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The catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the mesencephalon are the best
models to study the enhancer regulation, as their physiologic function is to supply
continuously the brain with the required amounts of catecholamines and serotonin that
properly influence - activate or inhibit - billions of neurons. The significant
enhancement of the nerve-stimulation induced release of [3H]-noradrenaline, [3H]dopamine, and [3H]-serotonin from the isolated brain stem of the rat in the presence of
PEA (Fig. 1) or tryptamine (Fig. 2) is shown to illustrate the mesencephalic enhancer
regulation in function.
From a freshly isolated brain stem of a satisfactorily pretreated rat a stable amount of
the labeled transmitter is released for a couple of hours, (see Knoll and Miklya, 1995
for methodology). Electrical stimulation of the brain stem significantly increases the
outflow of transmitters. The calculated average amount of each of the labeled
transmitters released from the stimulated brain stem is the product of a surviving
population of specific neurons with large individual variation in their performance.
Neurons respond to stimulation in an "all or none" manner. Hence, prior to the
administration of PEA or tryptamine, only the high performing members of the
population responded with transmitter release to electrical stimulation. As PEA or
tryptamine enhance specifically the performance of the enhancer-sensitive neurons,
the stimulation-evoked release of the labeled transmitter changed accordingly.
The data in Fig. 1 and 2 show a remarkable quantitative difference between PEA and
tryptamine in their effectiveness on serotonergic neurons. A lower concentration of
tryptamine, (1.3 mol/l) proved to be much more potent than a much higher
concentration of PEA (16 mol/l) in enhancing the stimulation-evoked release of
serotonin. This indicates that the enhancer regulation in the catecholaminergic and
serotonergic neurons are not identical on the molecular level.
Deprenyl, the PEA-derived representative synthetic mesencephalic enhancer
substance
As deprenyl was world-wide known as the first selective inhibitor of MAO-B, it was
not by chance that hundreds of clinical studies with the drug were designed thereafter
in the firm belief that selective blockade of MAO-B was responsible for all the effects
that followed
deprenyl medication. Realizing that PEA, known to be a releaser of catecholamines, is
an endogenous enhancer substance and deprenyl is a PEA-derived synthetic enhancer
substance devoid of the catecholamine releasing property of its parent compound,
clarified that it is the enhancer effect of deprenyl that is responsible for the majority of
the beneficial effects of the drug described in various experimental and clinical
studies, (see Knoll, 1998, 2001 for review).
Being rapidly metabolized by MAO, PEA is short acting, and its enhancer effect can
be detected in in-vitro experiments only, (see Fig. 1 and 2). As deprenyl is not
metabolized, its effect is long lasting and it can reliably be measured in-vivo in a dosedependent manner. The most convenient method for in-vivo testing of the enhancer
effect of a compound is to measure the release of catecholamines and serotonin from
discrete brain areas by the aid of HPLC with electrochemical detection, (see Knoll
and Miklya, 1995 for details of methodology).
less sensitive, obviously nonspecific form of the enhancer regulation in these neurons,
(see Knoll et al., 2002 for details).
The great individual variation in sexual activity and learning performance in any
random population of mammals of the same strain is common experience.
Considering arguments speaking in favour for a key role of the enhancer regulation in
the modification of behaviour through experience training or practice, (see Knoll,
2003 for review), the discovery of the bell-shaped concentration/effect curve of the
enhancer substance in the low nanomolar concentration range offers a reasonable
explanation for this phenomenon. To illustrate it we refer to one of our earlier studies,
(Knoll et al., 1994).
In a longitudinal study performed from 1990 until 1994, we selected sexually highand low-performing male rats from a population of 1600 rats of the same strain and
tested continuously their sexual activity and their learning performance, in the shuttle
box until they died. We found at the start of the experiment 99 high-performing (HP)
rats that produced ejaculation in each of the four consecutive weekly mating tests
used for selection, and 94 low-performing (LP) rats, unable to produce a single
intromission in the four mating tests. The HP rats were significantly better performers
also in the shuttle box. The striking difference in performance remained until death.
In the light of the peculiar dose-dependency of the enhancer effect shown in Fig. 5 we
assume that out of the 1600 rats the 99 HP rats produced the enhancer substance
inciting the sexual drive at the peak of the bell-shaped concentration/effect curve,
while the 94 LP rats produced it at an inactive part of the curve; and the production of
the overwhelming majority of the population (1407 rats) fall between the two
extremes. The observed peculiar effect of the lifelong administration of deprenyl, the
synthetic mesencephalic enhancer substance, strongly supports this conclusion.
We treated the selected HP and LP rats from the 8th month of their life three times a
week, subcutaneously, with either 0.9 % NaCl or 0.25 mg/kg (-)-deprenyl until they
died. Their copulatory activity was tested once a week. Their learning performance
was measured in the shuttle box once in three months.
The salt-treated LP rats (N=44) never displayed ejaculation during their lifetime and
were extremely dull in the shuttle box. They displayed 16.362.47 conditioned
avoidance responses (CAR) during the first 36-week testing period. They lived
134.582.29 weeks. In contrast, their (-)-deprenyl-treated peers (N=48) became
sexually fully active, their mating performance was substantially increased. They
produced 46.853.91 CARs during the first 36-week testing period, and this level of
performance was maintained during the 108 weeks of testing. They lived 151.241.36
weeks, significantly (P<0.001) longer than their salt-treated peers.
The salt-treated HP rats (N=49) displayed 14.040.56 ejaculations during the first 36week testing period and due to aging they produced 2.470.23 ejaculation between
the 73-108th weeks of testing. They displayed 78.453.01 CARs during the first 36week testing period and 50.672.99 CARs between the 73-108th weeks of testing.
They lived 152.541.36 weeks. In contrast, the (-)-deprenyl-treated HP rats (N=50)
were significantly more active sexually than their salt-treated peers. They displayed
30.040.85 ejaculations during the first 36-week testing period and 7.400.32
ejaculation between the 73-108th weeks of testing. They were also significantly better
performers in the shuttle box, produced 113.983.23 CARs during the first 36-week
testing period and 81.682.14 CARs between the 73-108th weeks of testing. They
lived 185.301.96 weeks, significantly (P<0.001) longer than their salt-treated peers.
The age-related decline of the mesenecephalic enhancer regulation and its
consequences
From point of view of the anti-aging effect of the synthetic enhancer substances the
peculiar age-related changes in the mesencephalic enhancer regulation deserves
serious attention.
We observed already in the mid 1950s that food deprived rats in the late
developmental phase of life (2 months of age) were significantly more active than
those in the early post-developmental phase (4 months of age) (see Knoll, 1969 for
review). In the light of our present knowledge this means that the catecholaminergic
system in the mesencephalon operates at a higher activity level during the
developmental phase of life. In order to verify this conclusion we revisited this
problem in the mid 1990s when the HPLC technique allowed already to measure
exactly the low amounts of catecholamines released from the discrete brain areas.
We measured the activity of the catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the
mesencephalon in groups of 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 weeks old rats. We compared in this
way the state of the enhancer regulation in rats one week before weaning (2-week old
rats), one week after weaning (4-week old rats), at the age when sexual maturity was
reached (8-week old rats), and in two groups in their early phase of postdevelopmental longevity (16- and 32-week old rats). Both in male and female rats the
catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the mesencephalon worked on a
significantly higher level from weaning until sexual maturity, (in the 4- and 8-week
old rats) than before, (2-week old rats) or after that period (16- and 32-week old rats).
Rats treated any time during their post-developmental phase of life with (-)-deprenyl,
showed a significantly higher catecholaminergic activity than their saline-treated
peers (Knoll and Miklya, 1995).
This explains why in series of studies, rats treated during their post-developmental
phase of life with deprenyl, performed better in behavioral tests, had slower agerelated decline in sexual and learning performances, and lived longer than their salinetreated peers, (see Knoll, 1998, 2001 for review).
As sexual hormonal regulation starts working in the rat at the and of the 2nd month of
age and we observed that the elevated level of enhancer regulation was terminated
exactly at this age, it was reasonable to assume that the enhanced activity of the
catecholaminergic engine of brain characteristic to the developmental period of life,
was dampened by sexual hormones. To check the validity of this assumption we
analyzed in detail the effect of estrone and testosterone in male and female rats. This
study proved that sexual hormones terminate the hyperactive phase of adolescence by
dampening the enhancer regulation, (Knoll et al., 2000). Thus, sexual maturity ends
the uphill period of life and this is the beginning of post-developmental longevity with
its slow continuous age-related decline until death.