), (2, 5) and (8, 7) form an isosceles triangle.
Solution:
Let the given points be P, Q and R respectively.
One way of proving that PQR is an isosceles
triangle is to show that two of its sides are of equal
length. Here we have
Figure 7.25
176
( 2 3) 2 + (5 + 2) 2 = 12 + 7 2 = 1 + 49 = 50 = 5 2.
d(P,Q) =
d (Q, R) =
(8 2) 2 + ( 7 5) 2 = 6 2 + 12 2 = 36 + 144 = 180 = 6 5.
d (R, P) = (8 3) 2 + ( 7 + 2) 2 = 5 2 + ( 5) 2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2.
d (P, Q) = d (R, P) d (Q, R).
PQR is an isosceles triangle but not an equilateral triangle.
Example 12: Show that the points (0, 3), (0,1) and 3 , 2 are the vertices of an equilateral
triangle.
Solution: Let the points be A, B and C respectively.
One way of showing that ABC is an equilateral triangle
is to show that all its sides are of equal length.
Here we find that
d (A, B) =
(0 0) 2 + (1 3) 2 = 0 2 + ( 2) 2 = 4 = 2.
d (B, C) =
( 3 0) 2 + (2 1) 2 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2.
d (C, A) = (0 3 ) 2 + (3 2) 2 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2.
d (A, B) = d (B, C) = d (C, A).
ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Figure 7.26
Example 13: Examine whether the points P (7, 1), Q (4,1) and R (4,5) are the vertices of a
right triangle.
Solution: The points P ,Q, R form a triangle. To show that PQR is a right triangle, we have
to show that one vertex angle is 90. This is done by showing that the lengths of the sides of
the triangle satisfy Pythagoras theorem. Here
PQ =
(4 7) 2 + (1 1) 2 = 121 + 4 = 125 = 5 5.
QR =
( 4 + 4) 2 + (5 + 1) 2 = 64 + 36 = 100 = 10.
PR = (4 7) 2 + (5 1) 2 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.
PQ2 = 125, QR2 = 100 and PR2 = 25.
We observe that QR2 + PR2 = PQ2.
The Pythagoras formula is satisfied.
PQR is a right triangle with right angle at R.
Figure 7.27
Example 14: Show that the points (1, 2), (2, 1), (5, 3) and (4, 6) taken in order form a
parallelogram. Is it a rectangle ? Justify.
Solution: Let the points be P1, P2 ,P3 and P4 respectively. One way of showing that
P1 P2 P3 P4 is a parallelogram is to show that
the opposite sides are of equal length. Here we find
P1P2 =
(2 1) 2 + ( 1 2) 2 = 1 + 9 = 10.
P2P3 =
(5 2) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 9 + 16 = 25.
Figure 7.28
177
P3P4 =
( 4 5) 2 + (6 3) 2 = 1 + 9 = 10.
P4P1 =
(4 1) 2 + (6 2) 2 = 9 + 16 = 25.
25 .
P1P3 = (5 1) 2 + (3 2) 2 = 16 + 1 = 17 and
(P1P2 )2 + (P2P3)2 = 10 + 25 = 35, (P1P3)2 = 17, (P1P2 )2 + (P2P3)2 (P1P3)2.
P1P2 P3 is not a right triangle.
P1P2 P3 is not a right angle.
P1P2 P3P4 is not a rectangle.
Example 15: Show that the points (0, 1), (2, 3), (6, 7) and (8, 3), taken in order form the
vertices of a rectangle.
Solution: Let the points be A, B, C and D respectively. One way of showing that ABCD is
rectangle is to show that the opposite sides are of equal length and one corner angle is 90.
One way of showing that one corner angle is 90 is to show that the lengths of the sides of
ABC satisfy the Pythagoras theorem. Here we find.
AB =
( 2 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 4 + 16 = 20 = 2 5.
BC =
(6 + 2) 2 + (7 3) 2 = 64 + 16 = 80 = 4 5.
CD =
(8 6) 2 + (3 7) 2 = 4 + 16 = 20 = 2 5.
AD =
(8 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 64 + 16 = 80 = 4 5.
AC =
(6 0) 2 + (7 + 1) 2 = 36 + 64 = 100 = 10
We observe that AB = CD = 2 5 , BC = AD = 4 5
and AB2 + BC2 = 20 + 80 = 100 = AC2
ABCD is a rectangle but not a square.
Figure 7.29
Example 16: Show that the points (0, 1), (2, 1) (0, 3) and (2, 1) taken in order form the
vertices of a square.
Solution: Let A, B, C, D be the given points respectively.
(2 0) 2 + (1 + 1) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
BC =
(0 2) 2 + (3 1) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
CD =
( 2 0) 2 + (1 3) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
AD =
(2 0) 2 + (1 + 1) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
178
Figure 7.30
BD =
( 2 2) 2 + (1 1) 2 = 16 + 0 = 16 = 4,
AC = (0 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 0 + 16 = 16 = 4.
We observe here that
AB = BC = CD = AD = 2 2 and BD = AC = 4.
ABCD is a square.
Example 17: Prove that the points A(2, 3), B(6, 5), C(2, 1) and D(6, 7), taken in order
form a rhombus but not a square.
Solution: One way of showing that ABCD is a rhombus is to show that all its sides are of
equal length. One way is showing that a rhombus is not a square is to show that the diagonals
are of unequal length. Here we find
AB =
(6 2) 2 + (5 + 3) 2
= 16 + 64
= 80
BC =
( 2 6) 2 + (1 5) 2
= 64 + 16 = 80
AC =
( 2 2) 2 + (1 + 3) 2
Figure 7.31
= 16 + 16 = 32
BD =
( 6 6) 2 + (7 5) 2
= 144 + 144 =
CD =
288
(6 + 2) + ( 7 1) 2
2
= 16 + 64 = 80
AD =
( 6 2) 2 + ( 7 + 3) 2
64 + 16 = 80 .
AB = BC = CD = AD, AC BD.
ABCD is a rhombus but not a square.
Exercise 7.3
1. Find the distance between the following pair of points:
179
3
)
2
8.
9.
180
10. Examine whether the following points taken in order form the vertices of a rhombus:
(i) (0, 0), (3, 4), (0, 8) and (3, 4).
(ii) (2, 3), (6, 5), (2, 1) and (6, 7).
(iii) (1, 4), (5, 1), (1, 2) and (3, 1)
Answers
Exercise 7.1
1.
(i) I
(ii) I
(vi) No quadrant
2.
(i) F
(viii) F
3.
(i) (2, 1)
(ii) F
(ix) F
(iii) III
(iv) IV
(vii) No quadrant
(viii) II
(iii) F
(x) F
(ii) (6, 9)
(v) No quadrant
(iv) T
(xi) F
(v) T
(xii) T
(iii) (10, 7)
(iv) (2, 2)
(vi) T
(vii) T
Exercise 7.2
8
5
(ii) (4, 5)
b
(v) 4
a
(iv) (2, 1)
1.
(iv)
2.
(i) (6, 7)
(v) (2, 3)
(iii) (3, 3)
3.
(i) 3x + y + 7 = 0 (ii) 5x y + 9 = 0
(iv) 6x y 11 = 0 (v) 3x + 5y 5 = 0
(iii) 2x + y 15 = 0
(vi) 2x + 5y 8 = 0
4.
3
(i)
, 2 (ii) (2, 0)
2
(iv) , 2
4
(iii) (1, 3)
(vi)
b
a
Exercise 7.3
1.
(i)
10
(vi) (a + b) 2
2.
(ii) 2 26
(vii)
481
(viii)
3.
(iv) 2 41
(iii) 10
12
(iii) Collinear
(v) Non-Collinear
181
(ix) 5
(v) (a b)
(x)
65.
4.
(i) Equilateral
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
(ii) Equilateral
182
(iii) Equilateral
8. TRIGONOMETRY
This branch of mathematics originated several centuries ago in the study of astronomy.
Hipparchus, a Greek astronomer and mathematician developed the subject trigonometry and
used its principles to a large extent in predicting the paths and positions of the heavenly
bodies. The word trigonometry is derived from two Greek words trigon and metra. The
word trigon means triangle and metra means measurement. Thus, the name trigonometry
deals with the subject which provides the relationships between the measurements of sides
and the angles of a triangle. To begin our study of trigonometry, we have to refresh our ideas
about angles and their measures.
Angles and their measures
We say that an angle is formed when two rays originate from a common point. One of
Figure 8.1
Figure. 8.2
183
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
184
Figure 8.5
sine =
We abbreviate the names of the above ratios as sin, cos, tan, cosec, sec, cot
respectively. The values of the above ratios do not depend on the size of the right triangle
OQP. To know this let P be any other point on the ray OB and PQ be drawn perpendicular
to the ray OA (see Figure 8.5). Since the right triangles OQP and OQP are similar,
we get
PQ
OQ
OP
.
=
=
P Q OQ OP
or
PQ P Q
=
,
OP OP
OP OP
=
,
PQ P Q
OQ OQ PQ P Q
=
=
,
OP OP OQ OQ
OP OP OQ OQ
=
,
=
OQ OQ PQ P Q
185
Thus the six ratios have the same value regardless of the position of the point P on the ray
OB. From the above six ratios, we find that
PQ OP
1
1
sin cosec =
=1 ,
.
cos ec =
, sin =
OP PQ
sin
cos ec
OQ OP
1
1
cos sec =
=1 ,
.
sec =
, cos =
OP OQ
cos
sec
PQ OQ
1
1
tan cot =
=1 .
.
cot =
, tan =
OQ PQ
tan
cot
PQ
sin
OP PQ OP PQ
=
=
=
= tan .
We also note that,
cos OQ OP OQ OQ
OP
cos
1
Taking reciprocals, we get
=
= cot .
sin
tan
cos
sin
Thus, we have
= tan ,
= cot .
sin
cos
Note: When is acute and one of the six trigonometric ratios is known, we can find the other
trigonometric ratios by applying the above formulae.
Example 1: Find the six trigonometric ratios sin, cos, tan, cosec, sec and cot from
the given right triangle.
Solution: We note that for the angle ,
length of opposite side = 6; length of adjacent side = 8. (see Figure 8.6)
By Pythagoras theorem,
(length of hypotenuse side)2 = 82 + 62 = 64 + 36 = 100.
length of hypotenuse side = 100 = 10.
Figure 8.6
sin =
cosec =
186
Example 2: In ABC, mB= 90, AB = 8cm, AC = 17cm. Find all the trigonometrical ratios
for the angles A and C.
Solution: Here A = mBAC and C = mBCA (see Figure 8.7)
By Pythagoras formula, AC2 = AB2 + BC2
BC2 = AC2 AB2 = 172 82 = 289 64 = 225.
BC = 225 = 15. Hence we have
BC 15
= ,
AC 17
1
8
= ,
cot A =
tan A 15
AB 8
sin C =
= ,
AC 17
1
15
cot C =
= ,
tan C 8
sin A =
AB 8
BC 15
= , tan A =
= ,
AC 17
AB 8
1
17
1
17
sec A =
= , cos ec A =
= ,
cos A 8
sin A 15
BC 15
AB 8
cos C =
= , tan C =
= ,
AC 17
BC 15
1
17
1
17
sec C =
= , cos ec C =
= ,
cos C 15
sin C 8
cos A =
Figure 8.7
Note: In the above problem, we observe that sin C = cos A, cos C = sin A,
tan C =cot A,. This is so because the angles A and C are complementary.
7
Example 3: If sin = , find the other trigonometric ratios.
25
7
Solution: Since sin = , let us consider a right triangle ABC in which mABC = 90,
25
mACB=, AB = 7 and AC = 25 (see Figure 8.8). By Pythagoras formula,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 252 = 72 + BC2 or 625 = 49 + BC2
2=
187
PR =
QR2 = 2 1 = 1 QR = 1.
Hence we get
PQ 1
QR 1
sin A =
=
, cos A =
=
,
PR
PR
2
2
PQ 1
QR 1
tan A =
= =1, cot A =
= = 1.
QR 1
PQ 1
1
= 2
=
2
2
2
(ii) tan A + cot A = 1 + 1 = 2.
Figure 8.9
2,
Note : Whenever we are asked to prove an equation, we adopt any one of the following
methods:
Method 1 : Simplify the expression in the L.H.S. or R.H.S and obtain the expression on the
other side.
Method 2 : Simplify the expression on the L.H.S to a form (1). Next simplify the R.H.S to a
form (2). Show (1) = (2).
Example 5: Prove that
Solution:
sin A sin B
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
+
tan A + tan B
cos A cos B
L.H.S =
= cos A cos B =
sin A sin B
cos A cos B sin A sin B
1 tan A tan B
1
cos A cos B
cos A cos B
(sin A cos B + cos A sin B )
cos A cos B
=
cos A cos B
cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
=
= R.H.S.
cos A cos B sin A sin B
tan A + cot B tan A
.
=
cot A + tan B tan B
tan A tan B + 1
tan A
1
+
tan A + cot B
tan B
tan B =
Solution: L.H.S =
= 1
1 + tan A tan B
1
tan B
cot A + tan B
+
tan A
tan A
1
188
(tan A tan B + 1)
tan A
.
tan B
(1 + tan A tan B )
tan A
=
= R.H.S.
tan B
1
( tan + 1 )
tan + 1
tan
sin
sin +
sin + tan
cos
R.H.S. =
=
1 + cos
1 + cos
(sin cos + sin )
sin (cos + 1)
1
1
=
=
cos
(1 + cos )
cos
(1 + cos )
sin
= tan`
=
cos
From (1) and (2), L.H.S = R.H.S.
(1)
(2)
189
Here from the right triangle ADC, (see Figure 8.11) we get
3
DC
AD 1
sin 30 =
sin 60 =
=
=
AC 2
AC 2
3
DA 1
DC
cos 30 =
cos 60 =
=
=
AC 2
AC 2
AD 1
3
DC
tan 30 =
=
tan 60 =
=
= 3
DC
DA 1
3
cot 60 =
DA 1
=
DC
3
cot 30 =
3
DC
=
= 3
AD 1
sec 60 =
AC 2
= =2
DA 1
sec 30 =
AC
2 2 3
=
=
DC
3
3
cosec 60 =
AC 2 2 3
=
=
DC
3
3
cosec 30 =
Figure 8.11
AC 2
= =2
AD 1
190
sin 90 o 1
cos 90 o 0
o
=
not
defined,
cot
90
=
= =0,
cos 90 o 0
sin 90 o 1
1
1
1
1
sec 90 o =
= not defined,
cos ec 90 o =
= =1 .
o
o
cos 90 0
sin 90 1
All the trigonometric ratios for angle of measures 0 , 30, 45, 60 and 90 are provided
in the following table:
tan 90 o =
sin
cos
tan
cot
Not
defined
sec
cosec
Not
defined
30
45
60
90
1
2
3
2
1
3
3
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
3
2
3
2
Table - 1
191
3
1
3
2
2
3
Not
defined
0
Not
defined
1
Notation. We write (sin)2 as sin2 but not as sin 2. Similarly (tan )3 is written as tan3.
Example 8: Evaluate 2cos2 30 tan260 sec245 sin260.
3
3
Solution: cos 30 =
, tan 60 = 3 , sec 45 = 2 , sin 60 =
.
2
2
2cos230 tan260 sec2 45 sin2 60
2
( ) ( )
3
2
2 3
3
2
= 2
3
3
9 3
= 2 3 2 = = 3.
4
4
2 2
Example 9: Find the acute angle A if tan A =
sin 60 o
.
1 + cos 60 o
3
1
, cos 60 =
2
2
3
3
3
1
1
. A = 30.
=
. But tan 30 =
tan A = 2 = 2 =
1
3
3
3
3
1+
2
2
Solution: sin 60 =
3 and
3 , we get sin (A + B) =
But sin 60 =
Since
3
. So A + B = 60.
2
(1)
1
2
. So B = 45.
2
A = 15.
Solving (1) and (2),
But cos 45 =
3
.
2
.
(2)
192
Exercise 8.1
1.
In problems 1 to 4 find the indicated trigonometric ratios in the given right triangle.
2.
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
3.
4.
Figure 8.17
5. cos =
3
5
6. sin =
7. sec =
10. tan =
3
2
5
12. If sin =
sin
.
1 + cos
193
3
cos ec
, find
5
cot cos
1 cos 2 3
14. If cot =
= .
, show that
2 sin 2 5
3
3 sin + 2 cos
15. If 3 cot = 4, find the value of
.
2 sec + 3 cos ec
16. Evaluate
(i) cosec2 45 cot230 + sin2 60 sec2 30 (ii) cos2 30 sin2 30 cos 60
tan 45 o
(iii) 8 sin2 60 cos 60
(iv)
tan 30 o + tan 60 o
17. Verify the following:
(i) sin230 + cos230 = 1 (ii) sec260 1 = tan2 60 (iii) 1 + cot2 30 = cosec2 30
1
x2 + y2
r2
r2
r2
(or)
Figure 8.18
x2
y2
+
=1 .
r2
r2
But sin =
y
x
, cos = . (cos )2+ (sin )2 = 1.
r
r
or
cos2 + sin2 = 1
(1)
sin 1
=
1 +
cos cos
(or)
cos 2 sin 2 1
+
=
cos 2 cos 2 cos
194
1 + tan2 = sec2
(or)
(2)
P Q
OQ
OP
2
(or)
cos 2 sin 2 1
= (cosec ) 2 (or) cot2 + 1 = cosec2
+
=
sin 2 sin 2 sin
(or)
1 + cot2 = cosec2
(3)
The three identities (1), (2) and (3) are based on the Pythagoras identity. We deduce some
more identities from them.
Using the fundamental identity (1), we have
(i) sin2 = (sin2 + cos2) cos2 = 1 cos2.
(ii) cos2 = (cos2 + sin2) sin2 = 1 sin2.
Using the fundamental identity (2), we get
(i) tan2 = (1 + tan2) 1= sec2 1
(ii) sec2 tan2 = (1 + tan2) tan2 = 1.
Using fundamental identity (3), we get
(i) cot2 = (1 + cot2) 1 = cosec2 1
(ii) cosec2 cot2 = (1 + cot2) cot2 = 1.
We list the identities in the following table
sin2 + cos2 1
1 + tan2 sec2
1 + cot2 cosec2
sin2 1 cos2
cos2 1 sin2
tan2 sec2 1
sec2 tan2 1
cot2 cosec2 1
cosec2 cot2 1
We again mention here that an identity is applied in both ways, left to right or right to left.
Example 11: Prove that sin4 + cos4 = 1 2sin2 cos2 .
Solution:
L.H.S. = sin4 + cos4 = (sin2)2 + (cos2)2
= [sin2 + cos2]2 2 (sin2)(cos2)
= (1)2 2sin2 cos2 = 1 2sin2 cos2
= R.H.S.
195
a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 2ab)
cos
= sec tan .
1 + sin
cos
cos 1 sin
=
cos
cos cos
= sec tan = R.H.S.
L.H.S. =
L.H.S =
1 + cos A
= (cos ec A + cot A) 2 .
1 cos A
1 + cos A 1 + cos A
1 cos A 1 + cos A
(1 + cos A) 2 1 + cos A
cos A
(1 + cos A) 2
1
=
+
=
=
=
2
2
1 cos A
sin A
sin A
sin A sin A
= (cosec A + cot A)2 = R.H.S.
2
Alternately,
2
1
1 + cos A
cos A
=
2
AC 2
(1+ cos A)
= =2 =
=
AD 1
1 cos 2 A
(1 + cos A) 2
1 + cos A
=
= L.H.S.
(1 + cos A) (1 cos A)
1 cos A
196
Example 16: Prove that (sec + cos) (sec cos) = tan2 + sin2.
Solution :
L.H.S. = (sec + cos) (sec cos) = sec2 cos2
= (1 + tan2) cos2 = tan2 + (1 cos2)
= tan2 + sin2 = R.H.S.
1
1
= 2cosec2.
+
1 + cos 1 cos
L.H.S. =
1
1
1(1 cos ) + 1(1 + cos )
=
+
1 + cos 1 cos
(1 + cos ) (1 cos )
1 cos + 1 + cos
2
=
= 2cosec2 = R.H.S.
2
2
sin
1 cos
Example 18: Prove that sin2A sin2B + cos2A cos2B + sin2A cos2B + cos2A sin2B = 1.
Solution :
L.H.S. = (sin2A sin2B + sin2A cos2B) + (cos2A cos2B + cos2A sin2B)
= sin2A (sin2B + cos2B) + cos2A (cos2B + sin2B)
= sin2A(1) + cos2A (1) = sin2A + cos2A = 1 = R.H.S
Example 19: If m = tan A + sin A, n = tan A sin A. Prove that m2 n2 = 4 mn .
Solution :
L.H.S. = m2 n2 = (tan A + sin A)2 (tan A sin A)2
= tan2 A + sin2 A + 2 tan A sin A (tan2A + sin2A 2 tan A sin A)
= 4 tan A sin A
y
R.H.S = 4 mn =
r
sin 2 A
sin 2 A
= 4 tan A sin A = 4
2
cos A
2
197
L.H.S =
1 = sin 2 + cos 2
= ( sin + cos ) 2
= sin + cos = R.H.S
Exercise 8.2
1. Prove that sec A 1 = sin A sec A .
2. Prove that (sin A + cos A)2 + (sin A cos A)2 = 2.
cot 2 cos ec 2
.
3. Simplify :
sec 2 tan 2
sec A + tan A 1 + sin A
4. Prove that
=
.
sec A tan A 1 sin A
1
1
5. Prove that
+
= 2 sec 2 .
1 + sin 1 sin
6. If x = r sin A sin B, y = r sin A cos B, z = r cos A, find the value of x2 + y2 +z2.
7. Show that tan A + cot A = cosec A sec A.
1 tan 2 A
8. Prove that
= 2 cos 2 A 1 .
2
1 + tan A
1
9. Prove that
= cosec + cot .
cos ec cot
10. Prove that (tan A + cot A)2 = sec2 A+ cosec2A.
cos A
sin A
11. Prove that
+
= sin A + cos A .
1 tan A 1 cot A
tan A + sec A 1 1 + sin A
12. Prove that
.
=
tan A sec A + 1
cos A
13. Prove that (tan A tan B)2 + (1 + tan A tan B)2 = sec2A sec2B.
tan
cot
14. Prove that
+
= sec cosec +1.
1 cot
1 tan
2
1 + sin cos
1 cos
=
15. Prove that
.
1 + cos
1 + sin + cos
16. Prove that (sin + cosec )2 + (cos + sec )2 = 7 + tan2 + cot2.
cos 3 + sin 3 cos 3 sin 3
17. Prove that
+
= 2.
cos + sin
cos sin
1 cos 4 + sin 4
= tan 2 .
18. Prove that
4
4
1 sin + cos
198
PQ
OQ
PQ
, cos =
, tan =
,
OP
OP
OQ
Figure 8.19
..
OP
OP
OQ
, sec =
, cot =
PQ
OQ
PQ
Similarly, for the angle 90 , we get
PQ
OQ
3
cos (90 o ) =
, tan(90 o ) =
,
sin (90 - ) =
OP
PQ
4
OP
OP
PQ
cos ec (90 o ) =
, sec (90 o ) =
, cot (90 o ) =
OQ
PQ
OQ
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
PQ
= sin = cos (90 o )
OP
OQ
= cos = sin (90 )
OP
PQ
= tan = cot (90 )
OQ
OP
= cosec = sec (90 )
PQ
OP
= sec = cosec (90 )
OQ
OQ
= cot = tan (90 ).
PQ
(1)
cos ec =
199
..
(2)
tan 65 o
.
Example 22: Evaluate
cot 25 o
Solution : tan 65 = tan(90 25) = cot 25
tan 65 o
cot 25 o
=
= 1.
cot 25 o
cot 25 o
Example 23: Evaluate sin 20 tan 60 sec 70
1
sin 20 o
sin 20 tan 60 sec 70 = sin 20 tan 60 cosec 20
1
=sin 20 3
= 3.
sin 20 o
Exercise 8.3
tan 35o
(ii)
cot 55o
1. Evaluate (i)
sin 36
cos 54 o
2. Simplify: (i)
(ii) 3
sin 23o
sec 47 o
+
.
4
cos 67 o
cos ec 43 o
3. Find x if
(i) sin 60 = cos x
Answers
Exercise 8.1
5 5 5
5 1 5
8 8 8
2.
3.
, ,
, ,
, ,
13 13 12
2 2 2
17 15 15
4
4
5
5
3
5. sin = , tan = , cos ec = ,sec = , cot = .
5
3
4
3
4
1.
200
4. 1,
2,
5
12
13
13
5
, tan = ,cos ec = , sec = , cot = .
13
5
12
5
12
1
3
1
7. sin = ,cos =
, tan =
, cos ec = 2, cot = 3 .
2
2
3
6. cos =
10
1
, tan = ,sec =
,cot = 3 .
3
3
10
10
5 2
7
1
sin =
,cos =
, tan = 7 , cos ec =
, sec = 5 2 .
7
5 2
5 2
2
5
29
29
5
sin =
, cos =
, cos ec =
,sec =
,cot = .
2
5
2
29
29
49
25
34
12.
13. 2
15.
25
8
75
3
(i) 7
(ii) 0
(iii) 3
(iv)
4
A = 60,
B = 30
8. sin =
9.
10.
11.
16.
18.
, cos =
Exercise 8.2
3. 1
6. r2
Exercise 8.3
1.
(i) 1
(ii) 1
2.
(i) 3
(ii) 7
3.
(i) 30
(ii) 36
(iii) 1
(iii) 65
201
(iv) 55
9. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
In Theoretical geometry or pure geometry, we give proofs for theorems on the
properties of geometrical figures by applying axioms and reasoning. Here, we do not
construct exactly the geometrical figures but draw rough sketches of the figures to give
support to our logical reasoning. No geometrical instrument is needed in studying theoretical
geometry. For example in theoretical geometry, when we say that the line segment PQ is the
perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB , we do not actually construct PQ but roughly
draw PQ perpendicular to AB . However, for constructing such geometrical figures, much
ingenuity and skill are needed. To draw geometrical figures, several geometrical instruments
are available. Drawing geometrical figures using geometrical instruments is the subject matter
of practical geometry. However, a challenge is always made to use only two geometrical
instruments namely an ungraduated ruler (also called a straight edge) and a pair of compasses
in construction problems. Great many facts and theorems (for example, the Pythagoras
theorem) have been formulated by considering construction problems.
In our earlier classes, We have learnt the following:
(i) Construction of perpendicular bisector of a line segment.
(ii) Construction of the bisector of an angle.
(iii) Construction of an equilateral triangle.
(iv) Division of a line segment in a given ratio.
(v) Construction of a right triangle.
(vi) Construction of a parallelogram.
(vii) Construction of a Rhombus.
(viii) Construction of concentric circles.
(ix) Construction of a trapezium.
(x) Construction of a triangle when the side lengths are given.
In the present chapter, we shall know the following methods:
(i) To locate the centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre and incentre of a triangle.
(ii) To construct the arithmetic and geometrical means.
(iii) To construct the mean proportional of two numbers.
202
203
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
9.1.2 Circumcentre
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent at a point. This
point is called the circumcentre of the triangle and is usually denoted by the letter S. It is at
an equal distance R from the vertices of the triangle. The circle drawn with S as the centre and
the equidistance R as radius passes through the vertices of the triangle. This circle is called the
circumcircle of the triangle and R is called its circumradius.
To locate the circumcentre and the circumcircle, we adopt the following procedure:
Step 1: Draw the triangle ABC.
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular bisectors of BC and AC.
Step 3: Mark the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of BC and AC as S.
This point S is the circumcentre of ABC.
204
Step 4: Draw the perpendicular bisector of AB. Observe that this bisector passes through S.
Measure the lengths SA, SB and SC and observe that SA = SB = SC. Draw the circumcircle.
Example 2: Draw the triangle ABC if AB = 7cm, m B = 45, BC = 6cm. Construct the
circumcircle.
Solution: Draw the triangle ABC with the given
measurements (SAS construction). Then, the
following steps are followed:
Step 1: Draw the perpendicular bisectors of BC
and AB.
Step 2: Mark the meeting point S of the
perpendicular bisectors. S is the circumcentre.
Step 3: Measure the lengths SA, SB and SC. We
find SA = SB = SC = 3.6 cm
Step 4: Draw a circle with S as the centre and SA as
the radius. This circle passes through A, B and C
and it is the required circumcircle.
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Note: When the circumcircle of a triangle is drawn, we say that the triangle is
circumscribed.
9.1.3
Incentre
The internal bisectors of angles of
a triangle are concurrent at a point. This
point is called the incentre of the triangle
and is denoted by the letter I. An important
property of the incentre is that the
perpendicular segments IL , IM , IN
from I to the sides are equal in length. The
Figure 9.5
equal distance is called the inradius of the
circle and it is denoted by r.
The circle drawn with I as centre and r as radius touches all the sides of the triangle
internally. The circle is said to be inscribed in the triangle and it is called the incircle of the
triangle (see Figure 9.5)
205
To locate the incentre, to measure the inradius and to draw the incircle of a triangle, the steps
are given below:
Step 1: Draw the triangle ABC.
Step 2: Draw the internal bisectors of the angles B and C.
Step 3: The point of intersection of the internal bisectors is located as I. The point I is the
required incentre.
Step 4: Verify that the internal bisector of A also passes through I.
Step 5: Draw the perpendicular line segment from I to the side BC. Measure its length. This
gives the inradius r.
Step 6: Draw the circle with I as centre and r as radius. We get the incircle.
Example 3: Draw the incircle of PQR if PQ = 8 cm, mP = 50, mQ = 60. Also
measure the inradius and draw the incircle.
Solution:
In the rough figure of PQR, we have marked the given measurements.
Step 1: Draw the PQR using ASA method.
Step 2: Draw the angle bisector of P.
Step 3: Draw the angle bisector of Q.
Step 4: Mark the point of intersection of the bisectors as
I. The point I is the incentre
Step 5: Draw the perpendicular segment ID to the side
Figure 9.6
PQ.
Step 6: Measure the length of ID . This length is the
inradius of the triangle. We find ID = 2 cm.
Step 7: With I as centre and ID as radius, draw a circle. This is the incircle of the triangle.
Figure 9.7
9.1.4
Orthocentre
We recall that an altitude of a triangle is a perpendicular line segment drawn from a
206
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.10
If we locate the centroid, circumcentre, incentre and orthocentre of various types of triangles,
we observe that their positions are as given below:
207
Table
Point of
concurrence
Centroid
Circumcentre
Incentre
Orthocentre
Type of triangle
Any type of triangle
Acute angled triangle
Right triangle
Obtuse angled triangle
Any type of triangle
Acute angled triangle
Right triangle
Obtuse angled triangle
Exercise 9.1
In problems 1 to 4, locate the centroid G of the given triangle.
1.
2.
3.
4.
In problems 5 to 8, draw the circumcircle of the given triangle. Find also the circumradius.
5.
6.
7.
8.
208
9.2
We shall now study geometrical construction methods to find the arithmetic mean and
geometric mean between two positive numbers.
9.2.1. Arithmetic mean
The Arithmetic mean between two numbers a and b is
a+b
geometrically, we proceed as follows:
2
Step 1: Take a line segment PQ whose length is a + b.
a+b
. To find the number
2
Figure 9.11
9.2.2
209
Figure 9.12
ab.
Example 6: Find the geometric mean between two segments of lengths 9 cm and 3 cm.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw a line segment AX sufficiently long.
Step 2: Cut off from it line segments AB and BC of lengths 9 cm and 3 cm respectively.
Step 3: Draw the perpendicular bisector of AC and make the meeting point of AC and the
bisector as O.
Step 4: With O as centre and OA as radius, draw a circle.
Step 5: Draw the perpendicular chord DE through B.
Step 6: BD or BE represents the geometric mean between AB and BC . Measure the length
of BD or BE . This length is the geometric mean between 9 and 3. We measure BD and find
BD = 5.2 cm.
Figure 9.13
210
Figure 9.14
Example 8: Find geometrically the value of 12.
Solution: We observe that
12 = 4 3. So 12 can be
considered as the mean proportional
between 4 and 3. Applying the geometrical
construction for getting the mean
proportional between 4 and 3, we get
Step 1: Cut off line segments AB and
BC on a line AX Such that AB = 4 and
BC = 3.
Step 2: Draw the circle with AC as one
of its diameter.
Step 3: Draw the chord DE through B
perpendicular to AC .
Step 4: Measure the length of BD . We
find that it is 3.4 cm.
Figure 9.15
211
Exercise 9.2
In problems 1 to 4, find the arithmetic mean between the given numbers.
1. 6 and 4
2. 10 and 5
3. 9 and 3
6. 2.2 and 5
7. 4 and 1.6
8. 6 and 4
10. 18
11. 21
12. 24
Answers
Exercise 9.1
5. 4 cm
9. 1.65 cm
6. 3.7 cm
10. 2.3 cm
7. 4.7 cm
11. 3.7 cm
Exercise 9.2
1.
2. 7.5
3. 6
4. 4.5
5. 2.4
6. 3.3
7. 2.5
8. 4.9
9. 3.9
10. 4.2
11. 4.6
12. 4.9
212
8. 3.2 cm
12. 1.5 cm
213
Here, x is called the variable or variate of measurement (here mark) and f, the frequency or
the number. of times of the occurrence of a particular value of the variable.
Here, the largest value = 56 and the smallest value = 30. So,
The range = The largest value The smallest value = 56 30 = 26.
We shall form intervals called class intervals to include the given marks. The first class
interval is 30-34. This interval includes the marks 30, 31, 32 ,33 and 34. The next class
interval is 35-39. Proceeding in this way the last class interval is 55-59 which includes the
marks 55, 56, 57, 58 and 59. The class intervals are inclusive since the lower and upper limits
of each interval are included in that interval. Now, we shall form the frequency table.
Class Interval
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
Read the observation in the data one by one. For each observation, locate the class
interval in which the observation lies and to account this, put a vertical bar like | (called tally
bar) in the box against the class interval. For every 5th observation that occurs in a class
interval, put a cross tally bar like \ across the four tally bars already there. This process is
carried out till all observations are exhausted. In the above table, the number of tally bars
marked for a particular class is called the frequency of the class. The table is called a
frequency table for grouped data. In this table, the intervals do not cover marks such as
34.5, 39.5. To cover such situations, we can alter the intervals as 29.5-34.5, 34.5-39.5, ,
54.5-59.5 with the convention that each interval does not include its upper limit. The modified
frequency table is presented below.
Class Interval
29.5-34.5
34.5-39.5
39.5-44.5
44.5-49.5
49.5-54.5
54.5-59.5
214
Here, we say that the frequency table represents continuous variation of the variate x. In this
representation, the difference between the upper limit and the lower limit of a class interval is
called the size of the class interval and the average of the upper limit and the lower limit is
called the class mark of that interval. Here, for the class interval 34.5-39.5, the size is 5 and
the class mark is 37, the mid value of the interval. From the above table we observe that the
number of students who have obtained marks below 34.5 is 4, the number of students who
have obtained marks below 39.5 is 4 + 5 = 9, the number of students who have obtained
marks below 44.5 is 4 + 5 + 8 = 17, the number of students who have obtained marks below
49.5 is 4 + 5 + 8 + 9 = 26, the number of students who have obtained marks below 54.5 is
4 + 5 + 8 + 9 + 2 = 28 and the number of students who have obtained marks below 59.5 is
4 + 5 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 2 = 30. These frequencies are called cumulative frequencies (c.f)
corresponding to the frequency table. The table of c.fs is given below.
Class Interval Mid-value x f
29.5-34.5
32
4
34.5-39.5
37
5
39.5-44.5
42
8
44.5-49.5
47
9
49.5-54.5
52
2
54.5-59.5
57
2
Total
30
c.f
4
9
17
26
28
30
215
Hence
x=
x 1 + x 2 + ... + x n
.
n
In mathematics, the symbol , called sigma notation is used to represent summation. With
n
x
n
x
i =1
or simply as
. Then, we have
If the observations are represented in the form of a frequency table, the mean x is given by
f x + f 2 x 2 + ... + f n x n
x= 1 1
,
f1 + f 2 + .... + f n
where x1, x2, , xn are the individual values or the mid-values of the class intervals whose
frequencies are f1, f2,,fn. In this case, with sigma notation, we have
f i xi , where N = f + f + .... + f .
x =
1
2
n
N
If the observed values x1, x2, , xn are numerically large, the mean can be calculated by a
short-cut method. Let A be a suitably chosen number. We form the deviations
x1 A, x2 A, , xn A.
If these deviations have a common factor c, then form the ratios
x A
x1 A x 2 A
,
,..., n
.
c
c
c
Let them be d1, d2, ,dn.. Then
x A
x A
x A
f i d i = f1 d1 + f2 d2 + ..+ fn dn = f1 1 c + f 2 2 c + ... + f n n c .
1
= [( f 1 x1 f 1 A) + ( f 2 x 2 f 2 A) + ... + ( f n x n f n A)]
c
1
1
= [( f 1 x1 + f 2 x 2 + ... + f n x n ) A( f 1 + f 2 + ... + f n )] = [ f i xi A N ].
c
c
f i xi A N = c f i d i
or
fx
i
= A N + c f i d i or x =
fx
i
= A + c
fd
i
Example 1: Calculate the mean of the data 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19.
xi = 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 14.
Solution : x =
6
N
216
16
4
19
3
Solution:
Direct Method:
Short-cut Method:
Take A = 14, c = 1, d = x A
fx
x
f
10
4
40
11
5
55
13
8
104
15
6
90
16
4
64
19
3
57
Total N = 30 fx = 410
x=
fx
i
x
f
10
4
11
5
13
8
15
6
16
4
19
3
Total N=30
410
= 13.67.
30
x = A+ c
d
fd
4 16
3 15
1 8
1
6
2
8
5
15
fd =2939 = 10
fd =14 + 1
N
14 0.33 = 13.67.
10
30
90
6
Marks
No. of students
100
1
fd
80
10
85
90
95
100
2
fd = 12
N = 20
95
2
A.M. = x = A+ c
fd
N
12
= 90 + 5
= 90 3 = 87.
20
217
Solution:
Direct Method:
fx
0-10
12
60
10-20
15
18
270
20-30
25
27
675
30-40
35
20
700
40-50
45
17
765
50-60
55
330
fx = 2800
N = 100
x=
Short-cut Method:
fx
N
fx = 2800.
2800
= 28.
100
x A
.
c
A.M. = x = A+ c
fd
60
54
27
20
51
30
fd = 101141= 40
fd
N
40
= 30 + 5
= 30 2 = 28.
100
Exercise 10.1.1
1. Calculate the mean of 7, 12, 18, 14, 19, 20.
2. If in a class of 15 students, 4 students have scored 66 marks, 5 students have scored 67
marks and 6 students have scored 68 marks, then compute the mean of the class.
3. Calculate the Arithmetic mean of the following data:
218
5
4
X
f
10
5
15
7
20
4
25
3
30
2
70
6
75
3
80
6
85
4
90
10
100
4
45
14
55
16
65
11
75
7
85
8
65
11
15
12
25
20
35
15
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
14
10
11
10.1.2 Median
When the given raw data are arranged in ascending or descending order, we can find a
value which is centrally located in the arranged order. This central value or the middle most
value is called the median of the data.
For example, consider the data 14, 28, 20, 29, 18, 25, 26, 17, 36. Arranging them in
the ascending order, we get 14,17,18,20,25,26,28,29,36. We observe that 25 is centrally
located in the series. Hence, it is the median of the data. We note that there are odd number of
observations and so we are able to locate the median as an observed value in the series.
Consider the data 85, 79, 57, 59, 66, 26, 40, 33, 48, 53. Arranging them in the
ascending order, we get 26, 33, 40, 48, 53, 57, 59, 66, 79, 85. Since there are even number of
observations, we get 53 and 57 centrally located in the series. Hence, we take their average,
53 + 57 110
namely
=
= 55 as the middle most value for the series. This is the median of the
2
2
given data. Thus, to get the median for a raw data, we proceed as follows:
First we arrange the entire data in the ascending order. Let N be the number of
N + 1 th
observations. If N is an odd integer, then there is only one middle term and it is the
2
term of the given set of observations. This is the median. If N is an even integer, there are two
219
N
2
th
term and + 1
2
th
26 + 28
= average of 26 and 28 =
= 27.
2
220
5
3
10
6
15
10
20
8
25
2
30
3
Solution:
x
5
10
15
20
25
30
3
6
10
8
2
3
Cumulative
frequency
3
9
19
27
29
32
N
= 16.
2
N
The median is the th value = 16th value. But the 16th value occurs in the class whose
2
cumulative frequency is 19. The corresponding value of the variate is 15.
Hence, the median = 15.
Exercise 10.1.2
1. Find the median of the following set of variables:
(i) 66, 63, 55, 60, 46, 10
(ii) 35, 39, 36, 34, 28, 27, 45, 41
(iii) 60, 61, 60, 58, 57, 59, 70
(iv) 41, 45, 36, 37, 43, 45, 41, 36
2. Find the median for the marks of 40 students
24
20
Marks
4
7
No. of students
3. Find the median for the following data
1
2
x
4
6
f
3
5
35
3
52
9
4
3
50
5
48
12
5
2
6
5
55
10
65
5
25
3
35
5
221
45
20
10.1.3 Mode
45
12
50
11
55
14
60
13
65
12
70
10
75
9
Solution: We observe from the table that the maximum frequency is 14. The value of the
variate (wage) corresponding to the maximum frequency 14 is 55. This is the mode of the
data.
Exercise 10.1.3
1. Find the mode of the following data:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
222
10
8
20
15
30
12
40
10
50
9
60
6
62
14
63
16
64
10
65
7
60
5
61
8
Answers
Exercise 10.1.1
1. 15
2. 67.1
3. 15.6
4. 79.1
5. 45
Exercise 10.1.2
1. (i) 57.5
(ii) 35.5
(iii) 60
3. 3
4. 45
2. 48
(iv) 41
Exercise 10.1.3
1. (i) 84
2. 20
(ii) No mode
(iii) 20, 31
3. 63
223
(iv) 11
6. 35.4
11. GRAPHS
In fields such as science, engineering and business, we come across several variables
which take real values. For example, in business, the supply (s) and price (p) of a commodity
are real variables. These variables may be connected by an equation. Using this equation, we
can get a value for p for each value of s and obtain a set of ordered pairs (s, p) of real
numbers. All these ordered pairs (s, p) can be plotted as points in the Cartesian plane where its
horizontal axis is the s-axis and the vertical axis is the p-axis. These points now define what is
called the graph of the relation. The graph displays the nature of relationship between the
variables. One of the most useful graph that we obtain quite often is the linear graph. We now
proceed to know about linear graphs, how they are drawn and applied to solve some
equations.
224
Example 1: Draw the graph of the line joining the points (2, 3) and (4, 1).
Solution: Draw the x-axis and y-axis on a graph paper and take 1 cm = 1 unit on both the
axes. Let A and B be the points (2, 3) and
(4, 1). We mark these points on the graph
paper. We join the points A and B by a line
segment and extend it along the two
directions. The required graph is now obtained
(see Figure 11.1)
Figure 11.1
Example 2: Draw the graph of y = 2x.
Solution: Since the equation of the line is y = 2x, the line passes through the origin.
Substituting x = 1, 0, 1 in the equation of the
line , we get correspondingly y = 2, 0, 2. We
form the table as given below:
Figure 11.3
225
Example 4: Draw the graph of the line whose slope is 3 and y-intercept is 3.
2
2
0
Figure 11.4
3
6
0
4
3
2
Figure 11.5
3
1
3
2
Figure 11.6
226
Plot these points on the graph paper. Join these two points by a line segment and extend it in
both the directions. We get the required linear graph (see Figure 11.6). Note that the line is
parallel to the y-axis.
Example 7: Draw the graph of y = 4.
Solution: We observe that the value of y is fixed as
4 and the value of x is not specified in the
equation. So, we choose any two values for x, say x
= 2, 2. Then we get two points
(2, 4) and (2, 4) on the line y = 4. Plot these
two points in the graph paper.
x
y
2
4
2
4
Figure 11.7
Join the two points and extend it in the both directions. The required graph is the resulting
graph(see Figure 11.7) The line is parallel to the xaxis.
Exercise 11.1
1. Draw the linear graph through the points
(i) (2, 3) and (4, 6)
(ii) (1, 0) and (2, 5)
(iii) (3, 2) and (5, 1)
(iv) (2, 3) and (5, 4)
2. Draw the graph of the following:
(i) y = 2x
(ii) y = 3x
(iii) x = 5y
(iv) x = 4y
3. Draw the graphs of the following:
(i) x = 3
(ii) y = 5
(iii) x = 5
(iv) y = 4
(v) 2x + 3 = 0.
(vi) 1 + 2y =0.
4. Draw the graph for y = mx + c when
2
and c = 3.
(i) m = 3 and c = 4.
(ii) m =
3
(iii) m = 3 and c = 4
(iv) m = 2 and c = 5
5. Draw the graph of the following equations:
(i) 2x + 3y = 12.
(ii) x 5y = 10.
(iii) y + 2x 5 = 0.
(iv) x 2y + 1 = 0.
227
1
3
Line 2: 2y = 4x + 2 i.e., y = 2x + 1
x
y
1
1
1
3
228
1
1
Example 9: Draw the graphs x 2y = 4 and x 2y = 6 and hence solve the simultaneous
equations.
Solution: We find points for plotting the two lines.
Line 1:
Line 2: x 2y = 6
or
2y = x + 6
x 2y = 4
or
2y = x 4
or
1
y = x 2
2
X
Y
1
y = x + 3
or
0
2
0
3
x
y
2
1
2
4
Figure 11.9
Example 10: Solve graphically the simultaneous equations x + y = 5, x y = 3.
Solution: We draw the graphs for the two equations in the same graph sheet.
Line (1): x + y = 5
Line (2) : x y = 3
or y = x + 5
or
y = x 3
X
Y
2
7
1
6
x
y
3
2
229
1
2
0
3
Figure 11.10
3
0
Exercise 11.2
In problems 1 to 10, solve graphically the following system of equations:
6. 2x + y = 1, 4x + 2y = 2.
1. x + y = 0, x = 4.
7. x + 2y = 4, x + 2y = 6.
2. x y = 0, y = 3.
8. x 3y = 4, x + 2y = 1.
3. x + y = 2, x y = 2.
9. 3x + y = 2, 6x y = 7.
4. x y = 6, 2x + y = 9.
10.
2x + 3 = 0, 4x + y + 4 = 0.
5. x + y = 5, x y = 1.
Answers
Exercise 11.1
1. (ii)
1. (i)
1. (iii)
1. (iv)
2 (i)
x
y
1
2
0
0
1
2
2. (ii)
x
y
1
3
0
0
1
3
230
2. (iii)
2. (iv)
0
0
x
y
3.
5
1
5
1
(i)
x
y
0
0
4
1
4
1
x
y
1
5
2
5
1
5
x
y
0
4
1
4
1
4
(ii)
x
y
3
1
3
2
3
1
(iii)
(iv)
x
y
5
0
5
1
5
2
231
(v)
(vi)
x
y
1.5
0
1.5
1
1.5
1
(i)
x
y
0
0.5
1
0.5
1
0.5
3
5
0
3
3
1
0
5
1
3
2
1
(ii)
x
y
1
1
0
4
1
7
(iii)
x
y
(iv)
x
y
0
4
1
7
1
1
x
y
232
(i)
(ii)
x
y
3
6
0
4
x
y
3
2
(iii)
5
1
0
2
5
3
1
1
3
2
5
3
(iv)
x
y
1
7
0
5
x
y
1
3
Exercise 11.2
1.
x
Solution is x = 4; y = 4.
2.
x
Solution is x = 3; y = 3.
233
3.
x
Solution is x = 2; y = 0.
4.
x
Solution is x = 5; y = 1.
5.
x
x
y
1 0
3 1
Solution is x = 3; y =2.
6.
x
y
-1
3
0
1
1
1
1
1
7.
x
No solution.
234
8.
x
Solution is x = 1; y = 1.
9.
x
Solution is x = 1; y = 1.
10.
3
2
3
2
3
2
Solution is x =
3;
2
y = 2.
235
LOGARITHMS
Mean Differences
0
1.0
.0000
.0043
.0086
.0128
.0170
.0212
.0253
.0294
.0334
.0374
12
17
21
25
29
33
37
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
.0414
.0792
.1139
.1461
.1761
.0453
.0828
.1173
.1492
.1790
.0492
.0864
.1206
.1523
.1818
.0531
.0899
.1239
.1553
.1847
.0569
.0934
.1271
.1584
.1875
.0607
.0969
.1303
.1614
.1903
.0645
.1004
.1335
.1644
.1931
.0682
.1038
.1367
.1673
.1959
.0719
.1072
.1399
.1703
.1987
.0755
.1106
.1430
.1732
.2014
4
3
3
3
3
8
7
6
6
6
11
10
10
9
8
15
14
13
12
11
19
17
16
15
14
23
21
19
18
17
26
24
23
21
20
30
28
26
24
22
34
31
29
27
25
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
.2041
.2304
.2553
.2788
.3010
.2068
.2330
.2577
.2810
.3032
.2095
.2355
.2601
.2833
.3054
.2122
.2380
.2625
.2856
.3075
.2148
.2405
.2648
.2878
.3096
.2175
.2430
.2672
.2900
.3118
.2201
.2455
.2695
.2923
.3139
.2227
.2480
.2718
.2945
.3160
.2253
.2504
.2742
.2967
.3181
.2279
.2529
.2765
.2989
.3201
3
2
2
2
2
5
5
5
4
4
8
7
7
7
6
11
10
9
9
8
13
12
12
11
11
16
15
14
13
13
18
17
16
16
15
21
20
19
18
17
24
22
21
20
19
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
.3222
.3424
.3617
.3802
.3979
.3243
.3444
.3636
.3820
.3997
.3263
.3464
.3655
.3838
.4014
.3284
.3483
.3674
.3856
.4031
.3304
.3502
.3692
.3874
.4048
.3324
.3522
.3711
.3892
.4065
.3345
.3541
.3729
.3909
.4082
.3365
.3560
.3747
.3927
.4099
.3385
.3579
.3766
.3945
.4116
.3404
.3598
.3784
.3962
.4133
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
3
6
6
6
5
5
8
8
7
7
7
10
10
9
9
9
12
12
11
11
10
14
14
13
12
12
16
15
15
14
14
18
17
17
16
15
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
.4150
.4314
.4472
.4624
.4771
.4166
.4330
.4487
.4639
.4786
.4183
.4346
.4502
.4654
.4800
.4200
.4362
.4518
.4669
.4814
.4216
.4378
.4533
.4683
.4829
.4232
.4393
.4548
.4698
.4843
.4249
.4409
.4564
.4713
.4857
.4265
.4425
.4579
.4728
.4871
.4281
.4440
.4594
.4742
.4886
.4298
.4456
.4609
.4757
.4900
2
2
2
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
4
4
7
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
7
7
10
9
9
9
9
11
11
11
10
10
13
13
12
12
11
15
14
14
13
13
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
.4914
.5051
.5185
.5315
.5441
.4928
.5065
.5198
.5328
.5453
.4942
.5079
.5211
.5340
.5465
.4955
.5092
.5224
.5353
.5478
.4969
.5105
.5237
.5366
.5490
.4983
.5119
.5250
.5378
.5502
.4997
.5132
.5263
.5391
.5514
.5011
.5145
.5276
.5403
.5527
.5024
.5159
.5289
.5416
.5539
.5038
.5172
.5302
.5428
.5551
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
5
5
5
5
7
7
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
7
10
9
9
9
9
11
11
10
10
10
12
12
12
11
11
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
.5563
.5682
.5798
.5911
.6021
.5575
.5694
.5809
.5922
.6031
.5587
.5705
.5821
.5933
.6042
.5599
.5717
.5832
.5944
.6053
.5611
.5729
.5843
.5955
.6064
.5623
.5740
.5855
.5966
.6075
.5365
.5752
.5866
.5977
.6085
.5647
.5763
.5877
.5988
.6096
.5658
.5775
.5888
.5999
.6107
.5670
.5786
.5899
.6010
.6117
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
4
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
4
4
6
6
6
5
5
7
7
7
7
6
8
8
8
8
8
10
9
9
9
9
11
10
10
10
10
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
.6128
.6232
.6335
.6435
.6532
.6138
.6243
.6345
.6444
.6542
.6149
.6253
.6355
.6454
.6551
.6160
.6263
.6365
.6464
.6561
.6170
.6274
.6375
.6474
.6571
.6180
.6284
.6385
.6484
.6580
.6191
.6294
.6395
.6493
.6590
.6201
.6304
.6405
.6503
.6599
.6212
.6314
.6415
.6513
.6609
.6222
.6325
.6425
.6522
.6618
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
.6628
.6721
.6812
.6902
.6990
.6637
.6730
.6821
.6911
.6998
.6646
.6739
.6830
.6920
.7007
.6656
.6749
.6839
.6928
.7016
.6665
.6758
.6848
.6937
.7024
.6675
.6767
.6857
.6946
.7033
.6684
.6776
.6866
.6955
.7042
.6693
.6785
.6875
.6964
.7050
.6702
.6794
.6884
.6972
.7059
.6712
.6803
.6893
.6981
.7067
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
5
5
4
4
4
6
5
5
5
5
7
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
.7076
.7160
.7243
.7324
.7084
.7168
.7251
.7332
.7093
.7177
.7259
.7340
.7101
.7185
.7267
.7348
.7110
.7193
.7275
.7356
.7118
.7202
.7284
.7364
.7126
.7210
.7292
.7372
.7135
.7218
.7300
.7380
.7143
.7226
.7308
.7388
.7152
.7235
.7316
.7396
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
8
7
7
7
236
LOGARITHMS
Mean Differences
0
5.5
.7404
.7412
.7419
.7427
.7435
.7443
.7451
.7459
.7466
.7474
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
.7482
.7559
.7634
.7709
.7782
.7490
.7566
.7642
.7716
.7789
.7497
.7574
.7649
.7723
.7796
.7505
.7582
.7657
.7731
.7803
.7513
.7589
.7664
.7738
.7810
.7520
.7597
.7672
.7745
.7818
.7528
.7604
.7679
.7752
.7825
.7536
.7612
.7686
.7760
.7832
.7543
.7619
.7694
.7767
.7839
.7551
.7627
.7701
.7774
.7846
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
.7853
.7924
.7993
.8062
.8129
.7860
.7931
.8000
.8069
.8136
.7868
.7938
.8007
.8075
.8142
.7875
.7945
.8014
.8082
.8149
.7882
.7952
.8021
.8089
.8156
.7889
.7959
.8028
.8096
.8162
.7896
.7966
.8035
.8102
.8169
.7903
.7973
.8041
.8109
.8176
.7910
.7980
.8048
.8116
.8182
.7917
.7987
.8055
.8122
.8189
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
.8195
.8261
.8325
.8388
.8451
.8202
.8267
.8331
.8395
.8457
.8209
.8274
.8338
.8401
.8463
.8215
.8280
.8344
.8407
.8470
.8222
.8287
.8351
.8414
.8476
.8228
.8293
.8357
.8420
.8482
.8235
.8299
.8363
.8426
.8488
.8241
.8306
.8370
.8432
.8494
.8248
.8312
.8376
.8439
.8500
.8254
.8319
.8382
.8445
.8506
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
.8513
.8573
.8633
.8692
.8751
.8519
.8579
.8639
.8698
.8756
.8525
.8585
.8645
.8704
.8762
.8531
.8591
.8651
.8710
.8768
.8537
.8597
.8657
.8716
.8774
.8543
.8603
.8663
.8722
.8779
.8549
.8609
.8669
.8727
.8785
.8555
.8615
.8675
.8733
.8791
.8561
.8621
.8681
.8739
.8797
.8567
.8627
.8686
.8745
.8802
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
.8808
.8865
.8921
.8976
.9031
.8814
.8871
.8927
.8982
.9036
.8820
.8876
.8932
.8987
.9042
.8825
.8882
.8938
.8993
.9047
.8831
.8887
.8943
.8998
.9053
.8837
.8893
.8949
.9004
.9058
.8842
.8899
.8954
.9009
.9063
.8848
.8904
.8960
.9015
.9069
.8854
.8910
.8965
.9020
.9074
.8859
.8915
.8971
.9025
.9079
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
.9085
.9138
.9191
.9243
.9294
.9090
.9143
.9196
.9248
.9299
.9096
.9149
.9201
.9253
.9304
.9101
.9154
.9206
.9258
.9309
.9106
.9159
.9212
.9263
.9315
.9112
.9165
.9217
.9269
.9320
.9117
.9170
.9222
.9274
.9325
.9122
.9175
.9227
.9279
.9330
.9128
.9180
.9232
.9284
.9335
.9133
.9186
.9238
.9289
.9340
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.0
.9345
.9395
.9445
.9494
.9542
.9350
.9400
.9450
.9499
.9547
.9355
.9405
.9455
.9504
.9552
.9360
.9410
.9460
.9509
.9557
.9365
.9415
.9465
.9513
.9562
.9370
.9420
.9469
.9518
.9566
.9375
.9425
.9474
.9523
.9571
.9380
.9430
.9479
.9528
.9576
.9385
.9435
.9484
.9533
.9581
.9390
.9440
.9489
.9538
.9586
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
.9590
.9638
.9685
.9731
.9777
.9595
.9643
.9689
.9736
.9782
.9600
.9647
.9694
.9741
.9786
.9605
.9653
.9699
.9745
.9791
.9609
.9657
.9703
.9750
.9795
.9614
.9661
.9708
.9754
.9800
.9619
.9666
.9713
.9759
.9805
.9624
.9671
.9717
.9763
.9809
.9628
.9675
.9722
.9768
.9814
.9633
.9680
.9727
.9773
.9818
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
.9823
.9868
.9912
.9956
.9827
.9872
.9917
.9961
.9832
.9877
.9921
.9965
.9836
.9881
.9926
.9969
.9841
.9886
.9930
.9974
.9845
.9890
.9934
.9978
.9850
.9894
.9939
.9983
.9854
.9899
.9943
.9987
.9859
.9903
.9948
.9991
.9863
.9908
.9952
.9996
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
237
ANTILOGARITHMS
Mean Differences
0
.00
1.000
1.002
1.005
1.007
1.009
1.012
1.014
1.016
1.019
1.021
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
1.023
1.047
1.072
1.096
1.122
1.026
1.050
1.074
1.099
1.125
1.028
1.052
1.076
1.102
1.127
1.030
1.054
1.079
1.104
1.130
1.033
1.057
1.081
1.107
1.132
1.035
1.059
1.084
1.109
1.135
1.038
1.062
1.086
1.112
1.138
1.040
1.064
1.089
1.114
1.140
1.042
1.067
1.091
1.117
1.143
1.045
1.069
1.094
1.119
1.146
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
.06
.07
.08
.09
.10
1.148
1.175
1.202
1.230
1.259
1.151
1.178
1.205
1.233
1.262
1.153
1.180
1.208
1.236
1.265
1.156
1.183
1.211
1.239
1.268
1.159
1.186
1.213
1.242
1.271
1.161
1.189
1.216
1.245
1.274
1.164
1.191
1.219
1.247
1.276
1.167
1.194
1.222
1.250
1.279
1.169
1.197
1.225
1.253
1.282
1.172
1.199
1.227
1.256
1.285
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
.11
.12
.13
.14
.15
1.288
1.318
1.349
1.380
1.413
1.291
1.321
1.352
1.384
1.416
1.294
1.324
1.355
1.387
1.419
1.297
1.327
1.358
1.390
1.422
1.300
1.330
1.361
1.393
1.426
1.303
1.334
1.365
1.396
1.429
1.306
1.337
1.368
1.400
1.432
1.309
1.340
1.371
1.403
1.435
1.312
1.343
1.374
1.406
1.439
1.315
1.346
1.377
1.409
1.442
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
.16
.17
.18
.19
.20
1.445
1.479
1.514
1.549
1.585
1.449
1.483
1.517
1.552
1.589
1.452
1.486
1.521
1.556
1.592
1.455
1.489
1.524
1.560
1.596
1.459
1.493
1.528
1.563
1.600
1.462
1.496
1.531
1.567
1.603
1.466
1.500
1.535
1.570
1.607
1.469
1.503
1.538
1.574
1.611
1.472
1.507
1.542
1.578
1.614
1.476
1.510
1.545
1.581
1.618
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
.21
.22
.23
.24
.25
1.622
1.660
1.698
1.738
1.778
1.626
1.663
1.702
1.742
1.782
1.629
1.667
1.706
1.746
1.786
1.633
1.671
1.710
1.750
1.791
1.637
1.675
1.714
1.754
1.795
1.641
1.679
1.718
1.758
1.799
1.644
1.683
1.722
1.762
1.803
1.648
1.687
1.726
1.766
1.807
1.652
1.690
1.730
1.770
1.811
1.656
1.694
1.734
1.774
1.816
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
.26
.27
.28
.29
.30
1.820
1.862
1.905
1.950
1.995
1.824
1.866
1.910
1.954
2.000
1.828
1.871
1.914
1.959
2.004
1.832
1.875
1.919
1.963
2.009
1.837
1.879
1.923
1.968
2.014
1.841
1.884
1.928
1.972
2.018
1.845
1.888
1.932
1.977
2.023
1.849
1.892
1.936
1.982
2.028
1.854
1.897
1.941
1.986
2.032
1.858
1.901
1.945
1.991
2.037
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
.31
.32
.33
.34
.35
2.042
2.089
2.138
2.188
2.239
2.046
2.094
2.143
2.193
2.244
2.051
2.099
2.148
2.198
2.249
2.056
2.104
2.153
2.203
2.254
2.061
2.109
2.158
2.208
2.259
2.065
2.113
2.163
2.213
2.265
2.070
2.118
2.168
2.218
2.270
2.075
2.123
2.173
2.223
2.275
2.080
2.128
2.178
2.228
2.280
2.084
2.133
2.183
2.234
2.286
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
.36
.37
.38
.39
.40
2.291
2.344
2.399
2.455
2.512
2.296
2.350
2.404
2.460
2.518
2.301
2.355
2.410
2.466
2.523
2.307
2.360
2.415
2.472
2.529
2.312
2.366
2.421
2.477
2.535
2.317
2.371
2.427
2.483
2.541
2.323
2.377
2.432
2.489
2.547
2.328
2.382
2.438
2.495
2.553
2.333
2.388
2.443
2.500
2.559
2.339
2.393
2.449
2.506
2.564
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
.41
.42
.43
.44
.45
2.570
2.630
2.692
2.754
2.818
2.576
2.636
2.698
2.761
2.825
2.582
2.642
2.704
2.767
2.831
2.588
2.649
2.710
2.773
2.838
2.594
2.655
2.716
2.780
2.844
2.600
2.661
2.723
2.786
2.851
2.606
2.667
2.729
2.793
2.858
2.612
2.673
2.735
2.799
2.864
2.618
2.679
2.742
2.805
2.871
2.624
2.685
2.748
2.812
2.877
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
.46
.47
.48
.49
2.884
2.951
3.020
3.090
2.891
2.958
3.027
3.097
2.897
2.965
3.034
3.105
2.904
2.972
3.041
3.112
2.911
2.979
3.048
3.119
2.917
2.985
3.055
3.126
2.924
2.992
3.062
3.133
2.931
2.999
3.069
3.141
2.938
3.006
3.076
3.148
2.944
3.013
3.083
3.155
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
238
ANTILOGARITHMS
Mean Differences
0
0.50
3.162
3.170
3.177
3.184
3.192
3.199
3.206
3.214
3.221
3.228
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
3.236
3.311
3.388
3.467
3.548
3.243
3.319
3.396
3.475
3.556
3.251
3.327
3.404
3.483
3.565
3.258
3.334
3.412
3.491
3.573
3.266
3.342
3.420
3.499
3.581
3.273
3.350
3.428
3.508
3.589
3.281
3.357
3.436
3.516
3.597
3.289
3.365
3.443
3.524
3.606
3.296
3.373
3.451
3.532
3.614
3.304
3.381
3.459
3.540
3.622
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
3.631
3.715
3.802
3.890
3.981
3.639
3.724
3.811
3.899
3.990
3.648
3.733
3.819
3.908
3.999
3.656
3.741
3.828
3.917
4.009
3.664
3.750
3.837
3.926
4.018
3.673
3.758
3.846
3.936
4.027
3.681
3.767
3.855
3.945
4.036
3.690
3.776
3.864
3.954
4.046
3.698
3.784
3.873
3.963
4.055
3.707
3.793
3.882
3.972
4.064
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
4.074
4.169
4.266
4.365
4.467
4.083
4.178
4.276
4.375
4.477
4.093
4.188
4.285
4.385
4.487
4.102
4.198
4.295
4.395
4.498
4.111
4.207
4.305
4.406
4.508
4.121
4.217
4.315
4.416
4.519
4.130
4.227
4.325
4.426
4.529
4.140
4.236
4.335
4.436
4.539
4.150
4.246
4.345
4.446
4.550
4.159
4.256
4.355
4.457
4.560
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.70
4.571
4.677
4.786
4.898
5.012
4.581
4.688
4.797
4.909
5.023
4.592
4.699
4.808
4.920
5.035
4.603
4.710
4.819
4.932
5.047
4.613
4.721
4.831
4.943
5.058
4.624
4.732
4.842
4.955
5.070
4.634
4.742
4.853
4.966
5.082
4.645
4.753
4.864
4.977
5.093
4.656
4.764
4.875
4.989
5.105
4.667
4.775
4.887
5.000
5.117
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
5.129
5.248
5.370
5.495
5.623
5.140
5.260
5.383
5.508
5.636
5.152
5.272
5.395
5.521
5.649
5.164
5.284
5.408
5.534
5.662
5.176
5.297
5.420
5.546
5.675
5.188
5.309
5.433
5.559
5.689
5.200
5.321
5.445
5.572
5.702
5.212
5.333
5.458
5.585
5.715
5.224
5.346
5.470
5.598
5.728
5.236
5.358
5.483
5.610
5.741
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
5.754
5.888
6.026
6.166
6.310
5.768
5.902
6.039
6.180
6.324
5.781
5.916
6.053
6.194
6.339
5.794
5.929
6.067
6.209
6.353
5.808
5.943
6.081
6.223
6.368
5.821
5.957
6.095
6.237
6.383
5.834
5.970
6.109
6.252
6.397
5.848
5.984
6.124
6.266
6.412
5.861
5.998
6.138
6.281
6.427
5.875
6.012
6.152
6.295
6.442
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
6.457
6.607
6.761
6.918
7.079
6.471
6.622
6.776
6.934
7.096
6.486
6.637
6.792
6.950
7.112
6.501
6.653
6.808
6.966
7.129
6.516
6.668
6.823
6.982
7.145
6.531
6.683
6.839
6.998
7.161
6.546
6.699
6.855
7.015
7.178
6.561
6.714
6.871
7.031
7.194
6.577
6.730
6.887
7.047
7.211
6.592
6.745
6.902
7.063
7.228
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
7.244
7.413
7.586
7.762
7.943
7.261
7.430
7.603
7.780
7.962
7.278
7.447
7.621
7.798
7.980
7.295
7.464
7.638
7.816
7.998
7.311
7.482
7.656
7.834
8.017
7.328
7.499
7.674
7.852
8.035
7.345
7.516
7.691
7.870
8.054
7.362
7.534
7.709
7.889
8.072
7.379
7.551
7.727
7.907
8.091
7.396
7.568
7.745
7.925
8.110
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
16
16
16
17
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
8.128
8.318
8.511
8.710
8.913
8.147
8.337
8.531
8.730
8.933
8.166
8.356
8.551
8.750
8.954
8.185
8.375
8.570
8.770
8.974
8.204
8.395
8.590
8.790
8.995
8.222
8.414
8.610
8.810
9.016
8.241
8.433
8.630
8.831
9.036
8.260
8.453
8.650
8.851
9.057
8.279
8.472
8.670
8.872
9.078
8.299
8.492
8.690
8.892
9.099
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
9
10
10
10
10
11
12
12
12
12
13
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
19
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
9.120
9.333
9.550
9.772
9.141
9.354
9.572
9.795
9.162
9.376
9.594
9.817
9.183
9.397
9.616
9.840
9.204
9.419
9.638
9.863
9.226
9.441
9.661
9.886
9.247
9.462
9.683
9.908
9.268
9.484
9.705
9.931
9.290
9.506
9.727
9.954
9.311
9.528
9.750
9.977
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
5
6
7
7
7
8
9
9
9
11
11
11
11
13
13
13
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15
15
16
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18
18
19
20
20
20
239