G ram m ar

o f th e
F ilm
La n g u a g e
Daniel Arijon

Silman-James Press
Los Angeles

C opyright 1976 by Daniel Arijon

All rights reserved. No p art of this book m ay be used
or rep ro d u ce d in any m anner w hatsoever w ithout
w ritten perm ission from the publisher, except in
the case o f brief quotations em b o d ied in
critical articles and reviews.

First S ilm a n jam es Press Edition

10 9 8

Library o f C ongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ariion, Daniel
G ram m ar of the film language / by D aniel Arijon
p. cm.
Includes index
1. C inem atography.
2. M otion pictures Production and direction.
I. Title
TR850.A8 1991
778.5'3 dc20
91-28390

ISBN: 1-879505-07-X

Cover design by Heidi Frieder

Printed in the U nited States of America

Silman-James Press
1181 A ngelo Drive
Beverly Hills, CA 90210

CONTENTS
1

F IL M L A N G U A G E AS A SY STEM O F V ISU A L
C O M M U N IC A T IO N
Beginnings o f film language
Types o f film m aker
F orm s o f film expression
Defining out aims

T H E IM P O R T A N C E O F P A R A L L E L F IL M
E D IT IN G
Two basic types
A ction and reaction
Peak m om ents and the understanding
How parallel editing is obtained
A wider perspective

2
3
3
4

3 D E F IN IN G T H E BASIC TO O LS
Newsreel
D ocum entary
F iction film
T hree types o f scene
Elem ents o f film gram m ar
The shot
M ovem ent
Distances
Types o f editing
Visual p u n ctuation
Scene m atching
O pposed glances
C entre o f interest alternates

6
6
8

9
10

11

12
12

13
14
14
15
15
15
16
17
18
19
21

23

4 THE T R IA N G L E P R IN C IP L E
Basic body positions
Line of interest
Im portance o f the heads
Five basic variations o f the triangle principle
Em phasis by com position
Types o f visual em phasis
Triangle principle: One person
5 D IA L O G U E B ETW EEN TW O PLA Y ER S
Face to face
N um ber contrast
Perform ers side by side
Players behind one an o th er
W ord o f caution
Cam era distance
Cam era and actor height
Subject lying side by side
Telephone conversations
Opposed diagonals
T ranslucent density m asks
Players reflected on m irrors
6 T H R E E -PL A Y E R D IA L O G U E
R egular cases
Irregular cases
External/interna! reverse cam era positions
Internal reverse cam era positions
Parallel cam era positions
Pivoting p oint
Emphasizing the centre o f interest
Partial em phasis
Total em phasis
A north-south to east-w est change
Using only four cam era positions
Introducing internal shots
Eight cam era sites are em ployed
A simple m ethod using three cam era sites
Using a pivoting shot
Deliberate om ission
Summing up

26
26
27
30
32
36
39
46
50
50
52
52
55
59
61
62
66
68
69
73
74
75
75
76
80
84
84
85
90
91
93
95
95
98
100
103
104
105
107

D IA L O G U E IN V O L V IN G F O U R O R M O R E
PE R SO N S
Simple cases
1 Using a com m on visual axis
2 U sing a right angle cam era site
G roups arranged round a table
Subdividing the g roup
G eom etrical p atterns
Several opposed sectors
H andling large groups
A perform er faces an audience
A crosswise change o f the line o f interest
C row d with m ain player a t centre
A ctors as pivots

109
109
110
111
112
116
118
121
124
124
127
129
130

E D IT IN G P A T T E R N S F O R ST A T IC D IA L O G U E
SCEN ES
A pproaching and receding patterns
How a sequence begins
Re-establishing shots
Im p o rtan ce o f silent reactions
Inserts a n d cut-aw ays
N u m b er co n trast
Parallel editing o f m aster shots
Line o f in terestchanging sides
Pause between dialogues
T im e com pression
Speeding dialogue tem po

135
136
136
137
138
138
149
149
152
152
156
159

9 T H E N A T U R E O F S C R E E N M O T IO N
M o tio n b ro k en dow n
C hanging view with m ovem ent
U sing cut-aw ays
N eu tral d irection
P erform er indicates the change
C o n trastin g m otions in the sam e h a lf screen
C onditions o f the cut
W here to cu t
C utting on action

160
162
163
164
164
164
172
175
175
176

10 C U T T IN G A F T E R T H E M O V E M E N T

378

11 M O T IO N IN S ID E T H E S C R E E N
T urning
U sing a com m on visual axis
B rief sum m ary
A personal preference

188
189
213
245
248

12 M O T IO N IN T O A N D O U T O F S H O T
M ultiple fragm ents
M o tio n in three fragm ents

249
249
250

13 P L A Y E R A M O V ES T O W A R D S P L A Y E R B
C onverging m o tio n
R ight angle cam era sites
Reverse cam era angles
Parallel cam era sites
C om m on visual axis
A w alks beyond B

261
261
262
266
268
268
274

14

U S IN G M A S T E R SH O TS T O C O V E R M O T IO N S
ON THE SCREEN

276

15 IR R E G U L A R CASES
Visual pause w ith larger groups
T h e pause is om itted
U sing reverse angles
D ivergent m otions
C o n stan t screen position for one player
Both players m ove

289
290
293
294
298
298
299

16

301

P L A Y E R A M OVES A W A Y F R O M P L A Y E R B

17 P L A Y E R S M O V E T O G E T H E R
In term itten t m o tio n

322
339

18 SO L V IN G D IF F IC U L T E D IT IN G S IT U A T IO N S
M ovem ent betw een cam era and static subject
M o tio n at the beginning o f the second shot
M o tio n beyond the static players
Using right angle cam era sites
Both players m ove
Hiding a m oving subject in the first shot

340
340
343
345
346
348
349

Using a strong foreground m otion

Substitution o f the static subject
Redirecting attention
Using non-hum an m ovem ent
Parting curtain effect

351
351
353
357
359

19 O T H E R TY PES O F M O T IO N
C ircular m ovem ent
Vertical m ovem ent
D ynam ic stops

360
360
370
376

20

T W E N T Y BASIC R U LES FO R C A M E R A
M OVEM ENT
M ovem ent and the cam era
Basic guidelines for cam era m ovem ent
Solid dram atic m otivation

380
380
380
384

21 T H E P A N N IN G C A M E R A
Scanning panoram ically
C hase sequences
In term ittent panning
Full circle panning
Fast panning
In tw o directions
Vertical tilts
Side tilts
Jointing a static and a panning shot
Editing two consecutive panning shots
A crobatic pans

385
385
386
399
401
403
405
406
409
409
415
421

22 T H E T R A V E L L IN G C A M E R A
Interm itten t action covered by a continuous tracking
Joining a static and a tracking shot
In term ittent cam era tracking
Using b o th sides o f the track
W inding paths
Panning while tracking
C am era and perform ers move in opposite directions
Single file form ations
T racking speed

424
424
426
433
436
437
443
446
454
456

r
Subject approaches tracking cam era
E diting consecutive tracking shots
Static shots intercut within a tracking m aster shot
C ircular tracking
'

457
458
461
464

23

T H E C A M E A R A C R A N E A N D T H E ZO O M
LENS
Follow ing action
F oreground props stress height
T o visually unite tw o o r m ore story points
To inject m ovem ent into static situations
T o single ou t a story point in a panoram ic m ovem ent
T o provide strong m ovem ent for cutting on action
Zoom ing
Zoom ing speeds
Zoom ing and panning com bined
Tilt shots using zoom effects
Cam era tracks as it zoom s
Zoom ing through foreground obstacles

469
469
469
470
471
472
474
475
476
477
479
479
482

24 A C TIO N SCEN ES
Standard form ulas
The subjective point Qf view
Five ways o f enhancing visual action
Reaching a visual clim ax
Breaking the clim atic action into several shots
High speed and slow m otion fo r action sequences
Follow focus technique

483
484
486
492
495
497
500
501

25 E D IT IN G IN T H E C A M E R A
Pre-planning is required
The pause between m ovem ents
The change o f zone
A pproaching o r receding from the cam era
Changing the body position
Substitution by sectors
Switching screen sectors
Num erical contrast
Editing within the film fram e

502
502
503
503
508
514
516
523
533
538

26 M O V IN G F R O M Z O N E TO Z O N E
G eneral principles
A g ro u p m oving from zone to zone
T he g ro u p expands
Two fu rth er variants
A player moves, the other rem ains stiil
The group contracts
Devices for zone change

542
542
543
545
548
551
554
554

27 C O M B IN E D T E C H N IQ U E S
Shot by sh o t editing
M erging the techniques
Sum m ing up

564
564
571
577

28 F IL M P U N C T U A T IO N
T ran sitio n s from scene to scene: fade o u t fade in
W hite-outs and colour fades
Dissolve
W ipe
Iris
Use o f d ark areas
Titles
Props
Light change
Q uestion and answ er
A m ovem ent in the sam e direction
S u b stitu tio n o f an object
W ord repetition
A deceptive visual m atch
C u ttin g aro u n d a p ro p
A sudden close up
T ran sitio n by parallel editing
Scene openers
T he a c to r
T he cam era
In tro d u cin g points o f view
A b ru p t ju m p cuts used as pu n ctu atio n
Ju m p cuts as tim e transitions
Selected peaks o f action
In actio n as p u n ctu atio n

579
579
579
579
580
580
581
581
581
581
582
582
582
582
582
587
588
588
589
590
590
591
595
597
597
599

Single shots as pauses in n arratio n

An entire sequence used as a narrative pause
O ut o f focus im ages as p u nctuation
D ark screen used as p u nctuation
P unctuation by cam era m otion
Vertical p u n ctu atio n
F rozen fram e

599
601
602
603
604
611
614

IN D E X

616

FOREWORD TO THE PRESENT EDITION

T h e h ard co v er ed itio n o f th is b o o k has en jo y ed a successful life

d u rin g th e p ast fifteen years u n d e r th e im print o f Focal Press. It
sa w several rep rin ts in English a n d translations w e re p u b lish ed
in J a p a n e s e , F rench, S erbo-C roate, a n d Spanish. I've h ad th e
p le a su re o f see in g it u se d as a tex tb o o k in several film a n d te le
vision sch o o ls a ro u n d th e w orld. T h at kin d o f re cep tio n to my
w o rk h as m a d e m y m o d est co n trib u tio n to th e u n d ersta n d in g of
th e visual g ram m ar o f the m oving im age a w o rth w h ile effort.
N ow , Silm an-Jam es P ress grants m y w ork an e x te n d e d life in
this p a p e rb a c k edition. I h o p e th at th eir effort will benefit all
th o se in tere ste d in p u rsu in g a ca ree r in th e com m unication
w o n d e r o f this age: the m oving im age in all its diffuse variants
film, tap e, disk, a n d w h a te v e r m ay co m e in th e future.
T h e tru e a n d te ste d rules o f visual la n g u ag e o u tlin e d in this
b o o k will rem ain co n stan l for a lo n g tim e to com e. You can b e
su re o f that. As I said in th e h ard co v er ed itio n , th e greatest
m ovies o f o u r age are still u n m ad e. Let us try to b e th e o n es wrh o
will m ak e them . T h ere is an e x p a n d in g a u d ie n c e all over th e
w o rld w aitin g for th e s e stories.
D aniel Arijon
M ontevideo, U ruguay
April, 1991

INTRODUCTION
There are so m any books on film m aking, th at one is tem pted to
ask why there should be yet another. And why this o n e? The
au th o r feels, and this conviction stem s from his own case histories,
th at for the last tw enty years there has no t been, a book on the
m arket th a t chronicles the developm ents in the narrative tech
niques o f the cinem a in a practical way.
A young person n o t lucky enough to be associated with good
film m akers, usually seeks the inform ation he needs in books. He
will find m any books th at discuss various theories ab o u t film, or
contain criticism and interviews or essays. A highly com plicated
endeavour such as film m aking, requires the effort o f m any
specialists, som e o f w hom have w ritten good technical books.
But one sector o f the subject has been neglected in recent years
which m ay be term ed the organizing o f images for their projection
on a screen. Existing books on the subject are o utdated o r in
com plete. A nd few o f them have any tangible practical inform a
tion th a t the budding film m aker can assim ilate and apply in his
ow n w ork. T he aim o f this book is to fill the gap th at has opened
since those works were originally w ritten.
The cinem a has evolved a t a w ondrous pace, especially in its
narrative form s. W ith new lightw eight cam eras, p ortable recorders
and o th er technical developm ents on the one hand, an d econom ic
hire charges for good equipm ent, cheap raw stock an d processing
on the other, the possibility o f m aking a professional full length
low -budget film is alm ost within the reach o f everyone. I f the
dream o f the form er generation was to w rite the great novel o f
their time, the aim o f the younger generation seems to be the
m aking o f very good films. To them , an d the m any other persons
who are increasingly turning to film as a m edium o f expression,
this b o o k is m ainly dedicated. It is designed to shorten the years
o f apprenticeship and avoid the uncertain task o f collecting scraps

o f inform ation here and there and to assembie the basic rules o f
film narration. Y ou will n o t find theories here, b u t facts, tested
and proven over a long period by diverse film m akers all over the
world, which can be readily applied to any film project you m ight
be considering.
W ork on this b o o k has taken up nearly twelve years alongside
with my own career in film m aking. I hope that m y hum ble
effort will also help anyone who, like the au th o r, began their
career or is ab o u t to begin it in countries or areas where an in
dustry th at absorbs new biood does no t exist.
Age, n ationality o r background does not m atter. W hat is im
p o rta n t is th a t y o u have som ething to say th at can, and m ust,
be expressed th ro ugh the film m edium in your ow n way an d in
your own term s. T he greatesL m ovies o f o u r age are still unm ade.
L et us try to be the ones who will m ake them .
Daniel A rijon
M ontevideo, U ruguay, 1975

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This b o o k would not have been possible w ithout the help o f
CarriUon Films del Uruguay, where I found unlim ited support for
my project, and where m oviolas and projectors were freely put at
m y disposal over a num ber o f years.
Luis Elbert and Nelson Pita located an d obtained m any o f the
film prints used by the au th o r in his research. M anuel Martinez
Carril o f Cinemateca Uruguaya also helped provide film prints
for viewing and analysis expressly for this m anuscript. The late
Jorge Calasso, M iss Elena Iuracevich, Raul Fernandez M on tans,
and last b u t n o t least, M ilton Cea, m ade invaluable contributions
and suggestions. To all o f them , my heartiest thanks.
Daniel Arijon

This book is dedicated

to Delmer Law rence Daves
who ignited the spark
and to H ector M ario R aim ondo Souto
who propelled my efforts
into reality

1
FILM LANGUAGE AS A SYSTEM
OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
A cross the open d o o r o f m y office, I can see the editing equipm ent
we have been using for several weeks in p utting together o u r last
film. From my desk I can partially see the sm all screen o f the
editing m achine. N ow it is only a white rectangular sp o tlifeless,
ju st a piece o f coated glass. O n a sudden im pulse I rise and w alk
into th at room . I stop a t the d o o r and survey it in a way I have
never done before. T he objects are fa m iliar^ -th e cans o f film, the
bins full o f strips o f celluloid, the scissors, the splicing m achine.
On sm all hooks hang num erous strips o f film, some o f only a
few fram es length, o ther o f countless feet unreeling loosely into the
bins.
I
select one o f the strips o f film a t ran d o m an d thread it into
the m oviola. 1 pull som e switches a n d the strip o f film starts to
move. O n the small screen suddenly an im age appears. W e are
inside a church, large, m odern, ascetic. A girl, young and innocent,
walks to w ard s us. W e follow her until an o th er figure appears on
the screen. It is an actor dressed in a d ark spacesuit an d wearing
a strange and b rilliant helm et. We only catch a glimpse o f the
lone glass eye o n the projecting front o f his helm et and there the
shot ends. T he small screen becom es blan k again with only a
flickering light shining beneath the glass.
W h a t I have seen is ju s t a fragm ent o f a pho to g rap h ed
reality. A reality th at was carefully arranged an d rehearsed in front
o f a m ovie cam era. A sim ilar process was registered on the other
strips o f film. H ere, reality is broken dow n into little fram es and
here in the cutting room I stand, thinking ab o u t this aspect o f my
craft.
T hose pieces o f film were selected by me, recorded on film by a
photo g rap h er, im m ersed in chem icals in a lab o rato ry until the
images were clearly visible and fixed on the celluloid base. And
1

they are destined to be shadow s, ungraspable, ever-changing

patterns o f light when projected on a screen in the m oviola, the
cinema th eatre o r a m illion television sets across a nation.
W hat had we been doing in th at room for the last few w eeks?
We played w ith fragm ents o f recorded time, arranged shadow s and
sounds to convey a story, pursued som e m om ents o f truth, tried to
com m unicate som e feelings and reached for the clues th at would
gran t those im ages the pow er to grasp the atten tio n and em otions
o f a n audience th a t will always rem ain anonym ous to us.
A nd how did we attem p t to do it? T he answers would be
m ultiple an d all interdependent. But they rest on a com m on base,
w hich is b oth solid an d yet shifting the knowledge o f our craft.
F ilm editing, m ontage, schnitt are the w ords used to describe it.
A n d in its m ost simple sense they also define a simple o p eratio n :
the jo in in g together o f tw o strips o f celluloid. T h a t is the final
step in a long process. G o o d film editing starts with the writing
o f th e script intended for representation in front o f a registering
m echanism , the movie cam era. W here d o we learn the process?
H ow has it evolved? W hat are its tangible rules?
Beginnings o f film language
Film language was born when film m akers becam e aw are o f the
difference betw een the loose joining together o f sm all im ages in
various states o f m otion, and the idea th a t these series o f images
could be related to one another. They discovered th at when two
different sym bols were com bined, they were transm itted into a
new m eaning and provided a new way o f com m unicating a feeling,
an idea, a fact one plus one equalled three as in other systems
o f com m unication. T heorists began to experim ent. T here were no
signposts to guide them tow ards the language they needed. M any
o f the concepts evolved were so cerebral, so abstract, th a t they
b o re no relation to reality. In spite o f all their m istakes, delusions
an d false discoveries, those film m akers were a painstaking lot.
If any value is to be found in their rules, it is th a t they are the
p ro d u ct o f experim entation, an accum ulation o f solutions found
by everyday practice o f the craft. T hose rules really w orked for
them and their epoch. T he draw back was their lim ited use and the
im possibility o f being transform ed into constant principles. Few
film m akers have the ability to rationalize their creative m ental
processes in the form o f w ritten, analytical theory.

All languages arc types o f accepted convention. A society

agrees o r is taught to interpret some sym bols with uniform
m eanings for everyone belonging to that group. Storytellers, men
o f ideas, have first to learn the sym bols and the rules o f com bina
tion, But these are always in a state o f flux. A rtists o r philosophers
can influence the g ro u p by introducing new sym bols o r rules and
discarding ancient ones. The cinem a is not alien to this process.
T he history o f the progress o f the cinem a as a m edium o f visual
com m unication, is directly related to the ability o f film language
to grasp reality. But reality is an ever-changing concept, an everchanging form o f perception. Film editing is the reflex o f the
sensitivity o f its user, o f his attunem ent to the current m oods of
the m edium .
Types o ffilm m aker
T he difference between the creator and the artisan lies in the fact
th a t the first has the courage to innovate, experim ent and invent.
He is not afraid o f his m istakes and is therefore always advancing,
w hereas the artisan uses the best pieces o f knowledge gained by
the creators and avoids the experim entation stage, incorporating
the new advances into his repertory only when they have been
accepted by the mass.
Both types o f film m aker are necessary to the craft. Films made
between 1910 and 1940 were rich culture pods on which were tried
different visual and audio experim ents in an industry producing
an enorm ous o u tput o f films for popular consum ption, Perhaps this
factor contributed m ost to the evolution o f film language. The
steady work o f the artisans provided the m eans for the industry to
function and then, as now, a healthy industry continued to give
op p o rtu n ities to the creators to go on experim enting.
A good film is n o t the product o f total im provisation, but the
result o f knowledge, not only o f the life and the world that it
portrays, b u t o f the techniques that render the ideas more ex
pressive.
Forms o ffilm expression
All forms o f film language are artistically licit, except perhaps the
use o f the m edium as an em pty play o f forms. The contem porary
film goer registers a natural repugnance for the abstract and
3

abstruse use o f film n arration. He seeks a representation o f reality,

whether external, internal o r imagined, th at is less loaded with
clues, charades and unintelligible symbols,,
Film as a m edium has lim itations, you m ust understand its
strong points and its shortcom ings. C onflict and m ovem ent are
close to its soul. But peace, hope and great tru th s are all o f a
static nature and can be bu t poorly served by the film m edium .
T houghts and ideas, especially abstract ideas, cannot be expressed
on film as clearly as by the w ritten w ord; they m ust be show n as
acting upon the behaviour o f the characters, anim als o r things
recorded by the cam era. Film portrays only the external result
the actions and reactions created by m otivations, thoughts or
desires. R obert Flaherty rem arked once: Y ou cant say as much
as you can in writing, but you can say w hat you say with great
conviction. He was right.

Defining our aims

The purpose o f the notes th a t follow is very simple, and perhaps
very am bitious too. All the rules o f film gram m ar have been on the
screen for a long time. They are used by film m akers as far ap a rt
geographically and in style as K urosaw a in Japan, B ergm an in
Sweden, Fellini in Italy and Ray in India. F or them , and countless
others this common set o f rules is used to solve specific problem s
presented by the visual n arration o f a story. This book sets out to
record system atically the contem porary solutions to those specific
problems. We are dealing with a craft th a t is constantly subject to
change; the practices com piled here have proved to be stable for a
very long time and hopefully they will continue to be for a long
time yet.
R ichard S. K ahlenberg, o f the A m erican Film Institute, has
pointed out that never before has the aspiring film m aker had such
a wide o pportunity o f learning his craft as today. Film s used to be
made to be show n for a few weeks and then they were shelved.
Now, thanks to TV they are replayed at o u r hom es, as by a
nostalgic time m achine, enabling film buffs to see the w orks of
past m asters. Television cools' the images and technique can be
readily appreciated. K ahlenberg pointed out th a t m any film
m akers have learned their craft studying these old films. Peter
Bogdanovich is a well know n exam ple o f th at approach.
4

Like any w ritten w ork on a practical subject this is not, o f

course, w ithout lim itations. Y ou will not learn film language by
exam ple, o r by analyzing o ther peoples w ork only. N o t until the
film is running through your fingers will you com plete your
education. The knowledge o f others an d personal experience are
bo th essential to acquire film sense. Sadly we can only ofTer the
first h alf o f the job. W e hope it will encourage you to undertake
the o th er half. In this context it is well to rem em ber the following
com m ent, th at A nthony H arvey, a film editor and director, m ade
in a n interview for the British m agazine Sight and S o u n d ':
M y greatest fear has always been th at o f becom ing too technical.
Sitting at a m oviola day after day, year after year, one is in danger
o f becom ing obsessed w ith the m echanics so th at they take over
everything else. Y ou can lose the whole p o in t o f a scene th a t way.
O f course, you have to know all the technical possibilities, b u t
you need to know them so well th at they becom e second nature,
not so th at you use them to d istort the m aterial y o u ve g o t.
W ise film m akers stick to their visions. T h a t should be their
prim e concern. The com plexity o f the inbetw een processes in
volved in the tran slation o f a vision from the brain o f its au th o r to
a strip o f celluloid, m ust not blind the creato r and d istract him
from his own, personal, unique conception o f the them e th a t
m otivated his desire to use film as his system o f com m unication.

1 Sight and Sound S pring 1966 Vol. 35 N o. 2. P utting the M agic in It" by R oger
H udson.

2
THE IMPORTANCE OF PARALLEL
FILM EDITING

T he m ovie cam era, in spite o f its com plexities as an instrum ent

an d th e specialized knowledge needed to operate it, m ust be for
the film m ak er only a registering m echanism , such as the p en or
the typew riter are to a w riter. T o handle a cam cra, only an
efficient crew is needed. F a r m ore im p o rtan t to a film m aker is
the ability to handle ideas and concepts.
Once these ideas have m aterialized o n strips o f film they m ust
be assem bled. F o r th a t he relies heavily on an editing principle:
the altern atio n o f tw o o r m ore centres o f interest. This parallel
film editing is one o f the m ost frequently used form s o f film
language. It serves to present clearly conflicting o r related story
lines by m oving alternately from one centre o f interest to the other.
The technique is so com m on th a t audiences take it for granted in
every film. A film w hich avoids use o f the technique irritates the
viewer even though if pressed to supply a reason for his discom fort
he w ould n o t be able to give the right answer.

Two basic types

To clarify w hat parallel film editing is, here is a n exam plea
rough description o f the first sequence o f a well know n film.
1 Elio P etris film The Tenth Victim, begins with U rsula A ndress
being pursued on a New Y ork street by a hunter (G eorge W ang).
T he h u n ter is m om entarily detained by a policem an who checks
the validity o f his licence to kill.
2 A m an seen in close up, begins to explain w hat the G reat H unt
is. In the n o t so distant future citizens exercise licences to kill* in
governm ent sponsored duels to the death.
3 T he film retu rn s to U rsula A ndress being chased aro u n d the
6

scenic sites o f New Y ork by the hunter, who keeps firing his gun,
a n d misses every time.
4 A gain the unknow n m an is presented in close up, and gives
m ore inform ation ab o u t the G re at H unt.
5 Miss A ndress teases the hunter to keep on firing, until he
runs o u t o f bullets.
6 Once m ore the unknow n m an appears in close up and details
the advantages o f succeeding, in ten consecutive chases,
alternating as h u n ter and victim.
7 U rsula A ndress, followed at a short distance by her pursuer,
steps o n a c a rs hood, jum ps over a net fence and runs into the
M asoch C lu b .
8 H er pursuer arrives and, after a pause, also enters the club.
H e moves in the futuristic interior, walking am ong the seated
patrons.
9 A m aster o f cerem onies on the stage (the m an we had pre
viously seen in close up explaining the m echanism o f the Great
H unt) introduces a dancer. She emerges, wearing a m ask and a
costum e o f blue and silver sequins, and starts to dance.
10 T he h u n ter sits dow n and watches her.
11 She moves am ong the clubs patrons who remove pieces o f her
dress, until only two small garm ents rem ain.
12 T he h u n ter w atches her.
Tw o types o f parallel film editing are to be found in the sequence
described. Firstly, two different situations are alternately presented
to the audience:
the chase on the streets o f New Y ork, and
the explanation o f w hat the G reat H unt is.
Each story line develops separately, contributing m ore inform ation
on each successive appearance. O n the external views o f the chase
(the first story line) we becom e aw are th at som ething unusual is
happening. Then we see how the victim is controlling the hunter at
will. Later we see how she leads him to a site she has pre-selected
(paragraphs I, 3, 5 and 7). The close ups o f the clubs m aster of
cerem onies (the second story line) explain w hat the G reat Hunt
is, then w hat its m echanism is, and later w hat are the advantages
o f surviving in ten consecutive chases (paragraphs 2, 4 and 6):
Second, two related situations in a com m on site are a ltern ated :
the dancer, and
the hunter.
Once inside the club, the parallel film pattern changes, and
7

concentrates on the relationship between the dancer (as shown in

paragraphs 9 and i 1), who is really the victim in disguise, and the
confused hunter (shown in paragraphs 8, 10 and 12).
The task o f relating two story lines, o r two characters, o r two
different events, o r a larger num ber o f story lines, characters and
events, is assigned to parallel film editing. These types o f parallel
editing could be defined as follows:
1 The lines o f interaction are close together, in the same space.
2 T he lines o f interaction are far apart, in different places, and
only a com m on m otivation provides the link.
The first type o f parallel film editing is exemplified by the con
frontation o f the dancer and the hunter. A dialogue between two
persons, where both are separately observed by the cam era, falls
in the same category.
The chase on the streets o f New Y ork alternating with the
explanations o f the m aster o f cerem onies, exemplifies the second
type o f parallel film editing. Their interrelation can be im m ediate
(as in a race where two opponents are m oving tow ards a com m on
goal), o r delayed to the end, such as in the example quoted, where
the identity o f the m an who speaks (he is the m aster o f cerem onies)
is carefully hidden from the audience a t the beginning o f the story.
This m an is the link between both story lines.
Interrelating two story lines in a parallel pattern gives them
a m utual dependence, since the average film viewer has been
conditioned to expect such a response from this com bination.
C om parative behaviours can be presented on the screen with
this m ethod. T he docum entary film form is very a p t to obtain
rem arkable im age associations by the conscious editing o f several
events in parallel patterns, i.e. various athletes in different sports
prepare to com pete, the com petition begins and some o f the
participants fail. By observing the sam e athletes in the three
stages o f behaviour and seeing them alternately at each stage, a
space-time relationship unique to the cinem a is obtained.
Action and reaction
When we are told a story we unconsciously w ant to know two
things:
what action is going on, and
how the people involved are reacting to th at action.
If the storyteller forgets to keep track o f those two things his

audience will be confused o r unsufficiently inform ed. If you were

telling the story personally, your audience would ask you ab o u t
the m issing facts, which you w ould then supply.
But telling a story on the screen is an im personal act because you
seldom see y o ur audience o r hear their reactions. T he film is
already printed, the story inm utable an d if you forget som ething
you can n o t stop the film and supply the m issing inform ation.
M ost film takes contain action and reaction within the length o f
the shot. W itness this exam ple w here two shots are used:
Shot 1: a hunter m oves his rifle from side to side and fires.
Shot 2: a flying bird is suddenly hit and falls.
Shot 1 shows the h u n ter aim ing (an action) and then he fires
(a reaction). Shot 2 shows the bird flying (an action) and its
flight is suddenly interrupted (a reaction).
B ut if we showed S hots 1 an d 2 w ithout grouping the actions
an d reactions, o u r understanding o f w hat is going on w ould not
be as effective as if we grouped them as follows:
(A ction)

S hot 1: the h unter m oves his rifle from side to side, aim ing off
screen.
Shot 2: a b ird is flying in the sky.
( Reaction)
Shot 1: the h unter fires his rifle.
Shot 2: the bird is hit and falls.
In this way we have grouped first the inform ative parts o f the
shots, enabling us to show the outcom e m ore com prehensibly.
T h at alternation o f shots: Shot 1 Shot 2S hot 1Shot 2, is
know n as parallel film editing, and is only one o f its form s. In
this exam ple we were dealing with two lines o f action, b u t the
num ber o f lines involved m ight be increased for a different
situation.
This grouping o f action and reaction perm eates the whole
structure o f a film : from the union o f two shots, to the ju x ta
position o f two or m ore sequences, an d to a greater extent the
construction o f the whole story itself.
P eak m om ents and the understanding
The process o f m anipulating action ju st described forces a selec
tivity process in w orking ou t a film story. Only the peak moments
o f a story are shown on a screen, and all the events o r actions that
9

delay o r do n o t a d d new, significant m aterial, are deleted from the

narrative.
Selection o f p eak m om ents im plies the control o f tim e and
m ovem ent. A n expert film m aker is always com pressing o r ex
panding time an d yet he gives the illusion o f supplying us w ith the
entire real time o f the event: m ovem ent m ay be fragm ented and
controlled according to a dynam ic criterion. F ilm editing de
m olishes the old d ram atic unities o f place an d time. The audience
is m oved from here to there, from the present to the past, w ithout
w arning. A nd the viewer accepts all this quite naturally.
This process originates from w hen m an invented his first
w ritten language. W ritten thoughts force the reader to analyze an d
assim ilate each graphic sym bol individually to obtain m eaning, and
th a t developed capacity for instant analysis and com parison
differenciates us from prim itive m an, who lived in a tru e unity
w ith his environm ent, always conscious o f the w hole and unable to
conceive a n ab straction. T o properly understand the visual
language o f film, the viewer needs to have passed through the
experience o f learning a w ritten language m ade o f conventional
signs particu lar to his com m unity. W ith this sam e ability he can
assim ilate a conventional way o f linkage betw een the m oving
images on a screen.
A s long as a succession o f actions an d reactions is m aintained
th e in terp retatio n o f th at visual language does no t dem and o f the
viewer an und erstanding o f its physical construction. But for the
film m aker this action-reaction pattern dictates all the form ulas fo r
cam era placem ent an d sequence construction an d the needs o f
editing.
How parallel editing is obtained
Parallel film editing to cover a story point, can be achieved using
two app ro ach es:
single shots o f sh ort duratio n an d /o r
long m aster shots.
If short single shots are used, the tw o o r m ore related actions
involved are covered individually by using diverse and m ultiple
cam era set ups.
These shots are edited in such a way th a t they shift the view
p o in t alternately from one action to the other, thus piecing
together the whole event o r scene. E ach shot used, each piece o f
10

film, is a peak m om ent in the series o f actions and reactions that

all story lines contain.
W ith this m ethod, the whole event can be appreciated only
when all the shots have been cut together. T hat is the main
difference betw een the single shot and the m aster shot approach.
As the nam e implies, a m aster shot is a single cam era position from
which the event is recorded in its entirety. In practice two o r three
cam era positions m ay be used sim ultaneously to provide several
such m aster shots. If fragm ents o f those m aster shots are selected,
and edited in parallel, the total event recorded can be recon
structed using the best o r m ost significant segm ents o f each master
take, presenting a fragm ented view sim ilar to the short single shot
process. A good film m aker uses either m ethod. Both are quite
dynam ic and offer definite pictorial advantages over a single shot
recording o f a scene.
A wider perspective
Parallel editing covers greater possibilities in the interaction of
tw o narrative lines. W here the degree o f knowledge shared between
the characters o f th e story, o r between the film and its audience is
variable th e alternatives can be seen as those in which:
1 Both story lines su pport each other, and the d ata th at both
contribute (alternately) builds up the story.
2 In o n e line, the m ovem ent o r intention is kept the same, while
on the o th er th e reactions to th at steady repetition are varied.
3 T he characters involved in b o th narrative lines are unaw are o f
w hat the o th er group is doing, and only the audience has all the
facts.
4 T he inform ation given in both narrative lines is incomplete,
so th at the characters have all the facts, but the audience is
purposely kept in the dark, to stim ulate its interest.
W hich one o f these approaches is to be used m ust be decided by
the story w riter and the film m aker concerned. B ut one fact
rem ains, parallel film editing will always provide the best way of
conveying the desired inform ation to the audience. T he two basic
elements, action an d reaction, will help com plete the presentation.

11

3
DEFINING THE BASIC TOOLS

Films m ade with a cam era alm ost always tel! a story. Usually in
these movies, real persons and objects are recorded on film and
reproduced on the screen a t the sam e film cadence: 24 frames per
second. But on som e occasions that procedure is altered and m anmade drawings, patterns, objects, anim als, and persons projected
at 24 fram es per second, m ay have been recorded at speeds th at
go up to hundreds o f frames per second, o r dow n to fram e by fram e
phn(ography with variable time lapses between each exposure.
In the first group, we can place the following film form s:
newsreel
docum entary, and
fiction.
In the second category we can include all the films th at require a
radical change in recording techniques. This second category
would cover:
anim ated cartoons,
anim ated puppets,
time lapse photography o f objects,
plants, anim als o r hum an beings.
We are particularly concerned here with film techniques applicable
to the first three.

Newsreel
Newsreels attem p t to cover an unrepeatable act o r event. The
film m aker has m inim al control over the incident he records. He is
a spectator with a visual recording m echanism . In its crudest form
this coverage produces a series o f disconnected shots th a t register
portions o f the total event but when projected on the screen present
12

total chaos. M any things arc missing b u t a n arrato r can give

some unity to the ensem ble. A m iddle stage is reached if these
shots are bridged by others where spectators arc seen reacting.
This creates a sort o f action-reaction relationship, which the
audience accepts though still conscious th at they are seeing an
incom plete occurrence.
T he m ost com plete film record is o b tain ed by using one or
m ore m o to r driven cam eras synchronized with a tape recorder
registering all the events, interesting or dull, as in som e verite
films.
But o n film, there is no such thing as the ideal cam era position
to cover a situation fully and im partially. C am era operators have
to choose their sites, heights, lenses, lights. All this leads to a
com prom ise an unavoidable selection. A nd even then, few
people w ould cover a situation in exactly the sam e way,
D ocumentary
T he docum entary film form offers fu rth er variants. T o start with,
m ost docum entary films deal not with one, bu t w ith a succession
o f occurrences th at take place under a com m on m otivation.
W hen presenting this m aterial o n the screen, changes are intro
duced in the real order in which the situations occurred. M any
m otives m ay be involved, such as the follow ing:
a Several situations th a t respond to a com m on stim ulus are
grouped into a sequence. As the n atu re o f the stim ulus is
changed, the subjects are grouped in new sequences. Each
individual subject was perhaps filmed reacting consecutively
to the chain o f stim uli, bu t now his actions are fragm ented
and p u t together in p atterns o f behaviour, thus disrupting
the tem poral continuity to achieve an idea progression,
b The linear recording o f an event is interrupted to introduce an
explicative visual variant different in nature, i.e.: anim ated
draw ings to show a process th at can n o t be photographed
using the real elem ents,
c T he series o f events are repeated in different pattern s o r order
o f p resentation, to explore diverse approaches and solutions.
T he list can be longer. B ut the fact rem ains th a t manipulation is
necessary facts have to be arranged to be show n at their best
and an event is often repeated to be filmed several times. R epetition
m eans staging.
13

We are m anipulating the occurrence, selecting w ith a technique

th a t cloaks o u r tam pering with reality. T he result borders on the
realm o f fiction.
Fiction film
M any o f the best docum entaries have profited from a dual a p
p roach th at blends unadulterated reality with carefully recom posed
fiction. This statem ent leads us to the ultim ate film form total
fiction. H ere the events are also real, b u t can be repeated a t will
as m any times as necessary, until the exact nuance o f behaviour or
acting is captured on film from one, two o r several angles. Each
situ atio n is carefully planned an d enacted for the benefit o f the
cam eras. The end result strived fo r is an im itation o f reality. In
fact, w hat we see is a richer version o f reality. T here is no t a single
view point, b u t a plurality o f them , such as no hum an being is able
to o b tain in real life. R econstructed reality is the m ost popular o f
film form s.
F ilm stories m ay be planned o r unplanned. The techniques to be
discussed here m ostly concern the planned approach where events
are selected, arran ged an d staged for a series o f related actions.
U nplanned events m ust be treated in a way th at perm its them to
blend with plan n ed scenes.
Three types o f scene
F ilm stories usually have a structure th a t progresses scene by
scene from the statem ent o f a situation, through a developm ent
o f the conflict, to a denoument th at closes the play. All scenes fall
within these three categories:
1 dialogues w ith o ut action
2 dialogues w ith action
3 actions w ithout dialogue
These are o f course simplified categories. A ctors m ay no t move
while they talk, b u t the vehicle on which they are placed can, an d
the cam era also can be in m otion. W hen actors m ove during their
exchange o f dialogue the cam era can be fixed, o r m ove with them .
A nd in the third instance the voice o f a n a rra to r o r the internal
thoughts o f the characters m ay accom pany the pure m ovem ent
fram ed on the screen. F urtherm ore, all three techniques can be
used together within a single sequence. B ut this classification is
essential to the study o f gram m atical rules.
14

Elements o ffilm grammar

T o translate scenes from script to picture any rules m ust have a
tw ofold effect:
1 W e m ust shoot film th a t can later be joined in continuity.
2 W e need solutions for the editorial problem s th at will arise in
different situations.
T o achieve this we m ust control two things:
1. T he distances from which we record the event.
2 T he m otions o f the subjects perform ing th at event.
By selecting the distance, we control w hat the audience sees and
th e num ber o f perform ers and objects shown in the different
shots. Points o r m om ents o f em phasis in a story, can be governed
by approaching o r m oving aw ay from our m ain subjects.
W ith the second device, w ithout ham pering the free m ovem ent
o f our perform ers we im pose a m easure o f control on the recording
process o f th at m otion.

The shot
N ow , let us define which are the gram m atical tools o f the film
language. F irst o f all we have the shot.
T he length o f the shot o r take is lim ited only by the am ount o f
film th at can be exposed in the cam era w ithout reloadingsay,
four, ten o r thirty three m inutes. T he shot can be used in its
entirety in an u ninterrupted flow, o r broken up into sm aller strips
o f film to be intercut w ith other shots. A staged event can be shot
repeatedly, in whole o r p a rt from the same or different positions.
G enerally, when the scene does no t play too well the repeat shots
are taken from the sam e position. Changes o f cam era position are
used m ore conciously, to allow the film editor to cross-cut.

M ovem ent
D uring a shot the cam era can rem ain fixed , or it can pan (sweep
horizontally on its axis), o r it can tilt (pivoting either up or down)
o r it can travel a t different speeds attached to a moving vehicle.
It can record simple o r com plex events. It can move supporting
the action th a t it records.
It can do all th at from different distances. Those distances can
be obtained either physically or optically.
15

Distances
The gradation o f distances between the cam era and the recorded
subject can be infinite. A ctual practice has taught th at there are
five basic definable distances. They are know n as:
close up, or big close up
close shot,
m edium shot,
full shot, and
long shot.
However, these denom inations do not imply a fixed m easurable
distance in each case. The term inology is quite elastic, and deals
mainly with concepts. It is obvious th at the distance between
cam era and subject is different between a dose shot o f a house and
close shot o f a man.
Figs. 3.1 to 3.5 illustrate the areas th at each cam era position
covers.

T hrough actual practice it has been discovered th at the hum an

figure has cutting heights from which pleasing com positions can
be obtained, w hether one o r m ore bodies are shown on the screen.
These cutting heights are:
under the arm pits,
under the chest,
under the waist,
under the crotch, and
under the knees.
16

FIGURE 3.3

Medium shot.

FiGURE 3.4

FIGURE 3.5

Full shot.

Long shot,

If a full shot o f the hum an figure is fram ed, the feet o f the subject
m ust be included. C attin g above the ankles will n o t give a pleasant
com position. Figure 3.6 illustrates the diverse cutting heights.
Types o f editing
T here are three m ain ways in which a scene can be edited:
1 A m aster shot registers the whole scene. T o avoid m onotony,
there are several techniques for editing w ithin the film, fram e or
in cam era.
2 A m aster shot is inter-cut with o th er sh o rter takes. These other
takes cover fragm ents o f the scene from a different distance or
introduce subjects in an o th er place, and are intercut into the

m aster shot to provide em phasis on key passages o f the scene.

3 Two o r m ore m aster shots are blended together in parallel.
O ur point o f view alternates fro m one m aster shot to the other.
By using any o r all o f the three m ethods we can cover a sequence.
A sequence envelopes a scene o r a series o f related scenes th at have
a time and space continuity. U sually a sequence has a beginning,
a m iddle and a conclusion. This conclusion ends either on a high
point or a low point o r a iow m om ent o f intensity o f the story.
Visual punctuation
Sequences are jo in ed together by two types o f punctuation :
1 A straight cut.
2 A n optical.
In a straight cut the transition is visually ab ru p t. T he several ways
18

o f achieving it will be discussed later on. In the case o f an optical,

a fa d e out, fa d e in, dissolve o r wipe, can be em ployed to obtain a
sm ooth visual transition.
Scene matching
In m atching scenes the following three requirem ents m ust be
satisfied. It is necessary to m a tc h :
1 T he position.
2 T he m ovem ent.
3 The look.
T he movie screen is a fixed area. If a perform er is shown on the
left side o f the screen in a full shot, he m ust be o n th a t side if there
is a cut to a close shot placed on the same visual axis. If this rule
for m atching the position is no t respected, aw kw ard visual jum ps
on the screen will result, so th at the audience has to switch
atten tio n from one sector to an o th er to locate the m ain character

FIGURE 3.7 The central subject o l the scene should, in normal cases, be kept In the
same frame position, as in the first example, when making a cut from one shot to
another,
*

19

f
whose adventures they are following. This is both annoying and
distracting. The spectator m ust be given a com fortable eye scan
o f the shots with a constant orientation th at allows him to co n
centrate on the story (Fig. 3.7).
F o r this purpose the screen is usually divided in two o r three
vertical parts, in which the m ain perform ers are placed. All
position m atching is done in any o r all o f these areas.
M atching the movement has a sim ilar logical base. D irection o f
m ovement should be the sam e in two consecutive shots th at record
the continuous m otion o f a perform er otherw ise the audience will
be confused ab o u t the supposed direction o f m ovem ent (Fig. 3.8).
RIGHT

WRONG

FIGURE 3.8 Movement is of a sim ilar kind and in the same direction in the first
example illustrated. The audience follows the motion of the subject easily. But if the
dlfeciion of movement is suddenly reversed in the second shot, there will be con
fusion as to where the subject is Qoinc.

M atching the look is the third requirem ent to be taken into

account when assem bling shots where players ap p ear individually
or in groups. M atched looks on the screen are always opposed. Two
subjects who exchange looks, do so in conflicting directions, as
shown in Fig. 3.9.
20

z z
FIGURE 3.9
tions.

W hen two peopfe face each other, their glances are in opposed direc

I f the actors are fram ed in separate shots, this o pposition in

directions m ust be m aintained for a p ro p er visual continuity.

FIGURE 3,10 If both players are featured in separate shots, their glances should
still be in opposed directions.

If b oth players were looking in the sam e direction in bo th shots,

they w ould logically be looking at a th ird person o r object, and not
at themselves, as dem onstrated in Fig. 3.11.

FIGURE 3.11 When both players look In the same direction, they are not looking at
each other, but at something or at somebody else.

W ithout this opposition o f glances, scenes becom e weak and

som etim es m eaningless.

Opposed glances
Establishing and m aintaining a co n stan t opposition in the direc
tion o f a look exchanged between two players, can be achieved

very simply. The only requisite is th at their heads face each other.
T he physical distance betw een them is unim portant. I f a player
moves to a position where he now has his back to his fellow player,
the opposition o flo o k s is m aintained as he periodically glances at
the other person over his shoulder, o r if after a m om ent, he turns
to face his in terlo cutor again. In a group o f three, one o f them is
the arb iter o f attention. W hen one o f the actors speaks, the other
two look at him. As the interest shifts, one o f the players looks
to the new centre o f attention, m aking an effective and clear change
for the audience to follow. See Fig. 3.12.

FIGURE 3.12 Player 8 acts as the arbiter of attention, shifting the Interest from A to C .
He achieves this change by moving his head from one pfayer to the other.

In the first exam ple in Fig. 3.12 attention is centred on player A,

an d in the second illustration the interest is on perform er C. We
m ust see the arb ite r o f attention, subject B in this case, m ove his
head from one side to the other, to guide the audience in following
the displacem ent o f the point o f interest from A to C.
T his also happens if we fram e each player in separate shots.
Interest in a scene can be destroyed by allow ing the players to
22

look a t the w rong places, in tw o o r m ore directions. W e m ust

guide the audience, n o t confuse them (Fig. 3.13).

RIGHT

WRONG

FIGURE 3.13 In the first example tw o players concentrate on the person In the fore ground, who thus becomes the dominant one. In the second case. B looks In another
direction, drawing away the attention of the audience, who are forced to choose and
are unable to. Either player C is Im portant or something of! screen is really upstaging
her. The audience cannot know.

Centre o f interest alternates

W hen large groups have to be presented, two possibilities arise:
1 All players focus their atten tio n on a central character,
changing in unison to a second centre o f atten tio n as the point of
interest in the scene shifts.
2 Several groups are present in the scene. E ach g roup has two
basic centres o f interest. A predom inant group is chosen.
In the first case two subjects are the centre o f interest in the group.
The atten tio n o f the audience (and th at o f the rem aining players on
the screen) moves from one to the other, and back again. The
silent perform ers are the arbiters o f attention. They look in unison
at the actor holding the interest, an d shift their looks to the other
perform er as the centre o f atten tio n is transferred. Sometim es a
third centre o f interest is introduced to break the m onotony o f
continually shifting betw een tw o points, especially in lengthy
scenes from a single cam era position.
23

FIGURE 3,14 Me^e a large group Is seen throw ing attention first on to A and then
on G. These two players are the centre of attention In the group, and the silent per
formers decide with the direction of their glances, cast In unison, which of the two
la dominant at any one time.

In the second situation stated above two approaches can be

applied. In both the dom inant group is nearly always placed near
the cam era.
In the first approach we have two, three o r m ore static groups
fram ed on the screen. T he one th at interests us is located n ear the
cam era.
T he o th er groups are in the background. All o f them present
closed circles o f interest, being independent from each other.
Logically, the group closest to us dem ands im m ediate attention,
while we are ju st conscious o f the existence o f the others and would
miss them only if suddenly rem oved.
T o stress the foreground situation dram atically the other groups
could at a certain m om ent b reak the closed circles o f attention and
turn to look at the forw ard group.
24

FIGURE 3.15 W ith several groups of people rn the scene, the group closest to the
camera is the dominant.

T he second ap p ro ach offers a variant: the foreground group

rem ains static, b u t the subordinate groups in the background are
given m ovem ent across the screen. Such can be the activity o f
traffic in a street, o r o f dancers in a ballroom .
These m ovem ents m ust be inconspicuous, o r they interfere with
th e foreground action.

25

4
THE TRIANGLE PRINCIPLE

Basic body positions

All dialogued scenes have two central players. These tw o dom inant
players in a film scene can be deployed in a pair o f linear arrange
m ents:
a straight line com position, an d
a right angle relation.
F igure 4.1 illustrates the concept.
W ithin those arrangem ents fo u r body rap p o rts can be assum ed
d uring a conversation betw een the players.
1 T he acto rs face each other,
2 th e acto rs are placed side by side,
3 one player has his back to the other.
4 They are placed b ack to back.
A hu m an b o d y can assum e one o f the follow ing positions:
1 lying dow n (either face up o r dow n o r lying on his side)
2 kneeling (either the torso straight up, o r sitting on the heels,
o r b en t fo rw ard w ith the elbows on the ground)
3 sitting (from a squatting position to any height afforded by the
instrum ent used to su p p o rt the body)
4 reclining (either backw ards on a supporting surface o r for
w ards by using the elbows as support)
5 standing (either up o r leaning sideways using a han d for
support)
These body positions m ight be assum ed sim ultaneously by bo th
players or different body attitudes could be chosen for each. In the
later case various com binations are afforded: different linear
com positions, body rap p o rts and body positions, provide in toto
26

FIGURE 4.1 Two players can be deployed In the linear arrangements depicted In
these illustrations, either as straight line or a right angle.

a wide range o f visual presentations, for dram atically underlining

the dialogue o f exchange between two static characters.
It can be said th at betw een two talking partners a line o f
interest flows. This line has a straight path.
Line o f interest
The line o f interest between tw o central players in a scene is based
on the direction o f the looks exchanged between them . A line of
interest can be observed fro m three extrem e positions, w ithout
crossing to th e o th er side o f the line. These three extrem e positions
27

28

form a triangular figure with its base parallel to the line o f interest
(Fig. 4.3).

FIGURE 4.3 Basic positions Into the triangular method of covering tw o players
located on a common line of Interest.

C am era view points fo r m aster shots, are o n the angles o f this

figure. T he m ain advantage is th at each perform er is fram ed o n the
sam e side o f th e screen in each shot w ith player A on the left side
and player B on th e right.
Two trian g u lar cam era fo rm atio n s can be set, one on each side
o f a line o f interest (Fig 4.5).
But we ca n n o t successfully cut fro m a cam era position in one
p attern to an o th er o n the o ther trian g u lar arrangem ent. I f we do
th at, we will only confuse o u r audience, because using two
cam era positions located o n different triangular form ations will
n o t present a steady em placem ent o f the players on the same
areas o f th e screen, as m entioned in the previous ch a p te r when
discussing m atched shots.
A cardinal rule fo r the trian g u lar cam era principle then, is to
select one side o f th e line o f interest and stick to it. This is one o f
the m ost respected rules in film language. It can be bro k en o f
course. T he p ro p er way to d o th a t is discussed later.
29

FIGURE 4.4 Constant screen position for both players Is assured by using the
triangle principle for camera coverage of a dialogued scene between two static
players. Notice how the girl A is always on the left side of the screen In the three
shots. The young man B also remains framed on his own side, the right sector of the
screen.

Importance o f the heads

W hen tw o perform ers are standing face to face, o r sitting facing
each o ther, it is quite sim ple to draw the line o f interest flowing
betw een them . B ut w hen the actors are lying dow n with their
bodies parallel o r extended in opposite directions, it seems m ore
30

r^L

v\

J
1

1V - r
'v

HL.
/

s>J'<3
.y

>
V

2
FI SURE 4.S Two triangular formation can be employed one on each *tde of the tine
Interest. One of them has to be chosen, excluding the position on the other.

FIGURE 4.6 The two incompatible right angle positions relative to the line of

Interest, position 2 and position 5.

31

difficult. Y et it is quite simple if we rem em ber only th at the central

points o f two persons talking to each other are their heads.
They attra ct o u r atten tio n im m ediately, regardless o f the posi
tions o f the bodies, because the head is the source o f hum an
speech and the eyes the m ost pow erful direction pointers th a t a
hum an being has to a ttra c t o r direct interest. The positions o f the
bodies therefore do not really count, it is the heads th at m atter.
Even in situations where one actor has his back to the other, or
they are back to back, a line o f interest passes between their heads.
In all film scenes, the line o f interest m ust flow between the heads
o f the two central perform ers.
Five basic variations o f the triangle principle
A straight line com position can be covered visually by using three
different arrangem ents o f the triangular cam era principle, with the
players in a right angle relation only tw o triangular figures can be
applied for visual coverage o f the scene. Let us exam ine each one
o f these fiv e variants separately.
r e v e r s e a n g l e s . The two sites on the base o f the
triangular cam era locations (parallel to the line o f interest o f the
scene), provide the three variations with which a linear disposition
o f the players can be covered. The cam eras placed on those tw o
viewpoints can be pivoted on their axis, obtaining three well
differentiated positions. Each one o f those positions is applied in
pairs. W e m ean by this th at bo th cam era angles on the base o f the
geom etric figure assum e identical positioning in their relation to
the players covered.
In the first case, both cam era positions o n the base o f the
ex ternal

FIGURE 4.7 External reverse angles. The cameras In the two positions parallel
to the line of interest are directed Inward towards the players. Note that the symbol
represents a human figurethe flat tid e Indicates the fro nt o l the figure.

32

triangle are behind the backs o f the two central players, angled in,
close to th e line o f interest between the perform ers and covering
them both.
in t e r n a l
reverse
a n g l e s .
In the second variant, the
cam eras are betw een the two players, pivoted outw ards from the
triangular figure, and close to the line o f interest though not
representing the view points o f the perform ers. In either case the
ra p p o rt is n o t th at o f a head-on co nfrontation, though quite close
to it in effect.

------FIGURE 4.8 Internal reverse angles. In this variant the two camera positions parallel
to the Une of interest point outwards, covering each player individually.

W ith the cam eras back to back anyw here on the base o f the
triangle the effect represents the subjective view point o f the player
excluded from the shot.

FIGURE 4.9 Subjective camora angles. If the camera positions are back to back on
the line of interest itself, they each become the subjective point of view of the player
excluded from the shot.
p a r a l l e l p o s i t i o n s . W ith the th ird variant the cam era sites
are o n the base o f the triangular figure close to the line o f interest,
deployed with their visual axes in parallel, (Fig. 4.10) an d cover the
perform ers individually.

33

FIGURE 4.10 Parallel camera positions. When both camera positions have their vi
sual axes in parallel, they cover each player individually giving us a profile view.

T he three situations outlined above can be com bined to m ultiply

the cam era placem ents. Fig. 4,11 shows how the com bination
looks. Seven cam era view points contained within a trian g u lar
figure. All positions can be com bined in pairs to cover both
players, except for the internal and parallel sites th at cover each o f
the subjects individually.

FIGURE4,11 Thethree basic variants outlined in the previous figures can be com bin
ed into a major triangular deployment. Thus, varied and ample camera coverage
is obtained tor two statfc players during their exchange of dialogue.

34

a n g l e p o s i t i o n s . W hen the a c t o r s are placed side by

side in an L form ation, the cam era viewpoints on the base o f the
im aginary triangle acquire a right angle relationship,' close to the
line o f interest passing between the players. In this case with the
camera in front o f the perform ers.
right

FIGURE 4,12 When the players are placed side by side In an L formation, a right
angle camera relationship is assumed by ttie two sites located on the base of the
triangular figure for camera placement.

T he same arrangem ent can be placed behind the players, with

which a new v ariant for dialogue coverage is achieved, shown in
Fig. 4.13.

FIGURE 4.13
but behind.

The right anole camera positions cannot orify be in froDt ot the actors,
,

35

com m o n
v i s u a l a x i s . To cover only one o f the players i n a
m aster shot while fram ing both players on the other, the cam era
in one o f the two viewpoints on the triangle base, m ust be ad
vanced on its visual axis.
Advancing on either o f the tw o viewpoints (optically o r physi
cally) we obtain a closer shot o f the selected perform er, thus
em phasizing him over his partner. Fig. 4.14 shows the arrangem ent.

FIGURE 4.14 Advance on a camera common visual axis. To obtain coverage of a

single player in ihe aroup. one of the cameras is moved forward on the visual axis
line of either of the two positions on the base of the triangle.

The above m entioned five basic variations are used not only to
cover static conversations o f a group o f players, but also the m ove
m ent of those players on the screen.
Emphasis by composition
W hen two speaking perform ers face each other, the strongest
cam era positions to record their dialogue, are located on the base
o f the triangle, parallel to the line o f interest. Positions 1 and 3 o f
the external reverse cam era arrangem ent, have two im m ediate
advantages over the cam era site situated on the apex o f the tri
angle. They give com position in depth, because from their view
points, the actors are placed on two different planes: one close
to the cam era and the other further back.
The second advantage is that one o f the actors faces the cam era,
getting our full attention, while the other has his back to us. In
theatrical term s, the second actor has an open body position
(face to the audience), while the first has a closed body position

(his back to the audience). T herefore the p erform er facing the

cam era is the d o m inant one.
O n the screen this is accentuated further by the distribution o f
screen space in the com position o f the shot, as show n in Fig. 4.15.

FIGURE 4.15 Emphasis by com position on the two external raverse master shots can
be achieved by olvlno tw o-thirds of the screen space to the player who faces the
camera, and the remaining third to the one with his back to the camera.

O n norm al screen sizes (3 X 4 ratio) the ac to r who speaks is

given tw o-thirds o f the screen space, while his in terlo cu to r has
only one-third.
If the latter is slightly o u t o f focus, the em phasis o n the speaking
perform er will be strengthened.
T he sccond position in the triangular arrangem ent is the
weakest o f the three. I t view's the actors fro m the side (a half-open
body position), an d pictures them on the sam e plane and with
equal screen space. It is reserved fo r the opening o r closing o f a
conversation sequence. It is also used to introduce a pause in the
cutting rhythm o f the sequence o r to precede a change in editorial
pattern.
The one-third, tw o-thirds, space o f relationship ju st described
w orks also wide screen fram es, as Fig. 4.16 shows.
37

FIGURE 4.16 The one-thirdtw o-thirds space distribution principle is maintained

for visual com positions on the wide screen.

B ut a dialogue betw een two persons seen in close shots on such

a screen becom es too ja rrin g from a visual standpoint, due to the
great volum es o f screen im age being shifted from take to take. A
solution can be found however. The screen is divided in three
equal p arts for com positional purposes. The player featured in
each reverse sh o t is always p u t in the central sector o f the screen.
T his m eans, th at player B is in the centre o f the screen from
P osition 1, an d perform er A is in the m iddle o f the picture from
Position 3. In Fig. 4.17 the pictorial com position in the fore
ground rests heavily o n the left and on the right respectively.
The rem aining th ird o f the screen space m ay be filled only by a
background object o r busy detail to balance the foreground
com position.
Audience attention is thus focused on the centre o f the screen
at all times, w ithout breaking the triangle principle for the place
m ent o f the cam era. This visual solution can be used w ith a norm al
38

screen size com position too, bu t no t with such spectacular results

as a large screen affords, especially in close and m edium shots.
Types o f visual emphasis
N ow th at the wide screen is in general use m any film m akers take
advantage o f the long rectangular shape to practise adventurous
com positional contrasts in their use o f w hat 1 have called external
reverse shots.
The player in the foreground blocks h a lf o f the screen with his
body. Usually, he is sparsely illum inated, his figure totally in
silhouette. T he acto r facing the cam era in the background is
brilliantly lit, so th at the lighter areas shift from left to right, and
back again, as each alternate reverse shot is used (Fig. 4.18).
T he next recourse is to increase the area o f the screen given to
the player in the foreground, who has his back to the audience
and is m inim ally lit. M ost o f the screen space is allocated to this

FIGURE 4A7 By dividing the screen Into three eq

In each master shot can be placed In the centre of
trlanole principle for camera deployment. Thus at
centre of the screen.
,

39

sectors, the dominant player

e screen w ithout breaking the
tlon Is always retained In the

FIGURE 4.18

A half area of the screen is blocked by the body o f She player in th e

fo re g ro u n d, w hose back is m inim a lly lit, to em phasize the lig h te r fig u re in the back
ground.

foreground player and a small sector o f the screen is left free for
you to see the d o m in an t actor in the background (Fig, 4.19).
The device is particularly em phatic, because o u r attention is
centred on a small (usually upper, occasionally lower) area o f the
screen. R ight and left top angles o f the screen are contrasted from
shot to shot, as the two extreme external reverse cam era positions
are edited in parallel.
W hen an internal and an external reverse cam era position are
com bined, some film m akers place the perform ers off-centre in
b o th shots, close to one o f the lateral sides. The em pty tw o-thirds
o f the screen are filled w ith colour, o r inert shapes th a t do not
interfere with the players. Fig. 4.21 illustrates the concept.
O n other occasions a dark area th at blocks the same tw o-thirds
o f the screen in bo th shots is em ployed to obtain the sam e effect,
as seen in Fig. 4.22.

i
i

I i
i
i

FIGURE 4.19 Here a very small upper area of the screen is used to frame the dom
inant player in each reverse master shot.
FIGURE 4.20 In this example a smafl lower area o f the screen is used to compose the
key figure in each of the reverse master shots.

41

I
FIGURE 4.21 A n in te rn a l reverse angle and an e xte rn a l reverse cam era p o s itio n use
p icto ria l c o m p o s itio n s th a t co n ce n tra te th e players in th e sam e lateral area o f th e
screen.

FIGURE 4.22 The ce ntre o f in te re s t in both m a ste r sh o ts is reta in e d on th e feft side

o f the p icture . The re s t o f th e screen is darkened to stre ss th e key, w e ll-lit area.
D ire c to r S idney J .F u rle uses m any c o m p o s itio n s o f th is type In his Aim s, espe cia lly
in The fpcress Fiie, The Apaloosa and The Naked Runner

42

This technique is also extended to internal reverse camera

positions. These cam era sites cover each o f the two central figures
individually. B oth players occupy the same screen area in each
reverse shots.
T w o-thirds o f the screen in both pictorial com positions are kept
empty (Fig. 4.23).
I
I

I
I
I
FIGURE 4.23 Two Internal reverse shots are used for this example, and the same
area o f the screen Is employed to frame the players. Note the opposed glances that
relate the players to one another visually.

The usual ra p p o rt fo r two internal reverse shots is to fill two

thirds o f the screen area with the figure o f the player featured in
the shot, leaving the third area in fro n t o f him free, so th at the
com position has b reathing space in front. (Fig. 4.24).
J. G . Albicocco in the film L e R at D'Amerique used the wide
screen to com pose unusual pairs o f external reverse shots. Fig. 4.25
shows how he fram ed the players on opposed sides o f the screen
from shot to shot.
He applied the same com positional concept to the juxtaposition
o f internal reverse shots, as depicted in Fig. 4.26.
43

FIGURE 4.24 Tw o-thirds o f the screen area are used in each master s h o tto compose
the lone player, ieaving 'air' In front of him to achieve a pleasing pictorial com posi
tion.
FIGURE 4.25 Bizarre way of framing two players for a pair of reverse master shots.
Its shock effect can often heJp to oblafn an alienated mood in the scene.
J

FIGURE *.26 Here, (ha player's face Is placed close to one side of the screen frame,
leaving half the screen empty behind, This unusual way of com posing tw o related
internal reverse master shots brlnos a special visual enhancement to the scene.

T hose types o f com position quickly grasp atten tio n and tend to
d istract fro m the m ood o f the scene. A nd yet, to certain types o f
situations such as intim ate love scenes, they bring a strange im
balance th a t can enhance the situation. E xternal reverse angles

FIGURE 4.27 Hera, both external reverse camera positions are directly behind the
players, on the line o f Interest Itself. Only high angles permit this alignment.

45

FIGURE 4.28 From (he three points o f the triangular camera placement figure stem
axis tines on w hich the camera can be placed at any distance to cover the two central
players In a scene.

from different heights located on the line o f interest itself can be

applied if you p u t one player low in the fram e an d the o ther in the
u p p er half. Y o u can interchange their locations on the screen in
the reverse shot (Fig. 4.27).
These principles d o n o t apply only to close ups. F ro m the three
p o in ts o f the trian g u lar figure, stem axis lines on which the cam era
can be placed to o b tain close ups, close shots, m edium shots and
full shots (Fig, 4.28).
W e will now see this principle applied to dialogue scenes in
volving tw o o r m ore persons. E ach cam era position in the tri
ang u lar layout will b e used to produce a m aster shot. T he scene
will be covered in full fro m each set-up a n d from a t least two
cam era viewpoints. T he intention is to edit these m aster shots to
give full visual coverage.
Before going on to these form ulas let us exam ine how the
triangle principle applies to the coverage o f a single player.
Triangle principle: One person
In a film, as in life, one person can m onologue o r dialogue with
himself. But in a film the internal thoughts can be m ade audible.
46

T he device is used in literature, theatre, and radio transm itted to

the present, past, or future tense. But with film the capturing of
ou r inner self is most direct, w hether the internal o r external
voice o f the player speaks, o r w hether they conduct a dialogue with
one another. W hen the internal voice is heard, the perform er has
his lips closed. He m ay react facially bu t there is no lip syn
ch ro n ization.T hcinternalvoice can be replaced by the rem em bered
or im agined voices o f the protagonist.
At all times tire direction o f his gaze dom inates the visual
presentation o f the lone player. A line o f interest extends between
his eyes and the object gazed upon. Once this line o f interest has
been established, the triangular cam era placem ent principle can be
applied. Even if we are no t shown the object he is looking at, or
he stares into space. T he subject need no t rem ain static-he can
write, paint, or be engaged in a m anual activity, all w ithout
moving from a fixed place. T he direction o f his gaze becom es our
line o f interest, even when his head is turned sideways (Fig. 4,29).
If the lone player is looking straight ahead, o u r line o f interest
runs north-south to his body, W ith his head on one side, it
extends along an east-west axis.
If the player looks straight ahead, an east-west axis cannot be
used to position the cam era. T he sense o f direction is broken if
either reverse shot is used consecutively. Exam ine Fig. 4,30,

W R ON G

FIGURE 4.30 When the lone figure is looking straight ahead (north-south) the tri
angular camera placements cannot be in an east-west direction. The external reverse
angles will present conflictino directions of gaze, which is incorrect.

48

Likewise, if the cam era is on a n o rth -so u th axis when o u r lone

player is looking sideways it will no t work. The direction o f his
gaze m ust be adhered to as the line o f interest, with the triangular
cam era deploym ent set parallel.

FIGURE 4.31 When the tone pfayer turns his head in a half circJe this Is covered by
east-west camera positton. W ith a rig h t angle turn a north-south camera placement
will suffice.

T he direction o f the line o f interest will shift w hen the lone

player m oves his head from one side to the o th er an d tw o coverages
are possible:
1
2

a h ead tu rn o f alm ost 180 is covered by the cam era using an

east-w est a x is :
a head tu rn o f 90 is covered by the cam era using a n o rth -so u th
axis.

Fig. 4.31 illustrates b o th cases, for which the trian g u lar cam era
coverage m ust be shifted.

49

DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO PLAYERS

Visual form ulae to cover dialogue are few in num ber though
v ariations can be achieved through dress, background, lighting,
etc.
T h e two strong cam era positions parallel to the line o f interest
are those from which m aster shots are m ade to cover the static
dialogue. T he scene is first covered partially or in full from one
cam era position, an d then repeated from the o th er to be edited in
parallel later.
W orking from the two dom inant cam era positions, the following
analysis uses as a basis the five trian g u lar variations for cam era
deploym ent exam ined in the preceding chapter.

Face to fa ce
T he m ost sim ple ap p ro ach w ith face to face dialogue is to use a set
o f external reverse angles. W ith the perform er appearing in
foreground (with his back to us) in external reverse shots the tip
o f the nose should not extend beyond the line o f his cheekwe
do n o t see his nose a t all from such a n angle. T he one third/tw oth ird s screen space distribution is basic, although the variants
already discussed in the exam ination o f the triangle principle can
be used if desired.
Fig. 5.1 shows the classic arrangem ent, which is the one more
widely favoured by film m akers all over the world.
An internal reverse angle can be com bined with an external
reverse cam era position. T he perform er singled ou t is the more
prom inent. Two solutions are available (Fig. 5.2).
50

FIGURE 5.1 Dialogue between two players. This is the m ost common framing for
external reverse master shots of two players who face one another,

FIGURE 5.2 Two com binations of an external reverse angle and an Internal camera
positron are possible.
*

51

T he next possibility is to cover b o th subjects individually by

using internal reverse shots. Only one o f the actors is shown in
each m aster shot (Fig. 5.3).

FIGURE 5.3

2,

Two Internal reverse master shots cover the players Individually.

Number contrast
The com bination o f an external reverse and an internal reverse
position creates number contrast o n the screen. External reverse
shots include both players, while internal reverse shots feature
only one actor.
T hus we have the following three positions:
2 perform ers to 2b o th m aster shots are external reverse
cam era positio n ;
2 perform ers to 1 one m aster shot is external, and the other is
internal;
1 perform er to 1 bo th m aster shots are internal reverse angles.
Performers side by side
Two players placed side-by-side on a linear arrangem ent, have a
com m on sense o f directionb o th look forw ard. Yet, this is not
the direction o f our line o f interestth a t runs across the heads o f
the perform ers the direction o f their gaze w hen they look a t each
other, and o f psychological ra p p o rt betw een them . Even if they
do not look at each other at all during the whole scene, if they
are in a w ithdraw n m ood, their heads lowered, eyes shut perhaps,
52

with their voices occasionally breaking a long silenceeven then,

it is no deterrent to the subjacent link betw een them .
One possibility is w ith external reverse angles (Fig. 5.4).

FIGURE 5.4 External shots applied to a linear arrangement fo r the actors, where both
are looking in the same direction.

A n o th er m ight em ploy internal reverse angles as seen in Fig. 5.5.

FIGURE 5.5 Internal reverse shots applied to a coupfe of performers sitting on the
front seat of a car,

A third possibility is the use o f parallel cam era positions for a

frontal coverage as Fig. 5.6 shows.
W hen tw o persons are show n in the fro n t seat o f a vehicle
m oving along a road, those three side-by-side coverage form ulae
find an im m ediate and natural application.
53

Several varian ts can be obtained with side-by-side positions

where b o th players a d o p t a right angle body rap p o rt. T he first is
the m ost simple, see Fig. 5.7.

FIGURE 5.7
formation.

Right angle camera arrangement to cover two actors who assume an L

T he next variant is achieved by advancing along one o f the

cam era axes, so th at only one o f the players is featured. Two
solutions are available, seen in Fig. 5.8.
In the foregoing exam ples, the players bodies face the inside of
the angle form ed by their figures. Positioned to face outw ards,
the three previous solutions w ould ap p e ar as in Fig. 5.9.
In all these right angle, side-by-side exam ples, the players are
covered from the front. A re ar cam era coverage is also possible.
Fig. 5.10 shows three approaches.
54

FIGURE 5.8 Two possibilities for an advancement along one of the camera axes;
a close shot of one of the players is obtained.

Players behind one another

This situation occurs only in very special circum stances: two
persons ride the same horse, o r bicycle, a m otor scooter o r a canoe,
and they are conversing from th at forced position. The person in
front usually tu rn s his head to look a t the o th er from the corner
of his eye. The m ost used cinem atic variations, em ployed to record
dialogues in such sccnes, are the external triangular cam era
deploym ent and the parallel cam era positioning.
The situations covered involve the use o f a moving vehicle. This
com plicates the scene because we m ust theoretically put the
camera on an o th er vehicle m oving a t the same speed. Establishing
shots (the num ber 2 position in the apex o f the triangle principle)
are usually from a m oving cam era platform . But closer shots o f the
perform ers riding in the m oving vehicle, are m ore difficult to
55

FIGURE 5.9 The players look outside their angular formation. The three approaches
shown all have a rioht angle relationship.

obtain with precision and safety for those involved. So, for close
shots a t speed a static vehicle is filmed in the studio, with either
back projection o r travelling m atte, to provide a m oving back
ground. Some obstructions rotated in front o f the actors com plete
the illusion. By resorting to this visual sleight o f hand, the shots
are obtained u n d er controlled conditions. The vehicle is placed
upon a base th a t can be ro tated in fro n t o f the projection screen
or blue-backing em ployed for travelling m atte, so th a t by pointing
the players tow ards o r aw ay from the cam era, Positions 1 and 3 of
the triangle cam era coverage can be achieved. Positions 1 an d 3 as
seen in Fig. 5.11 cover external reverse positions.

FIGURE 5.11

External earners coverage for (wo players aligned one behind the other.

The second ap p ro ach is a parallel cam era coverage. Positions

1 and 3 individually cover each one o f the players, while Position
2 fram es both players on the screen (Fig. 5.12).
An advance on a com m on visual axis can be applied by using
positions 1 and 2 o r 3 and 2 o f the parallel cam era arrangem ent.
By cutting from shot to shot, not only is there num ber contrast,
but one o f the players is em phasized as well.
On other occasions this type o f dialogued scene is covered in a
single shot from a single cam era position, and this position is
usually the num ber 2 (apex) in the triangular cam era arrangem ent.
58

FIGURE 5.12
the other.

A parallel camera deployment lo cover two player* placed one behind

Word o f caution
When filming individual shots o f two or m ore players, m istakes
may occur. W hen the cam era is repositioned on the set, an d lens
and lights changed and adjusted, frequently the direction in which
the player was looking is forgotten, especially if the new shot is a
head-on close shot.
A n acto r who was previously looking to the left, m ay now
unconciously deliver his lines looking to the right, thus ruining the
sequence.
W hen m aking individual shots o f a player engaged in con
versation, it is a good idea to keep the second actor in his form er
place, b u t o u t o f cam era range, for tw o reasons:
1 it will ensure th at the cam era is n o t placed on the other side
of the line o f in te re st;
2 the acting o f the player on cam era will be m ore natural, since
he has som eone to whom his lines can be delivered, instead o f
addressing them into em pty space.
If for any reason, the second player is n o t available when the single
shots are recorded on film, a reference point beside the cam era
hood (sun-shade) m ust be given to the perform er.
Either a technician stands there substituting the m issing player,
or an object is selected for th at purpose. Some technicians prefer
to put their clenched fist against the hood as a reference point.
Fig. 5.13 shows the situation.
59

FIGURE 3.13 The om itted player Is kept out o f camera ranfle to ensure proper
placement of the camera position. The actor o r substitute 6 Is positioned out o f shot
to provide the correct reference point for actress A whose attention Is supposed to
be fixed on a definite object or person who might have been seen In the previous shot.

Perform ers m ust avoid looking into the cam era lens. It violates
the direction o f the line o f interest a n d the audience feels th at the
player is looking at them directly and no t at the o th er players.
In a fiction film players m ay look into the cam era lens only for a
special purpose.
1 T he perform er m onologues w ith the audience, as Laurcnce
Olivier did in his film Richard III. It is a recourse derived from the
theatre, where players break the flow o f the scene an d address the
audience to give their own personal view o f the events. I t is an
accepted convention b u t can destroy the flow o f a staged event.
2 A m ore legitim ate use is w hen the player addresses the audience
as a radio o r TV announcer.
In the first case, the player relates directly with the audience. We
suddenly becom e participants and n o t spectators o f a staged story.
It shocks o u r feeling o f security in the darkness o f the m ovie
theatre, while in the second instance the p erform er relates with
an other player (show n or no t in the preceding o r follow ing shots).
60

T h at is why in the second case the audience accepts the actor

looking straight into the cam era lens as m ore natural.
These scenes m u st be used sparingly, and w ith strong dram atic
m otivating. The player need n o t continually look into the cam era
lens, H e m ay look elsewhere, with a detached gaze no t particularly
fixed o n a given p oint, an d suddenly tu rn to the cam era a n d look
in to it as he delivers the im p o rtan t lines o f his m onologue, thus
stressing th a t passage.
Camera distance
L ooking back a t the exam ples given for the coverage o f con
versations betw een tw o players in a film scene, we notice three
lim itations:
1 All the takes were close shots;
2 T he two players had the sam e body level;
3 T he cam era had the sam e level in b o th shots.
F u rth er variatio n s are available. The three points o f the triangle
principle generate axis lines on which the cam era can be m oved.
D ifferent cam era distances can em phasize a dialogue visually, and
afford a livelier presentation o f the scene. In an exam ple involving
external reverse angles, P osition 3 can be a m edium shot, while
Position I is a close shot. Fig, 5.14 illustrates such a case.

FIGURE 5.14 Different camera to subject distances on a sat of external reverse

camera positions.

61

Likewise, when covering tw o actors placed wide a p a rt, this

difference in distances is useful to concentrate atten tio n on the
m ost im p o rtan t o f the two.
Let us say for exam ple, th at in a bare prison cel! a lawyer
questions a prisoner, and the lawyer dom inates the scene. His
questions a n d th e way he w aits for the answ ers are vital to the
story, b u t th e prisoners attitu d e is passively uncooperative.
C hanges o f cam era to subject distance w ould stress this situa
tion by alloting a close shot to the lawyer, a n d a full shot to the
prisoner (Fig. 5.15).

FIGURE 5.15 Different camera to subject distances on a set of internet reverse

camera positions.

These distances should be exploited in pairs. N o m ore th a n four

different distances (two pairs) are needed to obtain good results.
F o r exam ple, h a lf the dialogue scene can be covered with a
m edium shot from P osition 1, a n d a close shot from Position 3.
T he o th er h alf o f the scene is then covered with a close shot from
P osition 1, and a m edium sh o t from P osition 3. By reversing the
play o f distances in the second p a ir o f m aster shots, an effective
and sim ple th o u g h dynam ic presen tatio n is obtained.
Camera and actor height
C am era height influences presentation. In conversation, the lens
is usually a t the same height as the actors, sitting o r standing.
62

I f an acto r stands and the other is sitting, the cam era height
can vary for the reverse shot (Fig. 5.17).

FIGURE 5.17 Suitable heights must be selected for each camera position to ac
commodate the differing heights of the players themselves.

63

The previous examples used external reverse angles. If internal

reverse positions are used to cover the sam e situation (one actor
stands, the other sits) for single shots o f each player the cam era is
alternately high and low, as if seeing the scene from each players
view point (Fig. 5.18),

FIGURE 5.18

D ifferent camera heioht* are applied to a pair of Internal reverie ahot*.

I f the cam era tilt is to o acute the effect will be unreal, since we
norm ally do n o t look at o th er people from such extrem e low or
high viewpoints. Such angles should be reserved as shockers to
stress im portant story points o r special events. O n o ther occasions
when both players are standing, we can obtain a contrast in
heights by merely placing the cam era low in bo th external reverse
m aster shots (Fig. 5.19).
One player can be stressed with a different cam era height on the
external reverse shot coverage o f two players who are standing up
(Fig. 5.20).
A line o f interest is no t necessarily horizontal. W hen one player
lies flat while the o th er stands o r kneels, an d using the triangular
cam era disposition, Positions 1 a n d 3 (those close to the line o f
interest) are near the heads o f the perform ers, an d therefore have
different heights. A vertical line o f interest is also possible (Fig.
5.21).
The head o f each player is covered by vertical cam era positions
shown in the diagram .
64

FIGURE 5.19

W hen both camera positions are low they create an interplay of h e ifih tt

b etw een th e players.

FIGURE 5.20 This com bination o f a high and a low camera position serves to throw
emphasis on to one of the players.

If the line o f interest runs horizontally, obliquely o r vertically,

the triangle principle for cam era coverage can be ad ap ted to it.
65

FIGURE 5,21

A vertical line of interest Is covered by a triangular camera deployment.

Subjects lying side by side

Tw o players lying on the ground, face to face, o r bo th o n their
backs, can be covered by a right angle placem ent to feature each
acto r alternately on the screen.
T he cam era is level w ith the actors on the ground, or fram ing the
players from above, either from a slanted angle or from a vertical
p osition (Fig. 5.22).
The players heads are kept in the sam e sectors o f the screen. There
is, perhaps, an altern atio n in heights within the screen. Fig, 5,22
shows (in the illu stration corresponding to Position 1 o f the
cam era) the head o f the m an on the left placed iow on the screen,
while cam era P osition 2 his head is high on the left. T he same
happens to the w om an on the right, w ho w ithout abandoning
her area o f the fram e, shifts up and dow n from shot to shot. The
higher position in each shot is occupied by the dom inant player.
W ith one cam era placed low er th an the p erfo rm ers position, there
is a reverse play o f m aster shots. F o r this purpose the players m ust
be placed in such a way th a t the cam era has full scope for changing
position above o r below the Ievei o f the artists where the ground
66

FIGURE 5.22
by side.

A right ancle camera deployment used to cover (wo players lying side

slopes aw ay sharply below and in fro n t o f them . In a studio set up

this is quite easily arranged, but even on location if the shot is vital
the perform ers can lie on a platform or over a hole dug in the
ground so th at the cam era can be placed com fortably below their
level fo r one o f the reverse shots, especially if an im m ovable
background object is to be included (Fig. 5.23).
M any film m akers prefer to shoot such establishing shots on
location with surroundings and closer shots under studio co n
ditions subject, o f course, to budget.
67

RGURE 5.23 A n external reverse camera set-up to cover two players lying side by
side: a platform may be used to aid the shooting o f one by a Jow level shot.

Telephone conversations
Tw o players talking to each o ther on the phone, are seen in single
takes, an d edited alternately to cover the length o f their conversa
tion. But to obtain the feeling o f a norm al conversation the actors
should look in opposite directions especially with split screen
sequences.
F o r the perform ers are filmed separately and com bined in
printing with m attes (Fig. 5.24).
68

FIGURE 5.24 Opposed glances are usually maintained between shots o f Iw o people
talking on the phone.

Opposed diagonals
W hen people talk to each o th er they do n o t necessarily keep th eir
bodies erect.
Som etim es the head is unconsciously tilted to a side to express a
m ood o f ease o r intim acya n o p p o rtu n ity fo r interplay o f opposed
diagonals in com posing close shots (Fig. 5.25).
This can b e achieved with any one o f th e trian g u lar cam era set
ups already discussed. W ide screen com positions can also benefit
from this treatm en t. Fig. 5.26 gives an exam ple.
People have p artic u la r ways o f standing w hen facing each o th er
and in a conversation. T heir bodies are seldom perfectly aligned.
Standing a little to one side o f the o th er is psychologically a m ore
com fortable position. So, from the tw o external reverse cam era
positions the players m ay be aligned o r there m ight be a small o r
large lateral gap betw een them .
I f the players are perfectly aligned the reverse cam era positions
m ust be close to the axis line form ed by th eir line o f interest, n o t
parallel to the line itself which w ould give a m uddled view o f the
d o m in an t player. A good result will register a diagonal com posi
tion o f b o th bodies on the screen. T he tip o f the nearby a c to rs nose
69

FIGURE 5.25 A n Interplay of opposed diaaonats in the com position of the shots can
be obtained with any one of the triangular camera set-ups.

FIGURE 5.26 W ide screen com positions can also benefit from diagonal pictorial
arrangements.

70

should rem ain within the profile. W hen one sm all lateral gap
exists between b oth players, the external reverse cam era positions
assume th e relationship shown in Fig. 5.27.

FIGURE 5.27

External reverse angles featuring a small gap In the alignment of the

players.

In one o f the shots the diagonal com position is m aintained, bu t

in the o th er the cam era shoots over the shoulder o f the player with
his back to the cam era.
If the lateral gap between them is w ider (such cases occur when
an object o r piece o f fu rniture is placed between the players), the
external reverse cam era positions assum e a right angle relationship
as seen in Fig. 5.28.

m
Vi

FIGURE 5.28
players.

Right angle camera deployments applied to a wide gap between the

'

71

FIGURE 5,29 Three example# where the positioning o f the actors bodies or their
direction of travel appears to violate the triangular camera placement principle. Yet
all these examples are correct because they adhere to the line of Interest.

72

O ften, the op p osition o f an internal an d external reverse shot

violates the sense o f direction o f one o f the players portrayed.
N evertheless their use is correct, since the line o f interest is always
d o m in an t (Fig. 5.29).
In these cases the cam era rem ains on the sam e side o f the line of
interest. It is the direction in w hich the bodies p o in t fro m shot to
shot th a t m akes it ap p e ar as a blunt reverse. In the first exam ple for
instance, the legs o f one player extend to the left on the external
reverse shot, a n d to the rig h t on the internal reverse. B ut bodies
do n o t count, only the line o f interest flowing betw een b o th heads
m atters, an d all these exam ples adhere to this rule. If b o th reverse
takes are tracking shots, such as in the third exam ple, the directions
o f travel ap p e ar opposed on the screen.
Translucent density m asks
T he Jap anese d irec to r K ihachi O k am o to in his film A nkokugai no
Taiketsu (The L ast Gunfight), starring T oshiro M ifune, successfully
em ployed this d arin g technique. T he process is no t new. D irectors
o f p h o to g rap h y have repeatedly em ployed filters th a t fade g ra d u
ally from d ark to clear, using them to m ask out clear skies as seen
in ex terior long shots to give them a night effect. In co lo u r films
som etim es a blue, green o r red filter o f th a t type is used for the
same purpose. B ut the m asks used by K ihachi O k am o to and
p h o to g rap h er K azuo Y am ad a o n A gfacolor film and T ohoscope
screen size, were translucent density m asks o f a consistent shade,
with a definite edge to them th at p h o to g rap h ed in a b iu rr due to
the o u t o f focus position o f the m ask. These m asks were placed
obliquely on th e screen and seldom placed vertically o r h o rizo n t
ally, they were used singly o r in pairs. T he success o f the technique
was based on the wise criterion w ith w hich it was applied. Basically
they were used to en h an ce som bre com positions in gun fight
scenes. T h e d irector seldom used these m asks on scenes shot
under broad daylight o r w here the lighting was bright. H e k ept
m asks o f different sizes, changing from place to place o n the
screen as sh o t followed shot, w ithout diverting from the usual
p attern s o f m aster shot editing. The m asks were changed on an
o pposition principle sim ilar to those p o rtra y ed in Figs. 5.25 and
5.26. In several instances he kept the sam e m ask for tw o shots in a
row, before shifting to an o th er m ask position. U nm asked shots
were intercut into the sequence along with the m asked shots. H e
73

FIGURE 5.30
In a mirror,

A simple case of a reverse shot where one of the players Is reflected

even panned the cam era keeping the m ask on, a n d did forw ard
tracking shots to which the m ask conferred a rare m ethod of
isolation as darkness crept aro u n d the m ain subject as it was
approached.
Players reflected on mirrors
M irro rs have alw ays fascinated film m akers. One, two o r more
m irro rs have been em ployed in a surprising gallery o f effects
designed to be used w ith tw o m aster shots edited in parallel.
T he m ost favoured effects use only one m irror, in one o f three
key positions in relation to the tw o players involved: behind,
betw een, o r sideways to the perform ers. F o r exam ple, if the m irror
is behind the players, in the first shot one o f the perform ers is
placed in the foreground, his back to the m irror, while the second
player is reflected in its surface, but is o u t o f shot (Fig. 5.30).

74

THREE-PLAYER DIALOGUE

Several different visual approaches have been evolved for covering

three-player dialogue in a film. T here are three basic linear
dispositions;
1 a straight line,
I a right angle o r L shaped form ation,
3 a triangle.
Each arrangem ent requires different solutions to bring ou t its
best possibilities.

Regular cases
As before, for the m aster shots the cam era is positioned close to
the line o f interest. It is an easy situation if the three players are in
istra ig h t line each player m aintains his screen area from shot to
shot {Fig. 6.1).
Here, tw o players are placed one behind the other, an d face
the third. But they could be placed o n the extrem es o f the line,
facing in tow ards the central perform er (Fig. 6.2).
All the players are standing. F u rth er variations are possible
by having one or two players seated, o r a t different heights o n a
multi-level stage. These subtle variations, including different
spacing between the figures, will help disguise the too form al
pictorial com position th at a straight line arrangem ent on a plane
setting is a p t to give. A n L shaped form ation covered by right
angle cam era positions, will also m aintain the same regular order
of the players in b o th m aster shots as in Fig. 6,3.
75

FIGURE 8.1 Players arranged In a straloht line and covered by two external ravers*
camera positions; all the players retain their screen area in both shots.

Irregular cases
W hen the players are arranged in a triangle, tw o lines o f interest
converge on the d o m in an t perform er, and one line prevails. The
centre o f atten tio n for the audience, and for the group on the
screen, can be shifted by any subordinate player. He becom es the
arbiter o f attention. By turning his head from the dom inant
perform er to the other, the second person becom es the im p o rtan t
character in the scene. This recourse can be applied in two w ays:
1 the centre o f atten tio n m oves back and fo rth betw een two
players. T he third has only a passive role, deciding w ith the m ove
m ent o f his head which o f his tw o com panions predom inates.
2 the centre o f atten tio n moves in a full circle aro u n d the tri
angle o f players, each successively becom ing the centre o f attention.
76

FIGURE 6.2 The throe players standing in a C formation are covered by two external
reverse camera positions. They all maintain the same screen area in both shots.

T here are three basic form ulas fo r external reverse cam era shots.
They provide irregular variants bccause this geom etric arran g e
m ent o f players does no t give each player a steady screen area.
T he cam era sites fo r these form ulas are obtained by selecting
two o f the six positions depicted in Fig. 6.3A. In the illustration
each player, acting as the apex o f their trian g u lar arrangem ent, is
given tw o external reverse cam era shots.

FIGURE 6.3a

Player3 arranged In a W angle with si* possible external camera sites.

Formula A
The d o m in an t player, in the centre o f the group, rem ains in his
place in b o th m aster shots, while the players a t either side ex
change positions from shot to shot.
In this form ula the three players (placed on a neutral line of
interest) are located precisely betw een bo th reverse cam era points,
which give alternately a rear an d a frontal view (Fig. 6.4.)
This solution is best applied to closely knit groups, where the
intim acy or bluntness o f the situation requires scrutiny o f the
action an d reaction o f the players, divided into tw o sections and
featured alternately.
78

Formula B
Here the perform er acting as arb iter o f attention (as a silent
spectator) is placed at one side o f the screen. In the next shot she
appears on the opposite side.
T he o th er tw o players, conversing (along a diagonal line of
interest) m aintain their relative positions and occupy the screen
area shown in Fig. 6,5.
C om binations o f seated and standing players and different
shooting distances add variety.

Formula C
The d om inant player, placed o n one side o f the screen, stays in that
area in b o th shots, while the o th er two perform ers exchange their
positions from take to take.
In F orm ula B, the d om inant line o f attention flowed diagonally
to the background, an d the arbiting acto r was close to the side of
the screen.
In F orm ula C the dom inant line flows horizontally betw een the
two players in the foreground, and the arbiting ac to r is placed
beyond (Fig. 6.6.).
N otice th at in all three figs. the order o f players (show n above)
rem ains A, B, C.
T he shift in o rd er (shown below) dem onstrates the effect o f the
different form ulas.

External!internal reverse camera positions

O pposing external/internal reverse cam era positions provide
what one m ight call num ber co n tra st on the screen, because the
external position covers the whole group, while the internal
placem ent fram es only a segment. This can provide variety in
presentation.
Tw o approaches are possible. Fig. 6.7 shows a 3 to 1 number
contrast.
The second variation, a 3 to 2 num ber relationship from shot
to shot, is illustrated in Fig. 6.8.
80

FIGURE 6.5

Formula B

FIGURE 6.6

F o rm u la e

FIGURE 6.7 A 3to 1 number contrast obtained by juxtaposing an external reverse *hot
with an Internal one.

FIGURE 6,8 A 3 to 2 number contrast obtained by luxtaposing an external revero

shot w ith an internal one.

Once m ore we stress the fact th at all players need no t stand in

the scene. One o r two o f them can be seated, reclining o r lying
down. This will add variety to the pictorial com positions chosen
for the scene.
83

Internal reverse camera positions

W ith a group o f three hum an figures divided in two, th e 2 to 1
num ber contrast is added to the range o f possibilities for covering
a trio o f players (Fig. 6.9).

FIGURE 8.9

A i to I number contrast obtained by using two internal reverie s h o ti.

Three internal reverse shots can be used to cover, individually

three players arranged in a roughly triangular form . A n external
cam era position fram es the whole group and m ight serve as an
establishing shotand could be re-inserted from time to time to
rem ind the audience o f the group as a whole. Observe Fig. 6.10.
It is im p o rtan t to retain the correct interplay o f directions of
interest betw een the actors where one holds the atten tio n o f the
o th er two.

Parallel camera positions

If a group o f three, seen from dom inant parallel cam era positions,
is divided into two units, the players present profiles to the camera
positions.
There is no arbiter o f attention, since two players face the third
who dom inates. N um ber contrast is obtained by this m ethod
(Fig. 6.11).
84

FIGURE 6.10 Individual Internal reverse camera positions cover each of the players
In the group separately; an establishing shot reminds the audience of the ensemble
of the whole oroup.

A n establishing shot encom passes the w hole group, and is

traditionally used a t the beginning, m iddle o r end o f the scene.
If the cen tral player acts as a n arb ite r o f atten tio n , the group can
be divided into th reethose at the extrem es o f the group are in
profile a n d the centre player faces the cam era (Fig. 6.12).
C am eras on a com m on visual axis show the w hole group from
the first p o sitio n a n d only the d o m in an t ac to r in a closer view.
He m ay be a t th e centre o r side o f the group (Fig. 6.13).
Placing actors a t different levels and distances ap a rt, as in the
other ap p ro ach es, provides new screen com positions.
Pivoting p o in t
Three players can be show n in a filmed scene by including only
two in each m aster shot. The person appearing in b o th can occupy
85

FIGURE 6.11 Parallel camera positions applied to a group of three persons, Number
contrast, 2 to 1, is obtained in this way.

FIGURE 6.12 Individual coverage of each player in a Qroup o f three performers

achieved by using parallel camera positions.

86

FIGURE 113 Two camera sites on a common visual line cover a trianQufar group of
three performers. One of the shots emphasises the central player in the scene.

the same place on the screen for bo th shots or he can be shifted

from one side o f the screen fram e to the other as the shot is
changed.
The first possibility applies when covering a n approxim ately
triangular arrangem ent o f actors, the other is useful where actors
are placed m ore o r less in a straight line. In both cases one acto r
provides a pivoting p oint for the two dom inant cam era positions.
Fig. 6 .14 shows a triangular com position where the centre actor
acts as pivot.
In the exam ple exam ined, the scene is established a t position 1.
Positions 2 and 3 are m aster shots. As in this case, the establishing
shot is som etimes positioned on one o f the axis lines stem m ing
from the tw o strong cam era positions o f the triangle principle.
Notice th at the dom inant cam era sites are a right angles to
each other, and b o th include the centre acto r (B) on the same side
of the screen.
In the preceding exam ple the pivoting actor was kept in the
foreground in b oth m aster shots. A shift in distance from shot to
shot (in one m aster take the pivoting player is near the cam era and
in the reverse shot he is in the background) will w ork sm oothly if
the pivoting perform er is kept on the same side o f the screen in
both takes (Fig, 6.15).

FIGURE 6.14 One o f the players In the group is used as a pivot to relate two master
hots placed at right angles. This pivoting actor Is placed on the same side of the
screen in both takes.

FIGURE 0.15 In this example the pivoting player shifts from foreground to back
ground as each master shot is edited In parallel with the other while keeping a con
stant screen area.

88

T he ac to r used as a pivot m u st m ove his head to vary the centre

o f in terest th a t shifts fro m player B to player C in reverse shots.
In o u r next exam ple the tw o cam era positions are external re
verse angles aro u n d the player used as pivot in the scene (Fig.
6.16).

F1GURE6.15 A set of external reverse camera positions around aside player use him
as a pivot to cover the group o f three players.

If three acto rs are in a line a n d two o f them face the third

person, the centre pivoting player is included in b o th takes, but
he shifts from one side o f the screen to the other, as show n in
Fig. 6.17.

FIGURE 6.17 Irregular coverage of a straight line arrangement of players, wh<re the
pivoting perform er shifts from one side o f the screen to the other as each master shot
Is alternated In parallel editing.

89

In the cases exam ined the pivoting player was dom inant, as
he had an im p o rtan t role in the scene. But a passive stance for
him is also possible. In Fig. 6.18 players A and C are dom inant.
Perform er B in the centre m ay be ju st listening to a heated dis
cussion betw een the o th er two. Y et player B has been used as a
pivot for the cam era sites, an d is featured in both shots, on the left
an d right sides o f the screen respectively. H is passiveness can be
stressed by the profiled position, eyes dow ncast, purposely to
avoid throw ing em phasis on either o f the others. His role is also
m inim ized by being given only a th u d o f the screen area.

FIGURE 6,18 In this example the pivoting player has a passive role. His flflure shifts
from one side of the screen to the other as the master shots are alternated.

N o t only can one actor be used as a pivoting point, bu t also a

cam era position can be em ployed as such. This pivoting camera
position is an advance on the sam e visual axis o f one o f the two
dom inant external reverse cam era sites, providing a close shot of
the player chosen as the centre o f interest in the scene.
A close-up o f the dom inant p erform er B (Fig. 6.19) inserted
between shots from sites 1 and 3 m asks the change in screen
position o f A and C when seen from the second position.

Emphasizing the centre o f interest

W hen a conversation between three actors develops in such a
way as to stress tw o an d reduce the involvem ent o f the third, this
could be treated in two ways:
90

FIGURE 6,19 A closer ahot of the dominant performer Is uaed as a pivoting ahot to
relate two external reverse shots o1 the group of three players.

1 Em phasis is applied over a single line o f interest;

2 The line o f interests in the scene shifts to a crosswise direction.
In the first ap proach the line o f interest is unique for the three
players, Em phasis can be partial o r com plete: partially, if in the
first m aster shot the three players are shown b u t in the second
only the two d om inant perform ers, totally by m oving from a 3 to 3
group relationship to a pattern o f 2 to 2, show ing only the two
main protagonists.

Partial emphasis
Partial em phasis is possible by using any one o f the three basic
linear arrangem ents: a straight line, an L shape o r a triangle.
Fig. 6.20 shows partial em phasis being applied to a straight line
arrangem ent o f players.
A v arian t is show n in Fig. 6.21, where the set o f externalinternal cam era sites is m oved to the other end o f the straight
line com position.
A n L shaped arrangem ent o f the players can be easily treated
with partial em phasis. Fig. 6.22 gives a simple case.
91

FIGURE 6.20
players.

Partial emphasis applied to a lino form ation of the group of three

FIGURE (.21 A variation o f partial emphasis applied to the group of three players In
a straight ilne arrangement.

FIGURE 6.22 Partial emphasis applied to an L shaped arrangement of players.

92

F o r a triangular grouping two m ain solutions are available.

Fig. 6.23 shows the first, w here the subdued perform er is placed
on one side o f the screen.

FIGURE 6.23 The secondary perform er Is placed on one aide of the screen In this
variant o f partial emphasis applied to a triangular com position.

T he second v ariation is obtained by placing the secondary acto r

in the centre o f the screen in the m aster shot where all the players
are show n (Fig. 6.24).

FIGURE 8.24 Tha secondary player is placed In the centre of this other variant of
partial emphasis applied to a triangular form ation o f players.

Total emphasis
Total em phasis, as we said before, can be obtained by tw opairs o f
m aster shotsfeaturing three, and tw o players respectively. All
93

fo u r cam era positions are external reverse coverage points o f the

group. Fig. 6.25 shows a sim ple case.

FIGURE 6.25 Total emphasis applied to a group of three players. The editing paltern
progresses from a 3 to 3 relationship to a 2 to 2 opposition of the principal performers
In the group.

A n ordinary editing p attern for these four m aster shots would

be like th is :
Shots 1 2 12 1 3 4 3 4 3 12 12
(------ )
( )
By using th a t co m bination one player is excluded fro m the scene
in the m iddle o f the sequence, to re-appear at the end.
W hen you cu t from three-person to tw o-person coverage, the
cut is m ore effective if the sh o t o f the tw o players is a reverse
o f the p osition where the three were show n, ra th e r th an an advance
on the sam e visual axis line. F o r exam ple: S hot 1 covers three
people. S hot 3 covers tw o. If you are editing shots 1 and 2 in
parallel, your m ove to a shot featuring only tw o players will start
with shot 3 after shot 1, because shot 3 is a reverse o f shot I.
Y o u r editing p attern will look like this:
Shots I 2 12 1 3 4 34
(------ )
94

This is visually m ore effective than if you m oved in on a com m on

visual axis position as depicted in the following editing pattern:
Shots 1 2 1 - 2 1 4 34 -3
(------ )
The retu rn from a tw o-person coverage to three person shots
follows the same rule.
The three irregular form ulas for external reverse coverage o f a
group o f three persons, where the three are included in each m aster
shot, can be treated w ith total em phasis, where two o f their
components are selected to be virtually stressed.

A north-south to east-w est' change

Examples so far have dealt with em phasis applied over to a single
line of interest extending from n o rth to south. If we em phasize
the two players located n o rth , the line o f interest will shift to a
dom inant direction from east to west, excluding the actor placed
south'.
This new line o f interest can be placed on either side o f the two
players th at it covers, as we will soon see. C am era positions m ust
be deployed th a t allow a sm ooth passage from one line to the other
as. interest is shifted a n d two o f the players em phasized. A set o f
external-internal reverse shots can be applied to each line o f
interest, as depicted in Fig. 6.26.
Let us begin by simple cases and move on to those gradually
more com plex:

Using only fo u r camera positions

The m ost elem entary coverage o f a crosswise change in the direc
tion o f interest, is obtained by using four m aster cam era positions
two for each direction o f the line o f interest. All four positions
are external reverse angles. The three players are first shown in a
north-south line o f interest. O ne o f the three irregular form ulas
for external coverage o f groups o f three persons is chosen to
frame the players along this line o f interest. The shift o f interest
when the two players facing the third, turn tow ard each o th er is
shown from a no rth -so uth cam era position. This change in
direction is very simply achieved- Follow ing that, two external
95

FiG U R t 8.26 Two sets ot eternal-internal reverse shots applied to a group of three
players to cover a change in the line of the interest, which shifts from an east-west
to s north-south coverage.

reverse cam era positions can cover, an d stress, b o th players on

the new line o f interest, excluding the third.
Fig. 6.27 shows the four cam era positions. Positions 1 and 2 are
alternated by parallel editing, until from position 1 we see the
change in direction take place in the line o f interest. T o emphasize
the two dom inant players we alternate betw een positions 3 and 4
and fram e only them .
If the th ird ac to r is to become involved again this can be
reversed to the north -so u th position fram ing the whole group.
A simple editing p attern for these four cam era positions w ould look
like this:
Shots 12 1 2 1 34 34 12 I 2
N ote: in the exam ple given the shift o f interest was seen from
site 1. I f it had been seen from behind the players (site 2) the eastwest cam era sites should be behind the players. W hy?
Referring once m ore to Fig. 6.27, the n o rth -so u th line is
covered by positions 1 and 2, the two d o m in an t reverse angles
96

FIGURE 6,27 A north-south line of interest changes to a dominant east-west line

of interest. Four main camera positions are used, and all are external reverse shots.
Position 1 is chosen as the camera site from w hich the change in the lire direction is
witnessed.

of the trian g u lar principle for cam era deploym ent whose apex
is the neutral site 0, the one chosen to establish the scene.
When the line o f interest shifts to an east-w est direction as seen
from site 1, this cam era position becom es the apex o f a new tri
angular fo rm atio n consisting o f sites 3 1 4, a n d angles 3 and 4

m ust be on the side o f the new line o f interest. So, if the change is
seen from site 2, positions 3 and 4 m ust be on the side o f the line
o f interest th at faces the apex o f that new triangular formation.
Fig. 6.28 shows this.
To retu rn to a north-south* direction where the whole group
is seen, position 2 m ust be used to effect the change in direction,
A sequence using position 2 for the shift in the line o f interest,
w ould look like this:
Shots 12 1 234 34 2 12 I
T he form ula ju s t described is adm ittedly a bit com plicated to
describe, though once grasped is sim ple to pu t in to practice.
Introducing internal shots
In the cases ju s t discussed all the positions were external reverse
shots.
By introducing a n internal reverse cam era site, we have a new
way o f covering the group, still using four cam era sites. Once more
these m aster shots are em ployed in pairs.
In such a sequence, position 1 becom es the establishing shot,
position 2 and 3 the m ain m asters, a n d position 4 is a reaction
shot.
The conversation begins by alternating Shots 1 and 4 along a
n o rth -so u th line. In this way num ber co n trast is obtained on the
screen.
W hen the shift to a d o m in an t east-w est line is desired, we show
it happening from position I, an d move to an external reverse
coverage o f th e tw o em phasized players. O ccasionally we intercut
sh o t 4 w here perform er A (as seen in Fig. 6.29) looks on,
reacting silently o r occasionally speaking. A n editing order for a
typical sequence using this set-up could be like this:
(- .)
(-------- )
Shots - 1-4 - 1 -4 -1 -4 -1 -2 - 3 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 2 - 3 - 1- 4 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1 -

(---------------) (----------------------------) ( _ )
a

b*

In the first p a rt o f the sequence (a ) the do m in an t line of

interest runs in a n o rth -so u th direction, and players B and C
talk directly to A . W hen players B a n d C tu rn to each other to
exchange dialogue, A becom es a silent on lo o k er, a n d thus sub98

;
.1
l

J
1
j
;

/V
f IG, 6-28 This lifte d Interest shifts from a north-south to an east-west direction In a
similar way to that preceding except that in this case the change is seen from the
second position.

ordinate. T he east-w est interest established, this section o f the

sequence (b ) uses p redom inantly m asters 2 and 3 edited in
parallel. M aster 4 is intercut twice to show the silent reaction of

the subordinate player. M id-w ay position \ is introduced, (with

a dom inant east-w est line at work) to re-establish the whole group.
N ear the end (c) player A talks a? seen from position 4, and
we close the .sequence from cam era site num ber I, where the
players in the background (B a n d C) tu rn tow ards A , re-estab
lishing the dom inance o f the n o rth -so u th line o f interest. Fig. 6.29
illustrates the case under discussion.

FIGURE 6.29 Four camera positions are used for this shift in the line of interest but
one ot them is an Internal reverse shot.

Eight camera sites are em ployed

T he next developm ent is to apply a full set o f external-internal
cam era positions to each direction o f the line o f interest. As shown
in Fig. 6.26, a t least eight cam era sites are b rought into play to
cover the sequence.
You might heighten this 3-person dialogue sequence with the
sequence using a com bination o f external-internal reverse shots
that cover or relate the three actors (along a north -so u th line),
and then move to a set o f external-internal reverse shots that cover
only the two actors em phasized (on an east-w est line), excluding
the third.

FI SURE 4.30

Eight basic camera positions as described In the text.

Figure 6.30 shows the eight basic cam era positions. The order o f
the sequence could be som ething like this:
Shot 1 Players B an d C in the b ackground talk w ith p erform er
A who is in foreground, his b ack to the cam era.
Shot 3 A replies. He looks off screcn, right.
Shot 4 B a n d C as seen from A s view point, lo o k to him off
screen, left.
Shot 3 A still talking.

Shot 4 B an d C answ er A.
Shot 3 A ends talking.
Shot 2 C an d B in foreground tu rn to
look at each other.
Player A in the centre o f the screen becom es
unim
p o rtan t.
S hot 5 Reverse. C a n d B talk.
Shot 6 Reverse. C an d B talk.
Shot 5
Shot 6
S hot 8 B is featured alone.
S hot 7 C is featured alone.
S hot 8
Shot 7
S hot 3 A re-enters the conversation. H e is facing us, looking
o ff screen, right.
Shot 4 B a n d C tu rn their heads to us to look a t A off screen left.
S h o t 3 A talks again.
S hot 1 T he whole g ro u p again: A B C.
Fig. 6.30 shows how sites 1 2 3 an d 4 cover the north-south
line o f interest, while positions 5 6 7 and 8 fram e an east-west'
shift.
T o show the shift o f the line o f atten tio n from N -S to E-W
position 2 is used. N otice th a t this differs from position 4 (pre
viously used to show the players o n w hom visual em phasis is now
b ro u g h t to bear) in th a t the actors exchange positions on the
screen. In position 4 the o rd e r on the screen is B C , while from
po sitio n 2 these players are seen arranged in the foreground as
C B.
S h o t 3, however, (an internal reverse position) bridges this ano
m aly. A nd it w orks because shots 3 a n d 4 have a reverse angle
relationship, while shots 3 a n d 2 are placed on a com m on visual
axis. In fact, P layer A is used as a pivot to effect the bridge
betw een those two positions.
I f the direction is reversed E-W to N-S later in the sequence,
this is achieved by using the sam e principle. Shot 3 is once more
bridged between 7 a n d 4 w hich are covering a n E-W line from each
side o f it. T he shift from E-W to N-S actually takes place a t site 4,
which starts covering a E -W line and ends as an extrem e o f the
N -S line th a t d o m inates again.
A sequence featuring three persons, em ploying a crosswise
sh ift o f th e line o f in terest covered by sets o f external-internal

reverse cam era sites, can be filmed using fewer than the 8 positions
given, Only those positions needed are brought into play.
In the exam ple ju st exam ined, the acto r excluded by the shift
of the line o f interest, was placed in the centre o f the group. The
same principle applies if you w ant to exclude either o f the other
two, placed on the base o f the triangle.
The tw o previous approaches m ay seem a bit com plicated to
someone n o t fam iliar with the w orkings o f the triangular cam era
placement for coverage o f static dialogues. Perhaps it will help to
fa the simple principles ju st described, in which the line o f interest
shifts from north-south to east-west, if we keep in m ind th a t the
camera positions deployed around the players assum e the form o f
across. The two em phasized players become the arm s o f the cross
or T* figure, while the lone player from w hom attention is
momentarily released, is positioned at the bottom o f the cross or
T figure. W hether you use four cam era positions (all external
reverse shots o r a com bination o f internal-external reverses) up to
the full eight cam era sites, the basic p attern assum ed by the
camera coverage is a cross o r T figure. Two sim pler m ethods th at
cover a players L configuration are discussed next.
A simple m ethod using three camera sites

There is a simple m ethod by which the centre o f interest in a

conversation between three persons can be em phasized using only
three cam era positions. O ne acts as the m ain m aster shot and
covers the three perform ers. T he other two positions cover only
two different sets o f actors. These subordinate m asters are edited
in parallel with the m ain one.
In this grouping the m ost im p o rtan t actor is placed in the centre:
player B (sec Fig. 6.31). W hen she talks with C (an E-W direction)
the relationship is sh o t I an d shot 2. Shot 2 is a right angle posi
tion in relation to shot 1.
When perform er B turns (this tu rn is always seen from position
1) to talk to A (a N -S direction) the relationship becomes shot 1
shot 3. Shot 3 is a reverse angle position in relation to shot 1.
Number co n trast is constantly opposed from shot to shot, as we
cut between from three and tw o-persons. Shots 2 and 3 cannot
I t edited together in parallel.
A typical sequence using this solution w ould look like this:
Shots 12 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 3 1
(------ )
. (------ ) (------ )
103

FIGURE 6.31 An east-west to north-south change of the line o f Interest achieved with
only three camera sites.

The m arks under the num bers underline the points where the shift
o f direction o f the line o f interest takes place.
Using a pivoting shot
A variation o f the previous exam ple w ould m ake use o f a close
shot o f the central perform er (player C, as seen in Fig. 6.32) to
serve as a pivoting shot. This close shot replaces the establishing
shot o f the previous exam ple and serves the same purpose: it
docum ents when the central perform er throw s atten tio n from one
player to the other.
This close shot (1) is the key m aster position in the sequence,
104

and is intercut w ith two subordinate m asters (2 a n d 3) to cover the

dialogue.
Once again, m asters 2 and 3 cannot be edited together in
parallel. A simple sequence using this procedure w ould be edited
like this:
Shots 1 2 I 2 1 - 3 1 3 1 2 1 3 1
(------ )
(------ )
(------ )
Notice how the editing o rd er o f these shots resem bles the pattern
in section 4.
The m arks below the num bers in the editing p attern given
above indicate again w hetc player C in m aster 1, m oves his head
from side to side shifting the line o f interest.

FIGURE 8.32 A player Is used as a pivot to achieve a change of direction for the lino
ot Interest In the scene.

Deliberate omission
Suppose one o f th e players is to be deliberately om itted, as we cut
from take to tak e using reverse shot positions giving the ap p a ren t
illusion th at all rules are broken.
105

Fig. 6.33 shows a n exam ple w here advantage is taken o f an

o b stru ctio n in the set d eco ratio n to hide the player located in the
centre (and also in the background) o f the triangular arrangement
o f perform ers.

FIGURE 6.33 A case of deliberate om ission, fn which one player is hidden by an ele
ment of the d^cor.

As can be seen, actress B changes her screen position from shot

to shot, while the two actors ap p e a r and disappear a t opposite
sides o f the screen. The ac to r furthest aw ay in any o f the two
reverse shots should ap p ear in the centre o f the screen, in the back
ground, b u t the set decoration (in this case the colum ns) hide him.
106

While w hat we see on the scrccn is the following com position:

Shot 1: BA
Shot 2: C B
the true com position is really:
Shot 1: BC - A
Shot 2: CA B.
In the following exam ple both reverse cam era positions were
moved in close to the central character in the triangular arrange
ment o f th e perform ers, changing a contrast that should be:
Shot l : A B C
Shot 2: B C A
into a tw o to two relationship, th at looks like th is :
Shot 1: A B
Shot 2: C A
In this way players C an d B are alternatedly om itted, while
performer A shifts his position from one side o f the screen to the
other. D ifferent cam era levels are used to add variety. (Fig.
0 4 ).

FIGUREfl-34 In the preceding example the pivoting player was located In the back'
nround In both shots. Here, he is in the foreground and shifts from one side of the
screen to the other as either one of the other two players Is consciously omftted
from each alternate master shot.

Summing up
A brief review o f the topics covered in this chapter is now given to
underline the essential points exam ined in relation to dialogues
among static groups o f three persons. W e have seen th at:
107

1 Three players can be deployed along three linear arrangements:

a straight line, a right angle and a triangle.
2 W ith three perform ers engaged in conversation, and where
there are two do m in an t centres o f atten tio n an d a silent arbiter,
the actors can rem ain in the sam e screen sector by employing the
triangular cam era site principle.
3 A triangular arrangem ent o f players can be covered by
fifteen pairs o f external reverse angles. These sets o f takes fall
within three m ain irregular form ulas.
4 N um ber co n trast can be obtained by com bining an externa!
and an internal reverse shot, o r by using internal reverse shots
exclusively. Parallel cam era sites give the same effect.
5 A player featured in bo th reverse shots can be used as a pivot
to relate the takes th a t cover the three players.
6 A pivoting shot can be used to ease the transition between two
takes where the players exchange their screen positions.
7 Visual em phasis can be applied over a single line o f interest
using external reverse shots exclusively. This em phasis can be
p artial o r total
8 The iine o f interest in a scene can be shifted to a crosswise
direction. Five different m ethods were outlined. In the first three
a com bination o f external-internal reverse shots were applied,
while in the last two a pivoting player was used.
9 One o f the players can be deliberately om itted from shot to
shot giving the illusion th a t all rules are broken in the coverage of
actors arranged in a triangular form.
Scope for covering a g roup o f three static persons is wide enough
to offer some visual variety.

108

7
DIALOGUE INVOLVING FOUR OR MORE
PERSONS

Basic techniques for the coverage o f tw o- o r three-person static

dialogues are also valid for larger groups. R arely is a dialogue
carried on by fo u r people sim ultaneously. T here is always a leader,
conscious o r unconscious, acting as a m o d era to r and shifting a t
tention from p erson to person so th a t the dialogue m oves by Clones.
In sim pler cases two central speaking players are only oc
casionally in terru p ted by the others. In such a g roup it is m ore
pleasant to th e eye if som e stand an d som e sit, perhaps in geo
metric p attern s (triangles are com m on, b u t also squares an d
circles). I f som e are m uch closer to the cam era than others it adds
to the illusion o f depth.
There is a very subtle way o f p u ttin g em phasis on any person
within a group. In th e th eatre this technique is know n as occult
balance. A group o f sitting people is balanced by a standing figure.
The reverse is also true (Fig. 7.1).
The use o f lighting p attern s is also im p o rtan t when covering a
group. C onventionally, light on the m ain characters is stronger
while all the others receive a subdued illum ination th at keeps them
visible b u t subordinate.
The v ariations applied to groups o f two a n d three persons will
now b e show n in a com prehensive pictorial coverage o f fo u r
persons o r m ore.
Simple cases
If both the whole g roup and the ccntre o f interest m ust be covered
visually this presupposes at least tw o basic m aster shots one
framing the g roup full view, the o th er a close shot o f the m ain
actor/s. Some exam ples:
109

FIGURE 7.1 The principle of visual balance in action. A standing player can balance
a group of seated performers, and vice versa.

1 Using a common visual axis

Tw o shots o n the sam e visual axis are intercut alternately. This
serves to cover a conversation in depth. W hen players B and D
talk (see Fig. 7.2) S hot 1 is used. B ut when B turns to C, we move
in to close Shot 2 an d back again to S hot 1 as D cuts into the

a
b

iff

r1
A

FIGURE 7.2 A group Is covered using two master shots arranged on a common
visual axis. In one of them the whole group is framed, tn the other the centre of
interest of the group is visually emphasized.

130

conversation an d then, turning, m akes a com m ent to A. If

players A and D have their backs to us they throw audience
attention on to perform ers B an d C, bu t if A and D turn to face
us, they them selves becom e the centre o f attention.
A further variation is for A an d D to act only as witnesses to
the conversation, and then onJy find their facial o r body reactions
to it are im p o rtan t. Shot 1 serves merely as a re-establishing shot
and is periodically intercut into m aster Shot 2 to give colour to the
dialogue by expanding the group.

2. Using a right angle camera site

Figuie 7,3 shows an o th er variant. T he purpose here is sim ilar to
the previous case. E ither a dialogue between all the perform ers
and the two central ones can be covered, o r a discussion between A
and B is w atched by the rest o f the group. T he variation is in the
use o f a right angle for th e cam era position o f the closer second
shot.

MGIJRE 7.3 The right angle camera arrangement used here covers the whole group
end Its centre of attention.

Groups arranged round a table

G roups o f people aro u n d a table are com m on in film scenes. Ways
have been found to present them dlearly to the audience. The
triangular cam era placem ent principle is valuable for solving many
tricky script situations in this type o f scene. O nce m ore the two
extremes o f the centre o f interest dom inate in the scene.

Case A
The visual axis and right angle sites outlined above can be used
together to cover two im p o rtan t actors in a group by giving them
individual atten tio n (Fig, 7.4),

FIGURE 7.4 Coveraoe of a group where the two central players are emphasized by
individual shots.

112

The procedure is simple. Shot 1 shows the whole group. A ctors

A. and B are the centre o f attention. Player A addresses the whole
group. W hen he turns his atten tio n on. B. cut to Shot 2, where A
speaks his lines to B off screen. N ow cut to Shot 3, to show B
replying. T hen cut back to shot 2 where A replies to B, and again
to Shot 3 where B m akes his point clear.
Now we re-establish by going back to Shot 1 to show the group
reacting. If A an d B speak to one an o th er again, we may cut
once m ore to an interplay o f their individual shots and then
return to the full shot num ber 1 to hear the com m ents o f
another in the group.
Case B
In Fig. 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4, the second cam era was placed closer to
the group, thus excluding some actors from the shot. In Fig. 7.5,
the cam era distance is the sam e in both positions.
This right angle set up creates on the screen a visual ruie sim ilar
to one o f the three irregular form ulas em ployed for covering
roughly trian g u lar groups o f three. W ith the second cam era on the
left, the first acto r on th at side in position 1 shifts to the right in
position 2. O th er actors rem ain in the sam e o rder:
Shot I : A B C D E
Shot 2 : B C D E A
With the second cam era on the right, the reverse occurs: the
first acto r on the right in Shot 1 m oves to the left in cam era
position 2.
Shot 1 : A B C D
Shot 2 : A B C D
Groups o f fo u r and five persons can be visually covered using
these right angle cam era sites.
Case C
A group o f five persons covered by external reverse angles,
although adhering to the same rule, offers a slight variant th a t is
simple to define. Fig. 7.6 shows tw o possibilities for the sam e
example. In one o f them the line o f interest flows betw een players
C and E, an d in the o ther between C and A. T he tw o actors o n the
opposite side o f the line o f interest shift from one side o f the
screen to the o th er an d interchange positions, while the others
113

FIGURE 7.5 Irregular camera coverage, where a player at one extreme of the frame
area shifts to the other side as the shot is changed. The remaining group maintain
the same visual order on the screen.

114

maintain the same order. W here players C and E dom inate, the
coverage is as follows:
Shot l ^ S C D E
Shot 2: C D E B A
In the instance where C and A dom inate, the form ula is reversed:
Shot 1: A B C D E
Shot 2: E D A B C
Study Fig. 7.6 and you will see how the form ula works for diagonal
lines o f interest.

FIGURE 7.6 A group with a diagonal line of interest covered by external reverse
sliots obeys the visual rule shown. The two p layers not involved in the line of interest
move to the other side of the screen in the second shot and exchange positions.
The illustration features the solutions available for both diagonal lines of interest.

Case D
In our next case, external reverse angles are also applied to a group
of persons seated at a table, but with different results.
The im portant conversation is between B and C (Fig. 7.7). O ur
camera positions are concentrated on one side o f the line of
interest generated between the .two central actors.

FIGURE 7.7 When the dominant players are placed in the centre of the screen tor an
interplay of external reverse shots, the players on the extremes o f the frame change
position from shot to shot*

Notice how actors A and D exchange sites on the screen in the

reverse shot, while in the centre o f the screen B and C always
rem ain in their sectors.

Subdividing the group

So far, we have applied external cam era positions to medium
sized groups. Internal reverse cam era sites, on the other hand,
can divide the group, oppose its parts and achieve a visual inter
play where num ber contrast adds variety to the screen image.
This division can assum e three basic form s:
1 an actor is opposed to the rest o f the group;
2 the group is split into two equal o r unequal po rtio n s; and
3 the subdivision produces several groups.
In each, an establishing shot is needed (conventionally, at least)

to open the sequence and m ay appear again in the m iddle and at

the end. Fig. 7.8 shows the first variant. W ith two internal reverse
camera positions within the group, one player is placed in opposi
tion to the others.
In a short dialogue the sequence could be edited:
Shots 12 32323 1
A longer o n e :
Shots I 2323 2 34 23 2 3 1

FIGURE7.8 The croup is subdivided, and the dominant player is placed in opposition
to the res! of the group.

The actors m ay, o f course, be a t different heights (Fig. 7.9).

The floor plans o f Figs. 7.8 and 7.9 show site I corresponding
to the establishing shot, and sites 2 and 3 (inside the group) as
internal reverse angles.
The next developm ent involves subdividing the g roup into two
smaller units. A n even num ber o f players m ay ap p e a r as two
sets o f equal parts on the screen, b u t this is no t as interesting as
having different num bers in each section as in Fig. 7.10.

ing the effectiveness of the visual formula shown.

T he editing principle is sim ilar to the preceding o n e : an estab

lishing shot can sta rt the sequence, we then m ove in to internal
reverse cam era positions at right angles to that. F o r a while these
two closer shots are intercut and finally there is a return to the
first cam era position.
The next developm ent is com bining internal and external
reverse angles. Five players deployed in a straight line can be
covered by using opposed diagonals from shot to shot, and a sector
o f the line stressed by m eans o f the internal reverse angle (Fig. 7 .11).
Geometrical patterns
A group m ay be assem bled in one o f m any geom etrical shapes
a circle, rectangle, square, triangle, etc., o r an am orphous shape
with no clear pattern at all. B ut the screen com position is governed
by the floor plan distribution and the heights o f the players. Both
present balanced screen com positions. The floor plan distribution
118

FIGURE 7.10 The ensemble Is subdivided into two smaller groups, and the resultant
master shots are edited in parallel.

determines the plane in which each player is viewed. The other

variable refers to th eir p o sitionlying, seated, reclined o r stan d
ing up. The two factors com bined give com position in depth, as
opposed to a flat arrangem ent.
Sometimes d o m in an t geom etrical shapes are applied only to
central characters, allow ing a loose pattern to supporting figures.
In the trian g u lar com position for dialogue (Fig. 7.12) for
example, the first o f only two cam era sites views the whole group
but emphasizes the apex o f the triangle. The second fram es only
the two players on the base o f the triangle.
119

FIGURE 7.11 The group, in straight line arrangement, is covered using an external
and an internal reverse shot.

FIGURE 7.12 The group of players covered in Shot 1 has a dominant triangu!ar
form ation. The reverse shot conform s to one of the irregular ruies applied to this
form of arranoement, using internal reverse shots.

Several opposed sectors

In a group distributed in three o r m ore sectors, using establishing
and internal reverse shots, the dialogue coverage is sim ilar to
single shots o f three persons in a triangular form ation except that
here, from some angles, m ore th a n one person is fram ed. (See
Fig. 7.13 for a three-sector group covered by four cam era sites.)

FtSURE 7.13

A progressive change of interest moving in a circle.

121

A sequence using this principle, could be edited as follow s:

Shot 1 W hole group is established.
Shot 2 P erform er C throw s atten tio n to the left.
Shot 3 Perform er A an d B talk to C off-screen.
Shot 2' C replies and m oves his head to right.
Shot 4 Perform ers D an d E reply to C off-screen.
Shot 2* C replies.
Shot 4' Perform ers D and E reply and then move th eir heads,
and instead o f looking to the left where C is off-screen,
they now look off-screen right.
Shot 3' Perform ers A an d B looking off-screen left, reply
to D and E.
Shot 4" D and E reply. Still looking off-screen right.
Shot 3 A and B end talking to D and E off-screen left, and
tu rn their heads right, tow ards C, who is ou t o f the
screen on th a t side.
Shot 1' W hole group. P erform er C is again dom inant. The
o th er four players are looking at him.
In the sequence ju st described the line o f interest m oved in a full
circle shifting from group to group (see Fig. 7.13),
The m ultiple plane arrangem ent has endless variations. One,
for example, (illustrated in Fig. 7.14) deals with triangular arrange
m ents o f six players, com posed in depth. The whole group is
established in the first m aster shot. O f two vertical triangular
form ations the one on the left has its apex in the foreground on
A, seated; the o th er has its base in the foreground and its apex
on F, beyond. C am era sites 2 an d 3, fram e these triangular
form ations separately bu t parallel. Site 4, at right angles to 2 and
3, fram es the seated foreground figures in a trian g u lar composi
tion.
In this group the d om inant players are sitting in the fore
ground, while the subsidiaries stand.
A further variation is to split the group in changing patterns, ie:
the whole group is established and then broken up in three parts,
each covered by different cam era set-ups. A fter returning to the
establishing shot they are seen again in other, closer, shots. But
this time the group has been divided only into two parts, present
ing visual arrangem ents that differ from the previous three master
shots. A step further is to mingle these five m aster shots into a
free-form editing pattern, where the establishing shot picks up the
whole group again from time to time.

FIGURE 7.14 A large group subdivided Into trianoular pictorial compositions lo r

each of the master shots.

123

Handling large groups

If, instead of being so closely knit, several groups are scattered
ab o u t the set, fixed cam era set-ups can still cover a dialogue that
m oves by zones. It is advisable to have a central group o r person
on w hom the action is hinged, show ing him as speaker and
listener, and shifting audience atten tio n from player to player.
M aster shots can be used, edited in pairs, occasionally re
establishing larger sections o f the group. If the line o f interest is
co nstantly changing direction, keep these changes simple. Use a
player as pivot in two m aster shots (or in a re-establishing take} to
clearly indicate the change o f direction when he m oves his head
fro m one centre to another.
M ost film m akers prefer sim pler situations or, if faced with
such a complex set-up, m ove the cam era o r the players during the
sequence to simplify the problem . The m easure o f a good director
is seen when he handles such a com plex dialogue situation using
only static cam era set-ups, with a m inim um o f m ovem ent for the
players an d then only when strictly necessary for the requirements
o f th e story. Alfred H itchcock handles a sequence like this in his
film The Birds. This is the scene in the cafe, after the birds have
attack ed the schoolchildren, and where an elderly w om an specializ
ing in ornithology puts the whole event in doubt. N otice how
M elanie Daniels, the barm an, the lawyer, the lady ornithologist, a
m o th e r with two children, the cook, the waitress, the travelling
salesm an, the local barfly an d a sea captain, are all involved in a
conversation th at covers a whole reel o f the film (around 8
m inutes). H itchcock handles them separately o r in groups using
static cam era set-ups.

A perform er faces an audience

O n m any occasions in films there is a need to present the central
p ro tag o n ist facing a crow d. P erhaps he is a flight instructor
talking to a group o f pilots, o r a football coach addressing his
team , o r a politician addressing a crow d or, perhaps, a musician
perform ing for an audience. T he size o f the crow d does no t matter,
there are two ways o f dealing with itto treat it as a single
g roup, o f an im personal nature or, to treat it as a series o f small
groups related to the central perform er.
124

FIGURE. 7.15 Impersonal treatment of a large crowd, when? the direction of gaze
of the dominant player establishes the line of interest. One of Its sides is chosen
fo r the camera positions.

In the first case the audience an d our central protagonist form

the tw o poles o f atten tio n w ith an im aginary line o f interest
flowing between them . H aving chosen one o f its sides, the cam era
is sited according to the triangular cam era disposition where two
sets o f reverse cam era positions (one external an d the other
internal) can easily be ad o p ted (Fig. 7.15).

The protagonist stares straight aheadan im personal way of

dealing with his crowd. In the exam ple here, for instance, he will
be looking to the left in all shots.
M em bers o f the crow d do not participate individually. N obody
stands up and speaks to o u r perform er. The crow d (large o r small)
o f passive spectators are there to be entertained o r instructed.
If o u r m ain perform er shifts his gaze from side to side, answering
questions o r replying to observations m ade by individual members
o f the audience, the cam era treatm ent is sim ilar to the one used
for covering triangular groups.
W hen the crow d acquires identifiable faces, it becomes sub
divided into sectors. All these sectors radiate tow-ard our pro
tagonist who can have two body rap p o rts with the crow'd by being
on the rim o f the crowd o r in the centre. In the first case at least
two groups or a series o f small groups deployed in an arc face the
perform er. Between him an d the individual m em ber o f the group,
two sets o f cam era positions can be located, one external, one
internal (see Fig. 7.16).
O ur central protagonist acts as an arbiter o f attention, shifting
his gaze from group to group. If the individual players in the
audience talk betw een themselves, m om entarily excluding the
central player, we have a triangular form ation o f centres of
interest.
Those people are the ones w ho count, those aro u n d them are
secondary and anonym ous. They serve only to reinforce the
im portance o f the m ain characters by looking a t them directly
thus acting as a chorus th at stresses any shift in interest. Fig. 7.17
shows a simple sequence with the m am player as centre and arbiter
o f attention.
The num bers identifying parts o f Fig. 7.17 correspond to the
floor plan show n in Fig. 7.16.
In the exam ple show n, external reverse shots (1-2 o r 5-6)
establish the locale, while individual close internal reverse shots
(all the others) focus attention on the centres o f interest.
If our m ain protagonist faces m ore than two groups, shifting
his attention to a th ird o r fourth subject, opposed looks will always
occur. If both persons are looking at the same side o f the screen
in individual close shots, they are not relating to each other, but to
som ebody else off-screen.

126

FIGURE 7.16 FJoor plan showing the camera positions used when lone playerfacing
a crowd shHts his gaze from one side to the other changing the direction of the line o f
interest.

A crosswise change o f the line o f interest

A n o rth -so u th to east-w est change in the line o f interest,
em phasizing either the subjects on the stage o r those on the
audience, can be applied to the tw o central points o f interest
located in a crow d.
In the first exam ple in Fig. 7.18 the em phasis is put on the
players o n the stage, who relate w ith the crow d and betw een
themselves. T he east-w'est line dom inates. T he players talk am ong
themselves and occasionally look tow ards the audience, shifting
the direction o f the line o f interest. T he crowd is treated as a n
im personal mass.
The second exam ple, on the right o f Fig. 7.18, could be a night
club set-up, where two custom ers a t a table are em phasized rather
127

FIGURE 7.17 Storyboard development of the sequence follow ing the floor pian de
picted in Fig. 7.16.

th an the lovely female singer on stage w ho stands in fro n t o f the

orchestra. W hen the players a t the table talk am ong themselves
an E-W line is dom inant, but when they watch the singer a N-S
line o f interest prevails.

FIGURE 7.18
01 the floor.

Placements lo r a crosswise change of direction, either on the stage or

Y ou need not, o f course, use all the key cam era positions
shown o n the floor plans in Fig. 7.18. The num erous editing
com binations give adequate coverage for situations in this
category, with fewer cam era positions.
Crowd with main player at centre
If o ur m ain player stands alone in the centre o f a crow d, she
relates only with h alf o f itthose in front o f her. T hose behind
have only an indirect rap p o rt with her.
C am era placem ent principles are the sam e as before two sets
of external and internal reverse shots. In Fig. 7.19 positions 1 and
129

FJGURE 7.19 The dominant player stands in the centre of the crowd. The direction of
her look determines the line of interest of the scene, and one side of this line is chosen
to position the camera.

2 are external; 3 and 4 internal. As o u r protagonist is in the

centre o f the crow d, she acts as a central pivot aro u n d w hom the
cam era can be placed to relate her to the surrounding crowd
(as in Shots 5 and 6).
A ctors as pivots
W hen dealing with exam ples with three players, we explained how
one o f those players could be used as a pivot to assemble the
interplay o f m aster shots covering the group. T here we said that
the player used as a pivot could be o n the same side o f the screen
in b oth shots, o r assum e an irregular solution where he alternated
130

between sides o f the screen from shot to shot. Both rules apply to a
perform er in relation to a crowd. H e can be placed in the centre
of the crow d (large or small) o r on the rim. In this example a
central p erfo rm er is used as a pivot w ithin a sm all group.

FIGURE 7.20 A central player is used as a pivot w ithin a group to present it as sub
divided into two smaller units. The pivotinB player is used In an Irregular manner,
shifting his position from one side of the screen to the other.

Fig. 7.20 clearly shows th at the centrat ac to r is the m ost im

portant. T he players facing her in shot 2 are her opponents, and
those behind, in Shot 1, are her friends o r her audience. A ctor A
shifts from right to left on the screen as we cut from shot to shot.
This is a closely knit group and we are dealing with m edium
shots to fram e the scene. But the group behind and in fro n t o f
actor A can be larger and further ap art. In th at case she truly
becomes an island betw een both masses, and the cam era coverage
is as if for a closely knit group (Fig. 7.21).
Two players, d o m in ant o r passive, can also be used as pivots
in a scene. Fig. 7.22 shows a simple case where both central
perform ers are d o m in ant and located in the centre o f the group.
Actors A and B do the talking, while the others ju st stand in the
background w atching the m ain actors play ou t the core o f the
scene.
If these players are on the edge o f the group, the crowd is
omitted from one o f the reverse shots. Fig. 7.23 visualizes one o f
those situations, fn the first shot the group beyond the central
players is included, while in Shot 2 only the central perform ers are
featured.
131

FIGURE 7,21
group.

A sim ilar situation to Fig, 7,20 is shown here but involves a larger

FIGURE 7.22 Two central players in the group used as visual pivots to show the
whole group around them. The key performers in this instance are located in the
centre of Lhe group.

132

FIGURE 7.23 The two dominant players In the group are placed on the rim of It. For
this reason the group is featured in only one oi the shots.

W hen the pivoting perform ers have a passive role in the scene,
they can be placed in foreground to help relate a group divided
into sectors. These tw o players always rem ain on the sides o f the
screen, b u t the person o r persons in the centre change from shot
to shot. This is achieved by placing bo th cam era positions at
right angies. Fig. 7,24 shows a simple case involving only four
persons seated a t a table.

FIGURE 7,24 The two pivoting players have, in tills case, a passive nature and the
dominant pleyers appear aJternately in the centre of the screen as each master shot is
edited in parallel.

The parallel editing o f the m aster shots obtained from those two
right angle cam era sites, allows a little trickery in shooting the
scene.
Two groups o f players w ho, for some reason, cannot be present
on the stage o r o n the location a t the sam e time, can be related
perfectly by arranging two pivoting players in the foreground in
b oth shots. The only requisite is th a t these two perform ers be
available for filming bo th shots. In the first take, a group of
persons situated in the centre o f the screen talk to som eone off
screen whose place is taken by a substitute w ho provides the
replies in the conversation.
L ater on, a week o r a m onth afterw ards, the second shot is
filmed w ith the missing g roup fram ed betw een the two pivoting
players in the foreground. The second cam era site is used. The
central players look off-screen, too, b u t in the opposite direction
to th a t in the first m aster shot.
W hen, a t the editing stage, b o th takes are com bined (in parallel)
the difference will no t be noticeable if the lighting has been matched
carefully This form ula allows for further trickery: two different
sets o r locales can be used, one for each take producing on the
screen a n im aginary set which is an am algam o f both.

EDITING PATTERNS FOR

STATIC DIALOGUE SCENES

In any dialogue situation where actors m ove on b u t not fro m th eir

sites, and there is no cam era m ovem ent, variety and com prehensive
coverage relies purely on a cutting pattern.
A m otion picture m ust move. Therefore, o u r cutting p attern
cannot always be the same, so there m ust be m ore than one p a ir
of key positions from which m aster shots are produced.
A m aster sh o t (the long take obtained from a single cam era
position) covers a com plete sequence, o r a com plete dialogue. I f the
actors m ove within the fram e in th at long take, the shot can be
self-sufficient, provided th at certain rules are respected. In such a
case a sh o t would need no toning u p by inserting cut-aw ays o r
closer shots.
In the passive kind o f scene we are concerned with now, this
would seldom be enough. Such scenes are to o static to rem ain
visually interestingunless the situation an d dialogue are so full
o f m eaning an d d ram atic force th a t any visual variation w ould
disturb the m ood o f the scene.
Except in those cases, a m aster shot covering a whole c o n
versation would be very m uch enhanced by stressing certain
passages with closc shots o r cut-aways.
A nother solution is to present the scene w ith two m aster shots
edited in parallel. But generally th at is no t enough. As a dialogue
builds up in interest we tend to wish to be closer to the perform ers
to catch every nuance o f m ovem ent and fleeting reactions in their
faces.
In using an editing pattern the sim plest solution is to cover the
first h alf o f the dialogue with tw o m aster shots, preferably m edium
shots, and the final p a rt with an o th er pair both close shots.

Approaching anil receding patterns

A lengthy dialogue should have certain peaks o f interest and
should not dem and a high degree o f concentration throughout
otherw ise the effect o f a denoum ent is weakened an d even lost.
T his recom m ended p eak-pattern allows the audience some
em otional repose, and they can respond m ore fully to the really
im p o rtan t passages. The auditive p a rt o f the scene m ust receive
a corresponding visual co u n terp art th a t w orks h an d in glove with
the intentions o f the dram atist.
T he film director m ust resort to a visual approaching and
receding editing m ethod. The perform ers may be presented in
m edium shots, proceeding to close shots o r close ups as peak
m om ents are approached, an d then again m edium shots as we
give the audience a rest before building up to the next peak.
T his approaching an d receding m ethod m ust not ap p e a r too
obvious. So different editing patterns should b e used in each
section o f the dialogue covered from peak to peak, in order to
m ask the m eans being used as a guide to the audience. The actors
could also be m oved from zone to zone on the set after each peak
m om ent for further variationsb u t fo r the m om ent we are con
cerned only with static situations.

H ow a sequence begins
O n th e screen we d o n o t usually begin a conversation with the
ac to rs already in their allotted places, have them say their lines,
an d cu t straight to the next sequence. We norm ally record a more
n a tu ra l o rd er o f events. O ur perform ers meet first, then talk, and
finally, p art. There are variations to this, bu t no t fro m this need.
O n o th er occasions, when the sequence begins the characters
in th e story are already in position and needing no introduction
to o n e another. Nevertheless, we like to meet them visually before
we ca n listen to w hat they have to say. We are then fed in to a
closer view for the dialogue.
B ut such sequences seldom begin with the players already on
the screen speaking their first lines from the beginning o f the first
shot. T here is nearly always a m ovem ent at the beginning or at the
end o f the sequence. H ere are six generic variants w here such
m ovem ent lapses into static body positions from which a con
versation can be com fortably developed.
136

1 Both players enter into cam era range, walk tow ards us, and
stop to talk.
2 One perform er is already on the screen, the other enters and
stops beside him and they start talking.
3 In the two previous exam ples the cam era was fixed, bu t it
could have panned or travelled follow ing both o r one o f the actors
to their stopping places.
4 If the panning or travelling technique is used, a third character
can start the sequence by w alking up to the couple, giving them
som ething and going aw ay. T he cam era rem ains with the o u r two
main perform ers (or larger group) who w ould then begin to speak.
5 A panning o r tracking m ovem ent th at starts on an em pty part
of the set a n d moves to one side to fram e the m ain players can also
be used to begin the scene. The voices o f the players are heard
before th eir figures are revealed.
6 The opening m ovem ent in the sequence can be covered in
several shots prior to the start o f the static dialogue.
The possibilities outlined can be applied to larger groups. F or
the exits a t the end o f the sequence we would only have to reverse
the m ovem ents described above. It m ust be understood th at these
opening an d closing m otions are an essential part o f the dialogue
sequences where the perform ers stop to talk in a fixed place.
Re-establishing shots
To keep o u r interest adequately aroused in the situation, we m ust
be rem inded from tim e to tim e o f the place in which the action
that attracted o u r atten tion is happening. This presupposes the use,
at least once, o f a re-establishing shot halfw ay through the
sequence. The shot can serve several purposes;
1 It re-estates the place, rem inding us o f the spatial relationship
between the perform ers and their placem ent on the set som e
thing we tend to forget as we concentrate on the closer shots.
2 Lt serves as a pause in the n a rra tio n a visual pause that
breaks the satu ratio n o f the close shots accum ulated during the
development o f the dialogue.
3 [t serves to end the sequence, giving the perform ers space in
which to p art o r go away together.
4 If the sequence continues, it serves to m ask a change in editing
patterns, o r allow s the actors to m ove from zone to zone before the
new editing pattern is introduced.
137

5 If some ac to r is tem porarily excluded in an interplay o f close

shots that concentrate on the central perform ers, a re-establishing
shot rem inds us o f his presence. I f he is no t re-established his
disappearance w ould be baffling to us, since we w ould n o t have
been aw are o f his exit.
O f course, there are exceptions to this pattern o f establishing
shot dialogue in closer shotsre-establishing shot. W e can start
a scene w ith close shots an d establish the locale after a suitable
period has elapsed (the opening o f the M asoch C lub sequence in
The Tenth Victim , (see Page 6) w here the an n o u n cer is first
introduced alone, in close up, and his location is revealed at a later
stage in the story). T h at procedure is correct. B ut w hat we can
seldom do is dispose com pletely o f the establishing shot.
Importance o f silent reactions
O ften the silent reaction o f a listening perform er is m ore expressive
th an the face o f the perform er speaking to him . F o r exam ple, the
sequence starts with one player speaking his first lines, and in
m id-speech we cut to the o th er listening in silence, w ith the voice
o f the first a c to r continuing. W hen he finishes, the image o f the
second player rem ains on the screen a n d he then replies. Now we
can reverse the form ula, cutting in the m iddle o f his lines to the
first m aster shot where his p artn er is reacting in silence. This is a
scene tackled in the crudest form . Refinem ents in cu ttin g the master
shots to determ ine how m uch a voice overflows into the next shot,
o r providing a series o f m uted reactions to statem ents from a
player, m ust be dictated by the context o f the scene an d its
m eaning an d position in the story as a whole.
If one acto r is confronted by a group, to w hom he has a long
speech to deliver, we ca n n o t effectively sustain interest with a
single shot o f th at lone perform er; we m ust occasionally insert
various silent shots o f the listening group as the voice continues.
H aving outlined the m ost general principles, let us now get
dow n to particulars by investigating som e cu rren t editing prac
tices o f static diologues covered from fixed cam era positions.
Inserts and cut-aways
M any directors and editors still tend to shoot and edit a static
dialogue in a continuous static single shot. This last vestige of the
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theatrical influence in film w ork is a practice still transm itted from

one generation o f film directors to another. It allows screen
perform ers to ap p ro ach the scene in a sim ilar way to their ex
perience in the theatre. The scenes covered tend to be lengthy an d
the players have tim e to sink their teeth into their roles and bring
o u t the b est in th eir acting.
But the cam era is relegated to the role o f passive spectator a n d
its cinem atic possibilities are denied to it. M any film technicians
have felt secure w ith this type o f coverage and dreaded experi
m entation with the m ontage lncm uu m at uitaivS tilC Hut ural
tem po o f the scene and brings one o f its own to bear, whose rules
m ust be m astered by continuous practice in editing.
E arly film directors an d editors who were aw are o f the lim itations
o f such a shallow ap p ro ach , introduced inserts and cut-aways in
their first efforts to b reak aw ay from it. T he insert would be a sh o t
spliced in to substitute a p a rt o f the m ain m aster shot. It shows a
section o f the scene fram ed by the m aster shot in greater detail.
A cut-aw ay is a sh o t inserted on the m aster shot th at shows som e
thing o r som ebody n o t covered by the m aster cam era position.
If b o th such shots are used repeatedly w ithin a m ain m aster shot
they themselves becom e subordinate m aster shots. This ap p ro ach
to static dialogue editing, although basic, is still useful today.
Case A
Let us exam ine the use o f inserts first. L et us say th at we have a
scene where one player is explaining som ething to another.
There is a m ap o n the wall behind them (Fig. 8.1). Suddenly, to
m ake a p o in t clearer, o ne o f the players indicates a section o f the
map. I f we cu t to a close shot o f him o n the sam e visual axis o f the
m aster shot, the audience, to o , will be able to appreciate the
point.
W e th en retu rn to the form er m aster shot. T h at small shot
spliced into the m aster shot served to highlight a p art o f the
dialogue an d its use was justified. In fact, it w ould have been a
m istake n o t to avail ourselves o f the situation to present a clearer
visual story to the audience.
The next possibility is to m ake the insert shot from a reverse
camera position. F o r instance, a ca r is o n the road parked beside
a policem an who is adm onishing its driver. W e cover this dialogue
from a full sh o t position (see Fig. 8.2). As the policem an hands a
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FIGURE B.1

The insert has the same visual axis as the master shot.

ticket to the driver, we cut to a close reverse shot in which we

catch th at delivery being m ade. The reverse position in this ease
affords us a better view o f the proceedings. N ow we retu rn to the
full sh o t m aster shot to com plete the scene a n d witness how the
driver pulls away and the policem an w atches him go.
T h e in sert serves not only to pinpoint atten tio n on a n object,
b u t also to show in detail an em otional reaction as portrayed on the
face o f a player. The ap p ro ach is sim ilar to the cases ju s t described.
Case B
A n insert can be used twice w ithin a m aster shot. F o r example,
Tw o persons talking as seen from a m aster shot th a t fram es them
in full shot. Two inserts o f the sam e perform er are m ade where he
reacts silently to the w ords o f his partner. As these m om ents come

FIGURE .2

Tlie insert has a reverse erteie relationship with She master shot.

in the m aster shot, the reaction seen in full shot is substituted by

the insert where th at sam e reaction was filmed in close shot. The
editing o rd e r w ould be sim ple:
M aster
Insert 1
- M aster
Insert 2
M aster
In such a situation both inserts corresponded to the sam e player,
but b oth perform ers can be highlighted alternately, by show ing
one o f them in the first insert, and the other in the second.
This second insert need not always be placed w ithin the m ain
master shot. It can be used at the end o f it, to cap the sequence with
the detail that the insert affords.
Case C
An insert shot is often used as hinge to unite two m aster shots.
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F o r exam ple: Three officers are discussing a situation in front o f a

m ilitary m ap. The m ap is placed sideways to the audience and
cannot be clealrly seen. W hen one o f the players points to it, we
cut to a close shot o f the m ap and the hand o f the perform er
roam ing over it. This shot could be from a right angle cam era
position, and is o u r insert.
But then, instead o f returning to the previous m aster shot, we
cut to a second m aster shot th at continues the scene (Fig. 8.3).
This second m aster shot can be m ade from any one o f the points
o f the triangle cam era disposition for coverage o f a group, and
this group can be fram ed in its entirety as before. O r the view may
become selective and fram e only a section o f it.

FIGURE 8.3

A n Insert Is used to bridge two master shots.

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Case D
In the old days, and in fact in quite recent times, especially in
A m erica, static dialogued scenes were shot according to a standard
p ro c e d u re :
1 A m aster shot, (usually a full shot), is m ade o f the scene all
the way th rough.
2 The ensem ble o f players is split in groups, and each g roup is
pho to g rap h ed repeating the whole scene from beginning to end
with the o th er players sitting o r standing out o f cam era range all
th ro u g h the scene.
3 C lose-ups o f every player involved are shot covering the w hole
event.
This m eans th a t the film editor has a wide field o f selection w hen
editing the scenes, since he has all the lines o f dialogue and silent
reactions he needs. H e is the one w ho selects the cam era angles
to a p p e ar on the screen. I f the director later w ants to delete som e
piece o f dialogue o r phrase, the editor can do th at very easily,
because he has num erous cover shots (inserts an d cut-aways) to
choose from to bridge the gap where the w ords were rem oved.

Case E
In scenes which are essentially psychological and greatly depend
on dialogue, the perform ance a n d truthful staging m ust tak e
precedence over the arrangem ent o f the shots. T he classical m ethod
o f shooting the scene, as described above in case D, is the easiest
way o u t, b u t p erh ap s not the m ost econom ical. It allows the
director and film ed itor to try' several different versions o f the
scene till they arrive at the m ost satisfactory.
If the scene has special bits o f business w orth stressing visually,
the d irector shoots th em for the editor to use a t the proper tim e in
the sequence. Such inserts can be sim ple facial reactions, the
m ovem ent o f a hand, the m otion o f a m echanism seen in detail,
etc. In fact, the w ord insert is often synonym ous with close shot.
It is n o t necessary for the film editor to use them all, perhaps none
m ay be used in the final version o f the scene. But a wise director
shoots them anyw ay to be adequately covered. On the stage floor,
am o n g all the rush an d cxcitem em t o f getting the scene on film,
the quality o f all ideas cannot be assessed properly, and the final
editing p attern m ay n o t yet, perhaps, have been decided.
143

On o ther occasions an insert is used to repair technical errors

unw ittingly com m ittedfor exam ple, if a piece o f him has been
fogged for some reason or som eone out o f cam era range moved in
front o f a light during the shot. Such errors m ight not be seen until
printed, at which stage it is perhaps too costly o r im possible to
reshoot the scene. An insert spliced in place o f the dam aged spot
o f film often saves the day.
Case F
Som etim es during the course o f a conversation the characters refer
to som ething off screen: a building, an anim al, a vehicle or,
p erhaps, a person. It is quite natural then, if the subject involved is
really im p o rtan t, to splice a shot o f it into the single take that
covers th e dialogue. T h at insertion is called a cut-aw ay.
M o re th an one cut-aw ay shot can be introduced into a master
sh o t to show the different points o f interest th at the players cover
in the developm ent o f their dialogue. F o r exam ple: two persons
are stan d in g on a hill talking, we see them in m edium shot. One
p o in ts off screen to the right. W e insert a cut-aw ay in which a faro ff bu ild in g is seen. We return to the m aster shot o f the two
players. After a m om ent the second perform er turns and points to
som ething off screen, left. W e insert an o th er cut-aw ay showing a
d istan t bridge. Then we return to the m edium shot o f the two
acto rs where they conclude their conversation and turning, walk
aw ay to the background. Thus the sequence is neatly resolved, in
a straig h tfo rw ard sim ple presentation.
In th e example exam ined bo th cut-aw'ays covered different
subjects. Instead o f two different cut-aw ays being inserted into the
m aster shot, the subject m atter o f both inserts can be the sam e, but
the second is a closer shot on the sam e visual axis as the first,
insert. Repeating o ur example, both players are standing on the
hill, talking, facing us. (Fig. 8.4). They look up, off screen, to the
sky. W e insert the first cut-aw ay, a tall tree with an eagle seen
perched 011 a top branch. This is a full shot o f the tree and the
eagle.
W e retu rn to the m aster shot, an d m om ents later insert the
second cut-away, a closer view o f the eagle on the branch.
The m ethod can also be applied to silent scenes, where a group,
or g ro u p s, witness some far off event, o r are w atched by another
group.
144

145

1
C ase G
The next step is to insert m ore than two cut-aw ays in the same
m aster sh o talways covering the' sam e subject. The form ula is
simple. The m aster is a full shot o f the m ain perform er or per
form ers. The inserts progress from a full shot for the first, to
m edium shot for the second, to close shot for the third and close
up for the fourth.
This form ula can be applied to dialogues o r silent situations.
One can recall tw o exam ples from well know n films. In Max
O phuls Lola M o n tez, Peter U stinov is seen as the circus master
perched on a high scaffold, recounting the life o f Lola M ontez to
the public. D ow n below in the arena Lola M ontez (played by
M artine C arol) turns on a m erry-go-round where several groups of
m idgets represent stages o f her life. T he take covering Peter
U stinov is a static Full Shot, and is the m ain m aster take. On it are
intercut a series o f shots o f Lola M ontez beginning to recall a
particularly painful event in her life. A s a p o unding sound in
creases in the sound track o f the film, we get progressively closer
views o f her on the m erry-go-round, intercut w ithin the shot of
Peter U stinov.
The second exam ple happens in A lfred H itchcocks film The
Birds. M elanie D aniels has stepped out o f the school building and
sits dow n close to the playground to sm oke a cigarette. Un
noticed by her, several birds began to gather on the clim bing bars
iocated on the school playground.
The playground is fram ed in full shot, while a progressive
succession o f closer shots o f the girl are spliced within that master
shot. The scene is played com pletely in silence, and runs roughly
like this:
Full shot. A lone bird arrives and lands on the clim bing bars.
Full shot o f M elanie D aniels sm oking.
Full shot. Several birds on the bars. A n o th er crow arrives.
M edium shot o f the girl. She sm okes.
Full shot. N ew birds arrive.
Close shot o f girl. She sm okes slowly.
Full shot. M ore birds jo in the crows already gathered in on
the playground.
Close up o f the girl. She stops sm oking and turns her head to
the left to look off screen.
A lone bird flying in the sky. The cam era fram ing it in long
146

shot follows its flight from left to right, to show how the crow
joins the ran k s o f birds now fully covering the metal construc
tion on the playground.
Close up o f th e girl. She reacts frightened.
All the shots o f M elanie D aniels seated o n the bench, sm oking,
had the same visual axis.
Case H
C ut-aw ays can be tracking o r panned shots, as well as static set
ups. F o r exam ple: an actress is addressing a group. It is a long
speech she is delivering.
W e face her in m edium shot.
The first cut-aw ay inserted in a full shot o f the group w atching
h er silently.
Back again to her m edium shot.
T he second cut-aw ay is a panning shot across the faces in the
group.
W e retu rn to the m aster m edium shot o f the actress.
T he th ird cut-aw ay is a full shot sim ilar to the first insert.
W e close th e sequence by returning again to the m aster m edium
sh o t where she finishes speaking.
Case I
A cut-aw ay can evoke an event in the past. A kira K urosaw a an d
Alain R esnais are two film m akers very adept at this sort o f usage.
The rem em brance can be provoked by the subject th at dom inates
in the m aster shot, o r it m ay be a sudden visualization o f the
characters inner recollections.
In his film Rashomon, A kira K urosaw a has a scene in which the
bandit (Toshiro M ifune) tells the co u rt how he recalls the events
on the day o f the crime. T here is a particu lar m om ent that is built
like this:
The b an d it says he rem em bers having covered a great distance
with his horse th at day.
W ithout in terrupting the verbal n arratio n o f the bandit, a cut-aw ay
is introduced fram ing the horizon low o n the screen, and on its
edge the small figure o f the bandit riding his horse is seen travers
ing the screen.
The b andit reappears as in the previous m aster shot, and co n
tinues his n arratio n to the tribunal.

In this cut-away to a past event tw o different times co-exist

briefly on the screen. The audience accepts this cut-aw ay without
difficulty because it is m otivated by the p erform ers train of
thought.
A lain Resnais specializes Ln the sudden intrusion o f the past on
the present, w ithout w arning and usually for a b rief flash. His film
H iroshim a, M on A m our is full o f such examples.
T he French w om an in the hotel room fixes her atten tio n on the
hand o f her Japanese lover asleep on the bed.
W ith o u t warning, a b rief take is inserted showing in close up the
han d o f ano th er m an wriggling in agony.
It is a b rief pan shot th at moves upw ards over the prone body
o f the G erm an.
T he wom an looks at her sleeping lover. T here is no immediate
ex p lan atio n for th at sudden, b rief shot. It com es as a shock. It is
only later, when the p a rt recurrs several tim es m ore, th at we
u n d erstan d th at the hand belonged to her dead G erm an lover, a
sold ier in W orld W ar II. It is a m ore difficult for the audience to
grasp the point. O u r first reaction is one o f shock, we do not
u n d erstan d at all.
As the experience is repeated we learn to accept th at appearance
passively, waiting for the explanation th at we are sure will later
be provided by the author.
Case J
F o r how long should an insert o r a cut-aw ay be held on the screen ?
It depends on the content.
I f it frames a m otion th at is em phasized, it should begin with
the sta rt o f the m ovem ent an d finalize when it com es to an end. In
fact, the length o f the shot in such a case dictates itself. If the
m ovem ent em phasized is p a rt o f a larger m otion, the visual rapport
betw een the m aster shot and the insert should be achieved by
cu ttin g on the action.
M o re o f this, later.
I f a static object is the one fram ed on the cut-aw ay, o r a silent
close sh o t o f a person with neutral expression, two seconds is
enough, o r sometimes even to o long. But if the silent player giving
a passive countenance to his screen interpretation is listening to a
phrase, dialogue o r a piece o f m usic, this im age can be easily held
up to 10 seconds w ithout seeming over-long.
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Number contrast
W hat I have called n um ber c o n tra st is one o f the m ost useful
recourses fo r covering long dialogues, since it m asks the ap p ro ach
ing and receding visual pattern o f the film by featuring a different
num ber o f actors on the screen from shot to shot. N um ber
contrast is obtained by parallel cam era positions in groups o f three
and m ore actors, but m ore often m ainly by opposing a reverse
external position to an internal reverse cam era site. This approach
works with groups o f two actors and m ore. Its m ost simple
application would be a decreasing contrast in num bers, such as:
2 players to 2,
2 players to 1,
1 player to ],
This w ould correspond to a visual pattern o f m edium shots, close
shots, close ups, th u s perhaps building to a peak m om ent in the
dialogue. The p attern is reversed to retu rn to the subdued curve o f
dialogue before m ounting to the next peak.
A pair o f reverse shots (in any o f the five variants o f the triangle
principle) can be at different subject ranges for variety in the final
edited result. I f the apex o f the triangular cam era disposition (the
establishing shot site) is a full shot, and the other two positions on
the base o f th e triangle figure are close shots, the extrem e diff
erences in subject distance will provide a dram atic introduction
and conclusion to the sequence.
Parallel editing o f m aster shots
What is th e m ain difference between the parallel editing o f reverse
master shots and the system outlined before, where inserts and c u t
aways were introduced into a single m aster tak e?
' Fundam entally, it is a difference o f concept. W hile with the
first m ethod the scene is covered in full from a single cam era
position, here the scene is divided in segm ents and each one o f
those pieces o f scene is given a different visual treatm ent.
W h at th e inserts and cut-aw ays did for the previous system , the
parallel editing o f pairs o f cam era positions does now.
Two m ajor p attern s can be outlined for this new technique:
1 An establishing cam era site opens the sequence: a pair o f
external reverse shots cover p a rt o f the dialogue; a return is m ade
to th e re-establishing view o f the group the editing p attern is
changed into an internal-external cam era opposition. The w hole
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group is re-established once m ore from a fu ll shot, a n d a new

editing pattern is em ployed (internal reverse shots). A re-estab
lishing shot closes the sequence.
2 A fter establishing the scene from a full shot, the different pairs
o f reverse shots edited in parallel dovetail sm oothly from pattern
to pattern, using each last shot o f a p attern as the hinge to begin
the following editing pattern. P artial em phasis on a single line of
interest o r a change from north -so u th to east-w est is achieved
w ithout resorting to a re-establishing take, whose use is more
sparsely em ployed.
T he o rd er and n atu re o f such editing p attern s is decided by the
director previous to shooting the scene, thereby lim iting the role
o f the editor, whose creative labour is now channelled into
controlling the screen tim e for the shots.
It is with this m ethod th at all the pairs o f key cam era positions
outlined in previous chapters com e into their own.

Variation A
With this technique inserts a n d cut-aw ays are em ployed for effect
only, to stress an object, a spoken line o r a facial expression
within one o r several o f the editing patterns o f the sequence.
The film m aker need n o t be awed by the large num ber o f pairs
o f key shots he has at his disposal. H e selects and ad ap ts for the
needs o f his story those types o f com binations m ore suited to his
purpose.

Variation B
Using shots at different distances for variety can be carried a step
further (Fig. 8.5).
The four m aster cam era sites show n could be edited in a simple
pattern, such as the follow ing:
Shots 1 4 1 4 232 3
progressing from close shots to close ups. T o achieve th at we group
together the reverse shots o f the sam e distance: 1 and 4 are close
shots, 2 and 3 are close ups.
Yet, both distances can be contrasted, so that a close up follows
a close shot, reversing the form ula half-way through the sequence.
The sequence will then becom e as follows:
150

FIGURE 8.5 Four key master shots th a t can be used to obtain a dynamic visual
presentation of a dialogued scene by contrasting distances on the reverse shots.

S hots 1 3 1 3 1 32 - 4 242 - 4
This frequently used variation gives a flashy presentation to a
brisk dialogue.
Variation C.
Here is an o th er widely used variation, applied to parallel editing
o f a tw o-player static dialogue. The system im plies the use o f tw o
cam era sites placed o n a com m on visual axis to cover one o f the
players, while only one cam era position is given to the o th er
player. I f you pick two key cam era positions to cover a dialogue,
and feel th at the conversation is to o long, you can move forw ard
on the axis o f one o f the m aster takes to cover the second h a lf o f
the conversation.
Fig. 8.6 illustrates tw o exam ples where tw o players are used as
pivots in a group. I f the dialogue is a short one the editing o rd er
of the sequence could b e :
S hots 1 2 1 2 1 2
Since the dialogue is longer, halfw ay through it we move to a
closer position on the same axis o f one o f the m aster shots (thus

em phasizing one o f the players). T he editing order now becomes:

Shots 12 1 2 123 2 32
B oth exam ples illustrated have subtle differences in number
co n trast when the closer shot on one o f the visual axes is introduced
in th e sequence.

Line o f interest changing sides

W hen a long dialogue between two persons seated at a table is
covered from one side o f the east-west line o f interest flowing
betw een them , an d we risk m onotony from the length o f the
dialogue itself, we can m om entarily in terru p t by switching to a
n o rth -so u th axis, then retu rn in g east-w est b u t o n the other "Stile
o f th e line. Fig. 8.7 shows the screen com positions an d floor plan
sites.
T he shift in the line o f interest can sta rt in any one o f the first
three cam era positions. In this case we have selected the cefitral
sh o t (2), where no player is dom inant. T he shift o f attention is
easily accom plished: the players stop looking at one another and
tu rn their heads aw ay from us tow ards a p o in t off screen, left.
W e th en cut to Shot 4, w here p erform er C waves a hand to them.
C u t to Shot 5 where b o th are looking to the left an d react to the
perfo rm er off-screen. Player C in S hot 4 m oves aw ay from the
screen after breaking his visual ra p p o rt with the actors at the
table. Shot 5 again, where players B an d A stop looking off-screen
left, and face one an o th er again. W e are now on the o th er side of
the line o f interest a n d a reverse angle coverage can be started
again.
O u r two m ain perform ers have exchanged areas on the screen
an d this change goes unnoticed due to the m om entary polar stjift.
T h e editing o rd er o f this sequence can be as follows:
Sho ts 2 - 1-3 -1 -3 -1 -3 -2 - 4 -5 -4 -5 -6 -7 -6 -7 - 5 -6-7

Pause between dialogues

L ong static dialogues are difficult to sustain visually. They need
con tin u ed peaks o f attention. B ut such an accum ulation, with
b rie f passages o f u n im p o rtan t things said in betw een, arc very
difficult to write an d to say convincingly, for tw o reasons: The
effect obtained is to o w ordy, an d a logical an d natu ral transition
betw een sections is quite difficult to secure every time.
152

FIGURE8.5 Three baste master shots can be used to cover a large group where two
central players serve as pivots. Observe the differences in number contrast that
distinguish bcth examples.

153

FIGURE 8.7 Crossing a triangular formation to the other side of the line of interest.
A diversion, in this case a momentary crosswise change in the fine of direction
is used to achieve the shifting of the triangular camera placement scheme.

The solution is to do w ithout these bridging phrases altogether,

and replace them by visual pauses, thus obtaining a flow o f only
peak m om ents o f dialogue o n the screen.
The visual pause resorted to is one th a t portrays something
relevant to. the scene w ithout interfering with the contents o f the
peak m om ents. Let us look a t an exam ple: David Lean, at the
beginning o f his film D o cto r Zhivago, m akes use o f th at technique:
154

' 1 The film begins with Y evgraf (Alec G uinness) looking through
She window o f his office.
1 Long row s o f w orkers enter the hydroelectric plant early in the
morning.
'3 Y evgraf talks w ith his assistant rem em bering the hard times
during the revolution.
4- A single shot o f people com ing to w ork a t the hydroelectric
plant.
j Y evgraf states th a t he w ants to find a particular girl am ong the
workers.
6 A single sh o t o f people com ing to work.
\7 The girl (R ita T ushingham ) outside Y e v g ra f s office knocks and
is received by him.
The sections num bered 3, 5 and 7 are p a rt o f a sam e continuous
scene covering three im p o rtan t points in the dialogue. I f they had
been filmed as a continuous scene, the w ords separating the peak
moments o f atten tio n w ould tend to d istract the audience,
defeating the p urpose o f relaying to them im p o rtan t facts about the
story.
Visual pauses are therefore introduced: the w orkers com ing into
the plant, as seen in sections 4 a n d 6.
In this w ay the p eak m om ents o f dialogue are isolated and allowed
to sink hom e. B ut to m otivate the visual pause, and to prevent their
being distracting digressions, their ra p p o rt to the m ain personage
was established before in sections 1 and 2.
Sometim es th e n atu re o f the forthcom ing visual pause is
previously ann o u n ced in a dialogue. R ichard B rooks film The
Professionals has such a n exam ple :
Lee M arvin arrives for the train and is received by M r. G ran t
himself, the ow ner o f the railway. As they get on the train a
w orker points o u t to M r. G ra n t th at they will have to be moved
into a siding to let an express go by. T he train starts to move.
Inside M r. G ra n t describes each o f the three m en he has
gathered, thus inform ing the audience and the personages o f
their m ain traits and abilities.
The express passes G ra n ts wagon.
Inside the tra in once m ore, M r. G ra n t explains his problem and
his plan.
The visual pause used to isolate the peaks o f dialogue looked
natural because it was verbally planted beforehand during an
otherwise neutral m om ent.
155

Everyday scenes can be covered easily with this technique:

Two people on the front seat o f a m oving car, talking. As a story
p oint is m ade, cut to . . .
. . . an external shot o f the car crossing the road from side to side
o f the screen. C ut again t o , , .
. . . the interior o f the m oving car where both players indicate
a new section o f their dialogue.
T he technique is simple and effective. Its p ro p e r use will ensure a
clear and sharp developm ent o f the story on the screen.

Tim e compression
T here are situations in which lengthy dialogue seems necessary to
convey properly w hat is happening. A nd yet, we m ay still feel that
th e scene is too wordy, an d slows dow n the rhythm o f the film.
T here is a solution which is very cinem atic in its results and is
always an attention getter. Basically, w hat is done is to compress
the tim e span o f the dialogued sequence, specially in its central
p art.
T he opening and closing parts o f the sequence are treated
n o rm aly. Fig. 8.8 gives us a visual idea o f the principle.

FIGURE 8.8 The line represents the total length of the scene, out o f wtileh key
passages are selected and edited together, om itting other fragm ents considered not
reievant Jo the spirit of the scene. Thus, time compression is achieved.

T he line in the illustration represents the real length o f the

scene. The num bered segm ents are the ones portrayed on the
screen. As can be seen, beginning a n d conclusion are respected,
b u t in the centre significant fragm ents are selected (2345) and
edited together by a sim ple cut. N o optical tran sitio n joins the
fragm ents.
'~'
Each fragm ent selected conveys a com plete idea by itself, just
th at, and a cut is m ade to the next fragm ent. T here is no change in
b ack ground o r location o f the action, only a com pression o f time.
156

Case A
The selection o f fragm ents presents the players in different body
positions and p arts o f the location, Alain Resnais in Hiroshima,
Mon Am our used this effect several tim es. W e recall an instance
concerning the Japanese lover, when he recounted some o f his
experiences to the French actress. Three shots containing his
phrases -were arran g ed roughly like this:
The m an lying in bed, talking. As he com pletes a thought, cut
to . . .
. . . same background, the m an sitting in bed talking. His words
continue the concept o f the form er phrases, cut to . . .
, . . sam e background. The m an standing. He ends his exposition.
In this way the reactions o f the w om an who listened off-shot, were
omitted (and with them her phrases and the resultant answ ers the
u n would have been com pelled to give).
The scene gained in conciseness and im pact by om itting u n
important time segm ents.

C<?.re if
If this technique is applied to two people, each shot may contain
only two phrases, a question and an answ er perhaps and those
phrases cover a com plete th o u g h t o r idea. The scenes are very
brief giving a staccato rh y th m on the screen, due to the direct cuts
with which th e takes have been joined. This m ood is em phasized
by the acto rs changing sites, body positions, and fram ing in the
picture area.
A pause introduced in one shot would break the m onotony o f
(he staccato rhythm .
By presenting the scene with a contraction o f real time, we have
eliminated the hesitations, repetitions an d verbal pauses betw een
the peaks o f dialogue, keeping o n the screen only the im p o rtan t
sectors o f the scene.

Cnye C
The same technique can be taken a step further and one o f the
players can be periodically replaced in the sequence, as the co n
versation moves along a central them e.
In the French film W ithout Apparent M otive, J. L, T rintignant,
157

playing the police inspector, interrogates a suspect. The inspector

questionsthe suspect answ ers, after a tim e this pattern is broken
by having a second suspect unexpectedly answ er a question, and
then the first suspect answ ers the following question, and then the
second, an d then the first till the sequence concludes. What
happens is that two different interrogations were held in the same
ro o m a t different times. These scenes are edited in parallel to give
the audience non-repetitive inform ation, which w ould happen
when the second suspect answers the sam e questions with the
same results. W ith this approach only the inform ation that differs
as supplied by both is given to the audience.
T he scene gained in clarity by a simple contraction o f time.
In M ilos F orm an film Taking O ff a song called L e t's Get A
L ittle Sentim ental is presented as sung in a fragm ented jum p-cut
m ontage by a variety o f girls at an audition. Each girl sings a
single phrase or only a few words, an d the lyrics are continued by
the one th at follows. U p to tw enty girls are used to render the song
o n the screen.
Case D
A kira K urosaw a in his film Ikiru used the same technique b u t in a
different context. The film begins with a group o f w om en com
plaining in the m unicipal offices. T he em ployee sends them
to an o th er section. By a series o f swift wipes across the screen a
succession o f em ployees from different sectors o f the establish
m ent is presented, all saying in their ow n way th a t they are not
involved and referring the w om en to the next office. At last, the
whole thing com es full circle, and the women are returned to the
first em ployee they saw.
O ne of the wom en suddenly gives vent to her indignation on the
m an and on the system he w orks for.
W hen the sequence begins we are shown the wom en and the
em ployee, but after he directs them to the next office and the first
wipe crosses the screen, the succeeding takes are a series o f close
shots o f the em ployees, w ho, speaking directly into the camera
lens, give their excuses in tu rn . T he wom en are no t seen o r heard
during the whole succession o f faces, till the first employee re
appears,
K u rosaw as social com m ent is pu t bluntly enough by this
technique.
158

Case E
David Lean adopted this m ethod o f tim e contraction in Doctor
Zhivago. B ut his v ariation is to use a n a rra to r to express verbally
the m ood o f the scene whose visual p arts he contracts. Y evgraf
finds Z hivago tearing pieces o f wood from a fence. Y evgraf
recognizes him as his h alf brother (so his interior voice inform s us)
and follows him hom e. T here is a sh o rt scene betw een Zhivago
and the tw o com m issars who are rem oving his books from his
room. The discussion is interrupted by the arrival o f Y evgraf who
snaps his fingers an d disbands the group o f neighbours.
Once m ore the internal voice o f Y evgraf is heard on the sound
track, while on th e screen Zhivago em braces his step-brother, they
eat together, and talk. But only the n arrative voice o f Y evgraf is
heard. Suddenly there is a close shot o f Z hivago where he says:
N o t liked? M y poem s are n o t liked? By w h o m ? A nd over a
silent face o f Y evgref his narrative voice on the screen gives the
real answ er he w ould have liked to have m ade b u t did not.
The scene progresses, w ith the players gesticulating and m oving
silently, until th e n arrative voice o f Y evgraf is once m ore in
terrupted by Z hivago speaking.
Y evgrafs visit is visually reduced to a series o f images com
pressing tim e and representing only the peak m om ents of their
meeting.
Speeding dialogue tempo
There is a curious ph enom enon for w hich I know n o t of a valid
explanation. W hen you shoot a scene at a norm al pace and project
it later on a small screen, the pace reproduced on the screen equals
th at o f th e scene when it was photographed on film. B ut when this
same strip o f film is projected on a large screen to be viewed by a
large audience, the pace o f the scene slows dow n. This is a fact to
which m any film directors will attest.
W ith an actio n scene, the cam era is undercranked, thus in
creasing the speed o f the subject when, later, the film is projected
at the n o rm al rate. But how do we solve the sam e problem when
dealing w ith a static dialogued scene ? Speed up the tem po o f the
scene to ab o u t one-third o f the norm al pace.
This m ethod should no t be used w hen you w ant to convey
m ood, b u t when the dialogue is o f an inform ative nature.
W hen a dialogue scene is speeded up, in this way actors tend
to speak louder. I f you instruct them to speak quietly their voice
level will sound n atural in the finished sequence.
159

9
THE NATURE OF SCREEN MOTION

I f a film is to possess a sm ooth flow o f parts, there m ust be

co n tro l, organization an d selection. F o r control, you must
consider m ovem entm ovem ent o f perform ers and o f the camera.
B oth can describe circular, horizontal or vertical m otions. The.
circu lar m ovem ent o f a perform er turn in g his body o n one spot is
equivalent to cam era panning. The horizontally m oving actor,
w alking, running or riding is paralleled by sim ilar action of a
cam era m ounted on a suitable m obile support. Obviously, an
a c to r m oves vertically when he rises from a lying position o r seat,
clim bs steps, shins up a rope o r is carried up by a m achine. The
cam era can move likewise, an d all three types o f m ovem ent com
bined w here necessary.
H ow ever, a sensation o f m ovem ent can also be obtained solely
by cinem atic m eans where a person sits in fro n t o f a projected
m oving background, as for interior shots o f cars, trains, etc which
are usually obtained by this m ethod. A nother case o f implied
m o vem ent is where wc fram e a person in close shot looking off
screen an d in the next shot cut to a view as seen from a moving
vehicle.
T h e person will seem to be inside a vehicle which is in motion,
th o u g h he is, in fact, static. (The illusion is reinforced if the actor
m oves his head ap p ropriately.)
F ilm as a m edium has a unique p roperty: a continuous move
m ent can be recorded by using only segm ents o f the action shot
from different angles. A significant m ovem ent glimpsed by sectors
is o ften m ore livelier and m ore interesting th an one recorded in a
single tak e whole. B ut it is essential in this case th a t all the camera
positions selected to cover it m ust be on the sam e side. See Fig.
9.1.
160

/
i "
/ _.

x:;_
FIGURE 9.1 A continuous movement recorded by several cameras requires that
these cameras be pieced on Ih e sam e side o f the path travelled by the moving subject.

If the cam era w ere placed on the o th er side o f th a t line o f

movement for one shot, the subject would suddenly be m oving in
the opposite direction across the screen (see Fig. 9.2 placem ents 3
aid 6), and these shots would no t intercut properly.
161

9
THE NATURE OF SCREEN MOTION

I f a film is to possess a sm ooth flow o f parts, there m ust be

co n tro l, organization and selection. F o r control, you must
consider m ovem ent m ovem ent o f perform ers an d o f the camera.
B oth can describe circular, horizontal o r vertical m otions. The
circular m ovem ent o f a perform er turning his body on one spot is
equivalent to cam era panning. The horizontally m oving actor,
w alking, running o r riding is paralleled by sim ilar action of a
cam era m ounted o n a suitable m obile support. Obviously, an
a c to r moves vertically when he rises from a lying position o r seat,
clim bs steps, shins up a rope o r is carried up by a m achine. The
cam era can move likewise, and all three types o f m ovem ent com
b in ed where necessary.
H ow ever, a sensation o f m ovem ent can also be obtained solely
by cinem atic m eanswhere a person sits in fro n t o f a projected
m oving background, as fo r interior shots o f cars, trains, etc which
are usually obtained by this m ethod. A nother case o f implied
m ovem ent is where we fram e a person in close shot looking off
screen and in the next shot cut to a view as seen from a moving
vehicle.
T h e person will seem to be inside a vehicle which is in motion,
th o u g h he is, in fact, static. (The illusion is reinforced if the actor
m oves his head appropriately.)
F ilm as a m edium has a unique property: a continuous move
m ent can be recorded by using only segm ents o f the action shot
from different angles. A significant m ovem ent glimpsed by sectors
is often m ore livelier and m ore interesting than one recorded in a
single take whole. But it is essential in this case th at all the camera
positions selected to cover it m ust be on the sam e side. See Fig.
9.1.
160

1 rv

>

i;

""

_A

FIGURE 9.1 A continuous movement recorded by several cameras requires that

these cameras be placed on the same side of the path travelled by the movino subject.

If the cam era were placed on the o th er side o f th a t line o f

movement for one shot, th e subject would suddenly be m oving in
the opposite direction across the screen (see Fig. 9.2 placem ents 3
and 6), and these shots would not intercut properly.
161

FIGURE 9.2 A s in the triangie principle, one side of the line of movement most be
chosen and adhered lo. Any shots from the other side of the line of motion wrl! not
intercut properly with those previously used because the reversed direction of
movement will confuse the audience.

M otion broken down

This sectionalized m ovem ent could be fram ed w ith the subject
held in the same sector o f the screen o r entering and leaving the
view covered by the cam era (frequently such m otions cover only
a half-screen area, on opposed sectors), o r by a com bination of
both.
T urning, sitting, standing, walking or running m ovem ents can
be covered from two cam era positions o n the sam e visual axis,
162

II

or by tw o o r m ore on the trian g u lar principle. H orizontal m ove

ment (the m o st com m on) can be across the screen, diagonally on
[lie screen, from a neutral direction (com ing straight tow ards us
or going aw ay) and in an arc. Any change in direction m ust be
shown o n the screen, so th at the audience is n o t confused when a
perform er is suddenly seen m oving in the opposite direction to th at
just shown,

FIGURE 9.3 A ll changes in direction to movement on thp screen m ust be shown to

the audience to keep them properly oriented at all times. Shot 3 in this example
accomplishes ju st that*

F o r exam ple, if you m ove from your chair to your table to pick
up a book (see Fig. 9.3), your rising m ovem ent would be show n
with Shot I, y o u r walking m ovem ent to the table in Shot 2 and
your arrival a t the table in Shot 3. T here you pick up the b o o k and
turn to go back to your chair. W c see you turn an d go out,
returning to the previous cam era position (2) on your way back,
and your arrival a t the chair seen from position 1.
Char\gb)g view with movement
Always keeping the cam era on the sam e side o f the line o f m otion
is a limiting factor. O ften you w ant to cross to the o th er side o f
163

m oving subjects, because from there a m ore dynam ic com position

o r a better view o f the events is possible. Y ou can do this by
inserting cut-aw ays, by using a neutral direction o f m ovem ent, by
m aking a p erfo rm er indicate the change o r by co n trastin g motions
in the sam e screen sector.
Using cut-aways
Cut-aw ays m ake the audience forget the sense o f direction in the
last m ovem ent show n, so th a t a new direction does n o t seem un
n atu ral. A n audience w atching a film is always w aiting for new
shots. Their atten tio n is so m uch involved th a t recent visual
m em ory becom es very poor. They will rarely rem em ber m ore than
one o r tw o shots preceding the one they are w atching. A mind
busy grasping story points, does not concentrate fo r long enough
o n screen directions to object to a change b ro u g h t a b o u t by inter
posing cut-aw ays. A racetrack sequence, for exam ple, where you
w ant to cross to th e o th er side o f the track for a w ider view could
be planned as follows:
C ars cross screen from right to left; m ore cars, right to left, at a
diag o n al; o th er cars cross right to left in fro n t o f a crow ded stand;
close sh o t o f a clock giving the tim e ; a close shot o f a b o ard giving
the p o sitio n s; wide shot in w hich the cars m ove from left to right,
closer shot in which o th er cars ru n from left to right.
N eutral direction

^
;

'

A n o th er solution to the sam e problem is to use a neutral diregtio^

o f m otion, betw een changes o f direction o f m ovem ent across the
scre.en. In the above case we w ould place ourselves on a bridge over
the track a n d film the cars head on o r from behind. These takes
w ould be inserted betw een the changes o f direction across the
screen. The two n eu tral shots could be used together, so that the
cars com e straight at us an d pass below o u t o f the b o tto m o f the
fram e and th en ap p e ar from u n d er us and race aw ay into the
distance.
Perform er indicates the change

W here a perform er indicates the change o f direction, by turning

his head o r body he could be in a m oving vehicle o r on fir.
164

ground. T he direction in which the perform er looks in relation

with the m ovem ent o f the p anoram a across the screen as the
camera travels past, indicates the true sense o f direction o f the
vehicle.
Fig, 9.4 shows a typical case o f a boat navigating a stream .

13
FIGURE M The opposed directions of tracking shots 1 and 3 can be properly refated
by interposing a shot of a person who Indicates the change. This Indication can be
achieved by a simple turn of this person's head.

Let us show the forw ard m otion o f the b o at on the screen by

using only m oving shots m ade from the sides cam era sites 1 and
3,
Site 2 Close shot o f a p erson facing us. He is looking off screen,
right.
Site 1 The river b an k moves across the screen from left to
right, as the b o at apparently moves to the left.
165

Site 2 Close shot o f the person. He turns his head from right to
left.
Site 3 The river side m oves across the screen from right to left,
as the b o at apparently m oves to the right.
The b oat is always m oving forw ard. We do not lose th at sense of
direction in spite o f the contradictory m ovem ents across the
screen seen from positions 1 and 3. Shot 2, in which the person
changes his side o f interest, m akes the opposition natural without
disturbing our aw areness o f the real forw ard m ovem ent. The
person who directs our attention blocks his background making
it im possible for us to see the neutral direction in which the
vehicle is moving.
In the sequence ju s t described the person has his back to the
prow o f the boat, although th at m ay not be ap p a ren t on the
screen. His position in the boat is indicated by the order of
m ovem ent direction seen on the screen. Using the same shots,
we have only to alter the edited order to m ake the player seem to
be facing the prow o f the b o at indeed (keeping his background
blocked). T hus:
Site 2 Close shot o f a person facing us. H e is looking off screen,
right.
Site 3 T he river side m oves across the screen from right to
left, as the b o a t apparently m oves to the right.
Site 2 Close shot o f the person. He turns his head from right
to left.
Site 1 The river bank m oves across the screen, left to right, as
the boat apparently m oves to the left.
By blocking the background to the player, the shot could be made
in the studio. T hough placed on firm ground, it is possible to give
the sensation th a t he is on the m oving boat.
Two contrasting view points o f a static subject as seen from the
same side o f a m oving vehicle can be jo in ed by interposing a
person whose attention shifts from one side o f the screen to the
other. (Fig. 9.5),
W ith the cam era at a three-quarter view to the front o f the
moving train (Shot 1) passing buildings are seen from a tangential
path. Shot 2 (a studio shot) shows the person looking off-screen
right and turning slowly to the left. Shot 3 shows the buildings
from his new viewpoint, an d we are now m oving away from them
as from a rearw ards-looking three-quarter view.
In both m oving shots, the static buildings moved from left

FIGURE 9.5 Two contrasting viewpoints from the same side o f the moving vehicle
record an advancing and a receding view of the panorama. They are related by a shot
intercut between where a person turning his head from one side to the other motivates
Ihe change of viewpoint.

to right, thus confirm ing th at the players view was fro m the same
side o f the vehicle. T his is n o t exactly a changc o f direction across
the screen, b u t a change o f view point along the sam e line o f M ovejn e n t.
T here are three o th er ways o f m oving to the o th er side o f a line
o f m o tion o r o f interest. The first one involves using the ho ri
zontal action o f a player, the second com bines th a t horizontal
m otion o f a subject with an accom panying pan n in g displacem ent
of the cam era. T he third ap p ro ach uses the vertical m otion o f a
person on the screen to m ask the crossing o f the cam era to the
other side.
167

-J
FIGURE 9.6 The person Indicating the chanQe of direction from shot to shot can exit
from the firs t and enter view in the other, thus relating tw o different places.

T he three solutions to be explained are quite unobtrusive, and

p roperly used will provide a sm ooth passage o f which the audience
is n o t conscious.
In the first situ atio n a p layer w atching a m otion awa_y fro m h u n ,
tu rn s in the fo reg round and w alks off.Qne side o f the screen, enters _
the next shot by the o th er side o f the fram e, and stops to lo o k at a
subject m oving across the screen from right to left (Fig. 9.6).
T he next figure shows the second variation.
A caravan m oving from left to rig h t: in the next shot a m an walks
from right to left. T he cam era pans w ith him and holds on him as
he stops and looks to the far off caravan now m oving from right,
to left. T he diversionary m otion o f this player in the second shot
was used to in troduce a view from the o ther side o f the caravans
line o f m o tio n see Fig. 9.6A.
T he third v ariatio n begins by showing tw o players facing each
other. The cam era covers tTiem from one side. T hen one o fijjem
kneels dow n to p ick som ething from the ground. As soon as tBe
dow nw ard m ovem ent is com pleted there is a cut to the second

FIGURE 9.6A. The movement of a player at (he start of the second shot masks a
change in direction of the main subjects seen In the background.

shot, positioned o n the o ther side o f the players, but featuring

only the static player a t its beginning. Seconds later the kneeling
player rises into frame. Both players have now reversed their
positions o n the screen, but the vertical m ovem ent o f one o f them
masked the cam era crossing.
In the last case covered, the players m ay be standing on the
ground o r floor o f a building, or they stand on a m oving vehicle.
In this last case the sam e form ula applies for the cam era crossing
to the o ther side o f the players, regardless o f the direction of
movement of the vehicle.
Three additional ways o f crossing the line o f interest will be
explained. They use contrasting m ovem ents to achieve the change.
The last approach involves using the same half-screen area twice.
169

FIGURE y.7 Opposed directions of movement are suggested when two tracklrifl s io ts
covering two central characters are intercut in parallel. These players either walk, >r
sit inside a vehicle.

A set o f external reverse shots o f two people in a moving

vehicle, o r walking with the cam era, will present this opposition
o f screen directions. (See Fig. 9.7),
A lternating bo th m aster takes will produce the effect o f con
trasting m ovem ent w ithout confusing the audience. M oreover,
the screen position o f bo th perform ers on the screen will always
be the same.
The ruse o f putting a static person between two shots to help
convey the change o f direction o f a m oving person o r vehicle
across the screen, w orks as well on firm ground as inside a moving
vehicle. Fig. 9.8 shows a com m on example.
T he rider moves from left to right in the first shot. In the second
take, an onlooker m oves his head from left to right looking towards
the rid ers off-screen passage.
In the third shot the rider is seen m oving right to left. W e accept
this change o f direction naturally, because the last shot represents
the subjective view point o f the onlooker. Thus, opposed screen
directions o f a m oving subject can be clearly presented.
170

FIGURE 9.8 A stationary player on firm oround can bo nmployed to Indicate a change
In direction of the main subject as i( moves across the screen.

This static o n lo o k er can be present in the background o f the

first shot, or not. Also, instead o f using only one person turning his
head from one side o f the screen to the other, a g ro u p can be
employed, provided th a t all tu rn their heads in unison an d their
eyes follow the sam e centre o f atten tio n (the rider) supposed to be
passing off-screen behind the cam era.
171

Contrasting motions in the same h alf screen

We com e now to the last possible variation, where the moving
person is always kept on the sam e side o f the screen. The same
h alf screen areas is used fo r bo th external reverse shots o f the
continuous m otion.
Case A

Both subjects, the static and the m oving one, have been posi
tioned in the sam e screen area in b oth takes.
Case B
The m ovem ent in the previous exam ple was continuous b u t a
motion th at has a pause in its m iddle can be presented using the
same visual form ula. Fig. 9,10 shows this.

P erform er A is seen (static) in both shots, always on the left side

o f the screen in this case. H e can easily be replaced by a static
object, such as a p ark ed car, a m onum ent, a tree, etc. (See Fig.
9.9).

FIGURE 9.1G Opposed movements of a subject In a hall area of the screen, will seem
continuous to the audience, despite a pause in the movement introduced halfway
through the scene.

Subject B enters from the left in Shot 1 and stops to talk to player
A. W e cut to Shot 2 where perform er B ends talking to A, and
exits left. A lthough perform er B m oved in opposite directions in
the same screen sector, his sense o f direction was continuous with
respect to player A.
Case C
FIGURE 9.9 Contrasting movements of a subject, if remaining in the same half of the
screen help to maintain a continuous sense o f direction to r the audience despite the
change in camera anale.

Perform er B moves from right to centre in the first take. As she

arrives there, there is a cut to the second shot, w here we see her
move from the centre o f the screen to the right. T hus, she was seen
m oving to the left in Shot I an d to the right in reverse Shot 2.

In the two exam ples ju st discussed, the cam era occupied fixed
positions in b o th external reverse shots. But it is possible to m ake
one o f those cam era placem ents a m oving one, keeping the
contrast in m ovem ents on the screen. (Fig. 9.11).
Shot 1 C am era high, looking dow n on em pty seats in a theatre.
O ur only perform er walks along an aisle centre to right.
As he nears the edge o f the screen, o u t to . . .
173

S'

S'

\y

FIGURE 9.11 The same principle of opposed movements in the same screen sector is
seen tn action here. The variation is that the second shot is a track.

Shot 2 F rom the other side, the cam era travels in medium
shot from right to left, with o u r lone perform er framed
constantly o n the right side o f the screcn.
The solution outlined w orks because the opposed movements
happen on the sam e side o f the screen in bo th shots.
T hough it is im p o rtan t to m aintain a co n stan t screen direction,
there is an o th er factor which m ust be taken care o f prior to
shooting the film.
The disconnected film shots will have to be assem bled later, and
it is essential to know when to cut from take to take to obtain a
sm ooth visual flow. T o achieve th at, certain conditions m ust be
observed.
174

Conditions o f the cut

The cut m ust afford continuity elem ents th a t prevent a confused
presentation o f the m aterial show n to the audience.
Three basic rules m ust be observed w hen joining two strips o f
film th a t record segm ents o f the sam e continuous m ovem ent.
These three rules involve m atching op eratio n s th at can be defined
is follow s:
1 m atch in g the position,
2 m atching th e m ovem ent, and
3 m atching th e look.
The first rule involves two types o f position m atching:
a the physical p o sition o f the a c to r s : their gesture, posture and
place o n the stage. T heir clothing m ust, o f course, be the
sam e from shot to shot,
b T heir po sitio n in the film fram e.
c The m ovem ent o f the people in the fram e m ust be continuous
as we m ove in closer o r aw ay fro m them by m eans o f a cut.
d The direction o f th eir m ovem ents m ust be m atched from shot
to shot.
The th ird m atching rule has only one requirem ent:
e two persons o r tw o groups addressing o r facing each o th er
look in o p p o sed directions.
When tw o people o r tw o groups m ove tow ard each o th er, we have
opposed screen directions, a n d yet their individual m ovem ents
m aintain co n stan t screen directions in respect o f the cam era.
One group always m oves to the right, an d the o th er to the left.
Both opposed scrcen m otions are in tercu t until the final reunion
is achieved. This use o f co ntrasted m otion is the basis o f conflicts
soldier m oving against soldier, ta n k against tan k , the In d ia n riders
against th e US cavalry, all m oving to a pay-off, a take where bo th
meet, always m ain tain in g the sam e direction o f m ovem ent.

Where to cut
At w hat stage o f a m ovem ent should we c u t? D uring, before, or
after th a t m ovem ent takes place?
Let us see w hat happens in a cut. T ake a sim ple exam ple: a
person stands facing the cam era. W e w ant to show a full sh o t o f
him where he is seen in relatio n to his environm ent, and th en we
would like to show him in m edium shot (on the sam e visual axis)
175

to highlight his facial expression. T here is no m ovem ent in either.

So we simply splice one shot after the other.
If these two edited shots are taken to a projector and watched on
the screen, the tran sitio n fro m take to take is jerky. There is a
visual ju m p on the screen a n d the transition from shot to shot
is an atten tio n -g etter th a t disturbs us m om entarily. W hy? Because
there is a change iri volum es. T h a t change is inevitable as we move
closer to o r farth er aw ay from a specific subject. T here is no way
to avoid it. O r is th ere ? W e need a distraction. T h at distraction
m ust take place in the m om ent o f the change o f shot, that is, on
the cut.
W hat sort o f d istraction is there so potent to shift o u r attention
du rin g a change ? T he answ er is sim plem ovem ent, any movement.
H ence it is b est to either cut o n the m ovem ent o r cut after the
m ovem ent. The m ore frequent cutting on the m ovem ent, i<T
generally applied to two types o f m otion peculiar to the screen:
m ovem ent inside the screen and m ovem ent entering and exiling
th e screen. These two types o f coverage serve to present the three''
basic m o tio n s o f a subjectcircular, horizontal an d vertical.
C utting on action
A lm ost every shot begins recording m ovem ent o f some kind.
T here are very few exceptions to this. The m otion show n may be a
cu t m atched with the m ovem ent a t the end o f the previous take.
O r if it is a cut-aw ay o r a newly introduced shot, a m ovem ent of
the person o r thing show n m ust sta rt it. It m ay even be a camera
m ovem ent.
"
The reason for this is simple. C utting on the m ovem ent will
ease the cu t to such a n extent th at the visual ja r produced when
changing the distance an d placem ent o f the cam era w ith respect to
the subjects, will pass unnoticed by the audience.
Even the big close shots th at cover dialogue between static
persons, start with m ovem ent. The perform er m ay be ju st opening
his m o u th to talk, o r m ight be m aking a facial expression previous
to the delivery o f his lines. O r one m ight see the attentive movem ent o f his eyes as he reacts to w hat is said to him, or his head
bending forw ard. T here are, in fact, quite a num ber o f small
unconscious m ovem ents th at an ac to r m akes when concentrating
m ovem ents th at are m agnified by the cam era in close shots.
M ost m atched cuts are m ade w ith the m oving character placed

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in the centre o f the screen, particularly if only one subject is

involved in the coverage. W hen two o r m ore perform ers are
shown, the screen is often divided in tw o halves, with the m atched
movement taking place in either half. Oniy the d om inant m ove
ment is m atched by cut. B ackground m otions, an d the direction
of those m ovem ents, are also m atched in addition to the m ain one
in foreground, if they are conspicuous enough an d if bo th shots are
done o n the sam e visual axis. G enerally, th at kind o f m ultiple
matching is avoided b u t in certain situations where m ovem ent is
difficult to control, such as in a m oving crow d, som e special
methods are applied to insure the sm oothness o f the cuts.
W hen actually film ing scenes whose action m ust be m atched,
the m ain ac to rs final m ovem ent a t the end o f the first shot is
tepeated once m ore in full at the start o f the next. Later, in the
editing room , they can be m atched. M ore often th an not, ab o u t
one-third o f the first shot m ovem ent an d tw o-thirds from the
second are used.

10
CUTTING AFTER THE MOVEMENT

Although cutting on the m ovem ent is the m ost extensively used

device for continuity cuts, let us first deal briefly with the technique
o f cutting after the m ovem ent. This type o f cutting is often
applied to approaches on the same visual axis.
The m ovem ent used m ay be where either the a c to r o r the
cam era m oves.
If the player m oves, he is seen approaching in a neutral direction
(in the centre o f the screen, com ing straight tow ards us), o r he
perform s a vertical m otion while staying in his place. M ovem ents
across the screen are no t very good for this type o f m atched cut.
If the cam era is m oving, it is either travelling sideways or vertically,
or panning in either o f those tw o directions. T he cut is usually
m ade from a full shot to a m edium or close shot.
The technique is simple. Two o r three fram es after the m otion
in the first shot has been com pleted, y o u cut to the close shot on
the same visual axis. This form ula is used alm ost exclusively for a
forw ard cut, it is seldom used to m ove back from a close shot to a
full shot.
H ere are some practical examples.
Case 1
Seen in full shot is the distant window o f a sm all bungalow.
Som ebody inside raises the blind. As soon as it is fully opened,
cut to a m edium shot o f th a t person, his arm still stretched up
wards to the to p o f the window. He is standing still and looking
out.
The first take contains all the m ovem ent. The second is a static
shot. (Fig. 10.1).
178

FIGURE 10.1 A fte r the completion of a vertical movement in the first shot there is
a cut to a second wherer to begin w ith, the subject is held stationary.

T he rising m o tio n contained on the long shot m u st be seen by

the audience as it com es to its full com pletion. In fact, tw o or
three fram es o f static picture m ust be left at the conclusion o f
this shot before cutting to the static closer view o f the m oving
subject. The second take, if desired, can be a side view o r a
reverse shot o f the m otionless subject.
Case 2
Here is an o th er exam ple o f a perform ers vertical m ovem ent. In
the previous exam ple an upw ard m otion was show n, now a dow n
ward m ovem ent is exam ined.
A young girl is seen o n her knees in full shot. She is searching for
som ething inside a bag.
Suddenly she picks out som e loose clothes contained in it and
throws them up, bending h er body dow n and then after th at
remaining m otionless.
As soon as she becom es static, there is a cut to a close shot o f her
on the sam e visual axis.
Fig. 10.2 shows the exam ples described.
179

FIGURE 10,2
the action.

A downward movement covered by using the principle o f cutting after

I f required, in the second shot you can cut back to a static

long shot o f the girl, seen small in the centre o f the screen, her
to rso bent.
Case 3
T he conclusion o f a m ovem ent in a neutral direction, particularly
a n o t too fast m otion, m ay be treated in this way. Tw o people
w alk tow ard us. T hey stop, facing us, in fuil shot.
As soon as they stop we cut to a m edium shot o f them , standing
still (Fig. 10.3).
N o u n p leasant ju m p should be visible in the tran sfer from one
shot to the o th er if the change in im age size is sufficiently great and
the subjects do n o t m ove substantially.
Case 4
This technique can be used o n the circular m ovem ent o f a subject
who tu rn s a n d throw s attention o n a static perform er standing
behind him (Fig. 10.4).
180

p8
FIGURE 10.3 An action in a neutral direction can be subjected to the technique of
cutting after the movement to advance the view to a closer shot.

FIGURE 10.4 An actor turns and throws attention on the player positioned behind
hirrt. As soon as he concludes the turn, there is a cut to a close shot o f the other
performer.

The editing o rd er w ould be like this:

Shot 1 Perform ers A and B facing the cam era. Player B is in
the foreground at the right side o f the screen. H e is
talking. Player A in the background listens. T hen B
tu rn s to face A. As soon as he stops turning, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f player A on the same visual axis. H e
listens, as the voice o f player B continues o ff screen.
181

We said in Case 3 th at the neutral m otion o f a player coming

tow ard the cam era could be used for a cut after the movement.
The same applies to neutral m otion going aw ay from us.

FIGURE 10.5 A situation in w hich a person moves away from the camera and towards
another person or object in the background throw s emphasis on that person or object.
This lends Itself to the technique ot cutting after the movement. As soon as t h B
moving player stops, cut to a closer view o f the person in the background.

In the first shot shown in Fig. 10.5, player A is seen moving

tow ards the prone body o f B. Player A stops halfw ay in his path
to B, and as he stops there is a cut to take 2, a close shot o f B, shot
on the sam e visual axis as before.
A fter the exact fram e in which player A stops a cut is m ade to the
forw ard cam era position where he is excluded. Player B was com
pletely static in b o th shots.
Case 6
A m ore conventional cut can be achieved w ith the same receding
m ovem ent as shown in Fig. 10.6.

FIGURE 10,6 In this example both players are featured in the second shot, after the
performer in motion has stopped near his partner.

In the first take, A walks aw ay tow ards B (w ho is static) an d

stops in fro n t o f him. As soon as he stops you cut to the second
take, which is an advance on the sam e visual axis. This solution
is seldom used because norm ally, m ore dynam ic approaches are
em ployed fo r this type o f scenc as will be discusscd later.
The sam e criterion o f m ore dynam ic solutions applies when
m otions across the screen m ust be dealt with. F o r the record, let
us describe an exam ple using a cut after the m o tio n is com pleted.
Shot 1 A static player on the left, profiled to the cam era, seen
in L ong Shot. The second p layer enters from the right,
walks across the screen an d stops, facing the static
one. Cut.
Shot 2 A M edium Shot o f both players profiled to the cam era.
The cu t m ade after the m ovem ent in the first shot had ceased,
was achieved on a com m on visual axis. A reverse situation, in
which the M edium Shot is used first, and the Long Shot afterw ards,
is a seldom used variant.
As pointed o u t above, m ore dynam ic approaches to this kind of
situation will be exam ined later when dealing into and ou t o f the
screen area.
183

Case 7
Sometimes a reverse cam era position is resorted to immediately
after the player has stopped in the first sh o t (Fig. 10.7).

m
p
41

FJGURE 10.7 A reverse anole is used lr> this example, where a cut after the movement
serves to Join both shots.

F ro m a height, we see a lonely ro ad flanked by tall trees. A lone

m a n o n horseback rides slowly aw ay from us. T hen he stops. Cut.
Reverse close sh o t o f the m an. His eyes are closed, his head
slightly bent dow n, he is asleep on the saddle.
Case 8
On some occasions the c u t is m ade in the pause o f the m ovem ent,
(Fig. 10.8).
184

FI SURE 10.8 A pause In the middle of a continuous motion can be used for the tech
nique of cutting after the movement to Join both shots.

Player B in the first shot places a lam p on the table. F o r three o r

four fram es his hand rem ains still o n the lam p. Cut.
Side shot. Bs han d in foreground m oves o u t o f the screen left.
Thus the pause in the m iddle o f a m ovem ent was used to change
the shot and ap p ro ach the m ain subject. This pause afforded an
opportunity to introduce a cut after the m ovem ent.
T he pau se at the conclusion o f the first shot can be longer if
dram atically necessary, provided th at you restart the m ovem ent
from th e first fram e o f the second shot.
Case 9

A walking m ovem ent can be treated in a sim ilar m anner. Player A

goes to a control panel, stops and depresses a switch. He rem ains
still fo r an instant. C ut. Side shot. H e tu rn s an d com es back
(Fig. 10.9).
The preceding examples dealt with fixed cam era positions, where
the perform ers executed the m ovem ents. The situation can be
reversed.

FIGURE 10.9 A walking movement in two opposite directions can be treated in the
same manner as the preceding example. A s soon as the man stops and before he
begins to turn, cut to the second shot where he turns and changes direction on the
screen. The cut takes place after the first part of the movement is complete, and a
short pause precedes the change in direction.

Case 10
O ur player is seated in the background. The cam era tracks from
right to left, showing an em pty conference table. Through an
archw ay we see a player, seated. The cam era travels until it frames
him centrally, then stops. Then, cut to a close shot on the same
visual axis, showing the m an slum ped on the seat, sleeping peace
fully.
186

mmm
^ o _ J = _ =

<
6

FIGURE 10.10 The camera movement involved here is a vertical tilt. The camera pans
up from subject A to performer B seen in the background. A s soon as the camera
ceases to pan upwards, cut to a closer view of player B.

Case 11
The technique is sim ilar fo r a panning shot. T he cam era is tilted
up from a subjcct in the foreground to fram e the open w indow o f a
building in the back ground where a person is seen, in the centre
of the screen. C ut to a closer shot on the sam e visual axis. (Fig.
10. 10).
A lthough this technique o f cutting after the m ovem ent is som e
how a lim ited one, it is very useful when unem phatic visual a p
proaches to a subject are desired. Since we cut as the m ovem ent
concludes, we fulfil the natu ral unconscious desire o f the audience
lo have a closer look at the subject to w hom atten tio n is draw n.

187

11
MOTION INSIDE THE SCREEN

T he ap p ro ach to screen presen tatio n o f a m ovem ent, whereby

fragm ents o f separate shots are cut together, creates a vitality
peculiar to the film m edium . O n a practical level, it enables us to
change o u r view point sm oothly aro u n d one o r a g roup o f charac
ters. W here two whole shots o f a single action are cut a good
general principle is to use one-third o f the m ovem ent (the start)
a t the end o f the first shot a n d tw o-thirds o f the movement_(the
conclusion) at th e beginning o f the second. This is n o t a strict rule
b u t it m ight be a good starting point. T he rigid rules th at some
film th eorists have a t one tim e set up an d said ca n n o t be broken
have created a g eneration o f film m aking habits that later had to be
discarded as false o r im practical. All rules can be broken if you
know w hat y o u are breaking, a n d why. In the present case, the
exact fram e o n which to cut from one shot to the o th er is deter
m ined by a visual com parison. T he strips are m oved up an d down
alongside each o ther, until tw o fram es are fo u n d th a t closely
m atch in p o sitio n and direction o f m ovem ent, w here the cut is
m ade. W ith practice you feel w here th a t cut should be.
O f course, the am ounts o f m o tio n in the film strips m ay vary
i.e. th e com plete m ovem ent in one m ay be longer, especially if
sh o t in two separate shots. H ence, m atching speed o f movement
w hen shooting should be sought for the two o r m ore shots whicK
are to be intercut.
I f ill-m atched, how ever, it is generally m ore satisfactory that
the m ovem ent be faster in the second fragm ent. A tw o, three or
fo u r shot reco n stru ction can be sh o rter o r longer th an the actual
m ovem ent. F o r exam ple, if the first take is a full sh o t and the
second a close shot, parts o f the m ovem ent m ay be repeated or, in
an o th er case, som e fram es m ay be discarded with n o loss of
188

smoothness in transition from one shot to the next. Som etim es a

matched cu t will seem im perfect when done for the first time,
because the m o tio n was not precisely m atched. It is easy to separate
the strips o f film and delete from one or bo th the few fram es
necessary to o btain a correct visual record. W ith som e practice
on the editing m achine, the knack for judging correctly alm ost at
first glance where to cut, will soon be obtained.
Turning
A person turning o n the spot where he is standing, sitting o r lying,
moves on the central axis o f his body in a right angle turn (90),
an ab o u t face (180) o r a full circle turn. T he third possibility is
the least interesting o f the three for an action cut. All these turning
movements can be covered by three o f the five variants inherent
in the triangle principle for cam era placem ent (page 32). It can be
readily u n d erstood th a t a set o f internal reverse angles and a pair
of parallel cam era positions are unsuitable for shooting a con
tinuous m otion, due to the divergent coverage given by these
camera set-ups. Let us take a look a t the possibilities:
Case 1
A pair o f external reverse shots can be used to p h o tograph the
turning m otion o f a player in a group. In the first shot both
players face the cam era, one located in foreground and the other
fuTther back. The player in fro n t turns. His turning m otion is
completed on the second shot. B oth players m aintain the same
screen positions in b o th shots (Fig. 11.1).
Case 2
A right angle tu rn with a right angle cam era coverage is o u r next
example. Figure 11.2 shows both cam era sites and the pictorial
composition they record. Only one player m oves in the scene.
The ap p ro ach is quite sim ple as can be seen here.
Case 3
.An advance on the sam e visual axis is one o f the m ost com m only
used devices for cutting on the action o f a person who turns.
189

FIGURE 11.1 One player's single turning movement Is divided Into tw o shots. Both
players maintain their screen areas. A reverse angle camera coverage is employed.

A player seen in m edium shot in the first take, is profiled to a side

o f the screen. T hen he starts to tu rn his head tow ards us. C ut to a
close shot where he ends his turning m otion. H e now faces the
cam era. B oth takes have the sam e visual axis, an d the player is
positioned in the sam e sector o f the screen in bo th shots: either in
the centre o r in one o f the three side areas into which the screen has
been com positionally divided. Fig. 11.3 shows the m ost simple
approach.
Case 4
W idening the group o r narrow ing it to one player as the second
shot is introduced, as p art o f the m atched m ovem ent, is the next

FIGURE 11.3
movement.

A n advance on a co m m on visual axis fs used here to cover th e tu rn fn g

possibility. Several exam ples will give an idea o f the various

treatm ents which are feasible.
The use o f a right angle perm its two approaches in the second
shot. In the first shot, the d o m in an t player is alone, facing the
cam era. A s he tu rns 90 to one side, we cut to a right angle
cam era site where he is either in the centre o f the screen or to one
side o f it. I f he is in the centre the o th er players w ho have been
introduced occupy the sides. If the do m in an t player is in a side
area, the rem aining screen area is occupied by the newly introduced
perform ers. Fig. 11.4 shows bo th approaches.

FIGURE 11.4 The exampfes shown here show two approaches for the second shot
where the group j$ broadened to include one or several more players. The central
player turns, covered by a righ t angle camera position which unites both shots.

192

Case 5
Ihe same principle works when an advance on a com m on visual
axis is em ployed to widen o r narrow the group presented to the
audience, using the d o m inant turn in g m otion o f one o f the players
as an excuse to introduce o r exclude the group around this
dominant player in the scene (Fig. 11.5).
1
1

FIGURE 11.5 Here the group Is reduced from two persons to one by moving closer
to the turning player. Emphasis is given to her and her movement.

Case 6
If a com bination o f external and internal reverse angle is used,
the same effect o f w idening or reducing the group on the screen,
can be obtained (Fig. 11.6).
All the exam ples quoted so far have involved groups o f players
placed on firm ground. But if they are located on a moving
193

FIGURE 11.6 A n Internal and external reverse camera position deployed around tfc?
turning player are used In this example to throw visual emphasis on the central
performer,

vehicle, this turning m otion will dom inate the background move
m ent. If the approach to the second shot is on the sam e visual
axis, the background m ovem ent will alw ays be in the same direc
tion. I f a reverse external com bination is resorted to, the movement
in the background will have opposed directions. If a right angle
is used, one o f the cam era positions will register a background
m ovem ent, while the o ther m ay have its background blocked by an
obstruction. If the background can be seen, the direction of
m otion glimpsed there will be in a neutral direction, either for
w ard o r backw ards.
In all instances, the foreground m otion dom inates, and is the
one th at m ust be precisely m atched.
194

Case 7
There is a situation where opposed sense o f direction in the two
fragments o f the same continuous m otion occurs. This is where a
lone perform er is covered by a p air o f external reverse angles
on the extrem e p o in ts o f a n 180 degree arc th ro u g h w hich he turns
(Fig. 11.7).
'

FIGURE 11.7 Opposed senses o f direction are obtained when a lone player is shown
turning as recorded from external reverse camera positions.

Shot 1 Player in close shot, facing the cam era. H e begins to

tu rn ab o u t face and ends with his back to us.
Shot 2 Reverse full shot. O u r player is in the centre o f the
picture with his back to us, and then turns to the cam era
and stops.
When editing these tw o shots, the first h alf o f the turning m otion
is used from the first, and the com plem entary h a lf begins the
second. In the first the player m oves from centre to one side;
in the second from the opposite side to the centre. T he conflicting
directions are not confusing because the perform er turning m ove
195

m ent is clear to us. He starts and concludes facing us. Sudden turns
are often covered in this way.
Case 8
A sudden tu rn by two persons can be covered by the same pro
cedure. B oth players begin to tu rn aw ay from us together, from
th e centre to a side o f the screen, in the first shot, a n d end turning
from the o p p o site side to the centre as seen from the second
(Fig. 11.8).

FIGURE 11,8 Tw o players who turn round sim ultaneously Switch their screen
positions in the second shot, if the movement is film ed from external reverse camera
sites.

W ith external reverse angle cam era sites, the players switch
screen positions.
Case 9
W here an ac to r tu rn s as he walks, the p ath o f m ovem ent is an
arc shaped figure. I f we wish to stress the change o f direction here
a p air o f reverse external sites o r a right angle cam era position
will do it.
N o t only m u st we c u t on the action, bu t also locate the per
form er in the same screen sector in both shots. Fig. 11.9 shows an
exam ple involving external reverse angles.

FIGURE 11.9 The turning movement of a sinote performer should occur In the same
area o f the screen for both shot3 into which the movement Is divided.

Rising
This is a vertical m otion. It does not m atter by which com bination
of takes we record the rising m ovem ent (approach on the same
visual axis, right angles o r external reverse shots). T he m otion will
always have the same directionupw ards.
Case 10
If we wish to keep the m ovem ent within the boundaries o f the
screen fram e, it is best to cut from a m edium shot to a backw ard
full shot, o r to a forw ard close shot.
197

Fig. 11.10 illustrates a rising m ovem ent th at begins in m edium

shot and is com pleted in full shot. Both shots have a com m on
visual axis.

FIGURE 11.10 A common visual axis on w hich the camera retreats lor the second
shot l i used here to record a player rising.

Case 11
In this exam ple the m otion begins in m edium shot and concludes
in close shot o f the sam e subject. A gain the second sh o t has the
same visual axis as the first, where the m ovem ent originates
(Fig. 11.11).
Case 12
Here a right angle cam era position registers the upw ard m otion of
the rising player (Fig. 11.12).
198

FIGURE 11.11 A common visual axis is used for both shots, but In this exampfe the
second camera position Is forw ard of the first.

FIGURE 11.12
rising.

A righ t angle camera arrangement is used to cover the central player

199

Case 13
A com bination o f an external and an internal reverse angle, pro
vides num ber co ntrast (page 52) w hen dealing w ith a rising motion
in the picture area (Fig. 11.13).

u
FIGURE 11.13 A n Internal and external reverse angle around the rlBing performer It
employed In th is example.

S ittin g and reclining

C om plete coverage for sitting an d reclining m ovem ents filmed in
two p arts can be obtained by using the sam e sense o f direction for
b o th p arts or, m ore irregularly, opposed directions.
200

Case 14
If the cam era sites are on a com m on visual axis, the sitting
motion o f a player can be covered on the sam e sector o f the screen
in both shots. In the first shot the perform er begins to sit dow n
and finishes in the second, w ithout leaving the screen boundaries
(Fig. 11.14). W e m ay cu t from a full shot to a m edium shot o r
vice versa.

FIGURE 11.14
rrc vem ert.

A common visual a*ls Is ussd here to cover a player's downward

Case IS
A lone perform er sitting dow n, covered from external reverse
angles is registered as two opposed arc m ovem ents on the screen.
201

The hum an body, due to its peculiar constitution, achieves a

sitting position by bending its fram e in an arc shape and travelling
a curved p ath dow nw ards.
The opposition o f directions is obtained because the player has
a profiled body position in bo th shots.

FIGURE 11.15 A reverse angle camera arrangement shows the actor sitting down.
Opposed senses of downward directions (to the rig h t first and to the (eft after) are
obtained with th is approach.

Figure 11.15 shows th at a sitting m ovem ent th at begins, right,

is com pleted, left, in the reverse shot. F o r sm oothness, the move
m ent should be in the sam e sector o f the screen, even if one shot is
a m edium shot an d the reverse shot is a long shot, as show n here.
Case 16
Reclining m ovem ents done from the waist, are subject to the same
rule o f opposed direction in the tw o fragm ents into which the
continuous m otion m ight be broken.
202

FIGURE 11.16 The recllnino player on the righ t o f the screen moves w ith opposed
senses of direction in the change from one shot to another. In the firs t shot he moves
from right to centre, and in the second from centre to righ t.

The exam ple in Fig. 11.16 has an external reverse angle coverage,
and only one player m oves.
Shot 1 Player B is going to recline on his right elbow. His
body m oves fro m right to centre o f the screen as he
begins to recline.
Shot 2 Player B in the reverse shot finishes reclining b u t now
m oves centre to right.
The reclining player m oves always in the sam e screen sector b u t
with opposed m ovem ent directions in each shot, and the second
part o f the m ovem ent com plem ented the one show n in the first
shot. B oth players retained th eir screen areas o n b o th shots.
203

Case 17
The ju x tap o sitio n o f external a n d internal reverse cam era positk
aro u n d the reclining player produces opposed senses o f m otic
different sectors o f the screen. Fig. 11.17 shows th a t the perfor
reclining to the left, as seen in S hot 1 (internal reverse), m oves fr.
centre to left. But he com pletes his m o tio n fram ed in Shot
(external reverse) where he m oves from centre to right. In Shot I
he faced us, b u t in S hot 2 he has his back to the cam era, which
accounts fo r the opposed directions.

FIGURE 11.17 In this example the opposed directions o f a continuous movementare

stressed, because in the firs t shot player B moves from centre to left, and in the second
from centre to rtoht.

Case 18
In the two previous cases we cut from a fro n t view o f the subject
in m o tio n to a re ar view. A reversal o f the procedure can be used,
covering with external a n d internal cam era sites. Contrasting
directions o f m ovem ent in the sam e sector o f the screen are ob
tained. Fig. 11.18 shows one player pushing the other across the
204

screen, covered from an external reverse shot. T he falling m otion

is com pleted using a n internal cam era position.

I
FIGURE I f .18 Opposed directions for a continuous movement are obtained by using
an internal and an external reverse shot.

The external cam era position is level with the players, b u t the
internal coverage is from a low angle showing the end o f the
pushed m ans fall.

Case19
It is conceivable th a t b o th players m ight m ove together, reclining
0 1 one side. This m ovem ent is fragm ented in tw o sections an d the
205

players will have opposed directions o f m otion in the external

reverse shots. They would move as a single unit. Their positions
would be constant on the same areas o f the screen from shot to
shot. A bout one-third o f the m ovem ent is seen from the first
cam era site, the rem ainder in the second (Fig. 11.19).

FIGURE 11.19 W han both players move to one side, reclining together. a reverse
angle camera coverage produces opposed senses o f direction fo r both characters
on the screen.

Case 20
In these tw o exam ples the actors m aintained the sam e screen
sectors bu t the following exam ple introduces a v arian tthe
moving p erform er in Shot I m oves from side to centre o f the
206

screen and com pletes his m o tio n in the second shot by moving
from the opposite side o f the screen to the centre (Fig. 11.20).

FIGURE 11.20 Opposed senses of direction and an exchange o f screen areas is ob

tained by the method depleted here. In the first shot the reclining player moves from
left to centre, and in the second she moves from righ t to centre. She Is always kept
In the centre of the screen. Her partner shifts sides.

S hot 1 Players A a n d B sitting w ith their backs to us. P erform er

A begins to recline tow ards B. She m oves from the left
to the centre o f the screen.
Shot 2 Reverse external shot. Player A m oves tow ards from
B. She com pletes her m otion by reclining from the right
to th e centre o f the screen.
The first shot was a full shot o f b o th players, an d the second is a
close sh o t o f b o th facing the cam era.

W alking and running

T he m ovem ents exam ined in the previous sections concerned
m otion on a spot. I t is tim e now to liberate o u r player and allow
him to w alk o r run. R unning and w alking, w hether continuous or
in terrupted, are am ong the m o st frequent m ovem ents th a t m ust be
filmed.

Using external reverse shots

Case 21
A n external reverse coverage o f a walking o r running movement
records m ovem ent o f the player in tw o neutral directions, going
straight aw ay from an d tow ards the cam era. These tw o directions
can be altern ated in their presen tatio n to ob tain tw o sim ple and
basic variations. T he o p eratio n is sim ple. In the first shot we see
o u r m ain perfo rm er m ove away. In the second he com es towards
us a n d stops. O ne-third o f the m ovem ent was covered in the first
sh o t an d the rem aining tw o-thirds in the second (Fig. 11.21).
N otice th a t b o th cam era positions are on the sam e side o f the
line o f m ovem ent. This becom es im p o rtan t if an object seen in the
b ack g ro u n d in th e first shot is included in foreground on the second.
T his object m ust be in the sam e sector o f the screen in b o th shots.
The cam era can be placed a t the sam e o r different height in the
shots. Instead o f w alking tow ards a n object, o u r player m ay walk
to a w aiting person, using the sam e technique. T he am o u n t of
trajectory recorded in each sh o t can be reversed. T w o-thirds of
the m o tio n in the first shot (going aw ay), one-third in the second
tak e (com ing tow ards us).

Case 22
A reversal o f the tw o basic shots is the next solution, as pointed
o u t above. In the first shot the player com es tow ards us, and in the
second he m oves away. H e does n o t go ou t o f the screen in either
shot. W hen he reaches a full shot o r a m edium shot moving
straight tow ards us in the first shot, cut to the second shot where
he is seen from behind m oving aw ay in a neutral direction, also
fram ed in a full shot o r m edium shot (Fig. 11.22).
208

FIG U RI 11.!!

A n external reverse camera coverage lo r a line of movement.

Case 23
The walking or running m ovem ent m ay be a continuous or dis
continuous m ovem ent.
N ow fo i the second variation. The m otion is interrupted once
near its middle. O u r perform er approaches, stops for a m om ent,
and th e n goes aw ay to his goal. Here is how the takes are edited
as show n in Fig. 11,23.
Shot 1 Player A com es to us an d stops in close shot, looking
off-screen, right. H e m ay rem ain silent o r speak some
lines.
209

I
I
J
FIGURE 11.22 Movement in a neutral direction is covered by a frontal and a rear
camera position, w ithout letting the player go out of the screen on either shot.

FIGURE 11.23

A discontinuous walking movement can be covered with two shots.

210

FIGURE 11.24 A player advancing towards an Identifiable goal, in a discontinuous

movement can be covered w ilh four camera positions.

Shot 2 Reverse. Player A starts m oving aw ay tow ards B in the

background, w ho is w aiting there.
Case 24
This co ntinuous m ovem ent within the screen can also be recorded
using four cam era positions, as in Fig. 11.24.
211

Shot 1 Player A in foreground w ith his back to us. B in the

b ack ground waiting. A starts to move. H e w alks away
from us.
S hot 2 Reverse. Player A approaches and stops in close shot,
looking off screen, right.
S hot 3 Reverse. Player A in foreground with his b ack to us.
B seen b eyond in the background. A again starts to walk
tow ards the w aiting perform er.
S hot 4 Reverse. P layer B in foreground w ith his b ack to us. He
waits. A arrives an d stops in fro n t o f B.
B oth actors m aintained co n stan t sectors in all the shots into which
the d iscontinuous m o tio n o f one player was fragm ented.
Case 25
I f the n eutral m o tio n o f the w alking o r running player is filmed
from tw o high cam era positions, the player will ascend in one take
an d desccnd in the o ther (Fig. 11.25). As we cut from shot to shot,

FIGURE 11.25 A neutral direction covered by two high camera positions set on re
verse angles, records this movement as a descending one in the first shot and
as an ascending movement in the second.

212

the objects or persons aro u n d the m oving perform er will change

from one side o f the screen to the other.
Case 26
The m ovem ent covered from tw o external reverse cam era positions
Is no t always in a neutral direction. M ost o f the tim e this m otion
has a diagonal p ath th a t extends from one side o f the screen to its
centre. The five preceding exam ples can be filmed w ith the walking
or run ning player m oving obliquely.
Som etim es the sense o f direction o f this oblique m ovem ent can
be changed to m ake it ap p ear continuous on the screen. T h at is
what happens in o u r next exam ple, as illustrated in Fig. 11.26.
The real direction in which player C m oves, is changed from
shot 1 to shot 2, so th a t on the screen it appears to be the same
continuous m o tio n in b o th shots.
In the tw o shots in to which the m otion is fragm ented, Player C
moves in th e sam e sector o f the screen, from right to centre, in a
diagonal path. In the first shot A an d B have their backs to the
camera. Player C is seen m oving behind B an d approaching the
centre o f th e screen.
W hen we cut to the reverse shot, B an d A reverse positions on
the screen a n d face the cam era. Player C, seen in foreground close
to the lig h t side o f the screen, m oves aw ay from us to the centre
and stops, facing th e o th er players.
The second fragm ent o f the m otion is false because the reverse
position o f the second cam era site changes the sense o f direction
of the m oving player: she ought to m ove from left to centre.
T o obtain, sm ooth continuity her direction o f m ovem ent is
changed, giving this fragm ent the sam e direction as the first.
The floor plan illustrated in Fig. 11.26 shows the situation clearly.
Using a common visual axis
Case 27
Now exam ine a walking o r running m ovem ent from two cam era
sites on. the sam e visual axis. These neutral m ovem ents aw ay from
or tow ards th e cam era straight o r obliquely and in the same
screen sector. Fig. 11.27 illustrates a simple ap p ro ach to running
movement, A p lay er m oves from foreground to a position far
213

FIGURE 11.26 Sometimes the direction of movement is changed fo r the second shot
to make It consistent with the direction shown in the first.

away. T w o-thirds o f the p ath are covered in the first shot. In the
second, (forw ard, o n the sam e visual axis) the player nearest the
cam era m oves aw ay to his goal an d halts. T he cut is m ade on the
action w ith the rem aining one-third o f the p a th covered in the
second shot. The player m oved in the sam e sector o f the screen in
b o th sh o ts: fro m the right to the centre.
O f course, we can reverse the direction o f the oblique path jo
th a t it runs from left to centre in both shots. The same principle
app lies. It is the concept used th at m atters m o stthe execution is
quite simple.
214

FIGURE 11,27 Two camera positions are placed on a common visual axis, used here
to cover a running player.

T o sh o o t this you let the perform er run o r w alk from one p o in t

to the o th er in the first shot. T hen, w ith the cam era forw ard, and
the ac to r in fro n t a n d with his back to it, sta rt the shot an d instruct
the player to ru n again along the rem aining p a rt o f his path . Later,
in editing you cut o n the action, first rem oving the latter p a rt o f the
first shot and the static section o f the second.
Case 28
This sam e solution can be applied to tw o people m oving together
away from the cam era. In the Fig. 11.28 exam ple this is a short
distance.
Shot 1 Full shot. Players A, B a n d C are talking. T hen B and
A tu rn and waik away together.
S hot 2 M edium shot. This position is a n advance on a com m on
visual axis. Players A a n d B, close to the cam era, stop
w alking aw ay from us a n d stop to talk.
215

FIGURE 11.28 Tw o players move away in a neutral direction and are covered by two
camera srtes on a common visual axJs.

N o m ore th an five steps were involved in the distance covered by

th e tw o perform ers. In the first shot three steps were w alked, and
tw o in the second, N um ber c o n tra st has been added by excluding
one acto r (player C) from the second shot.
Case 29
In the previous exam ples the second cam era position was forward
o n th e com m on visual axis. It could have been fu rth er back (Fig.
11.29).
S h o t 1 M edium shot. T he p layer is facing the cam era in the
centre o f the screen. H e tu rn s and walks away.
S h o t 2 L ong shot. T he p erfo rm er in the centre walks away.
Case 30
In the preceding case the first sh o t covered a sh o rt distance travelled
by th e player, the second a lengthy one. Reversed, b u t using the
sam e visual solution is Fig. 11.30.
216

Shot 1 M edium shot. Player A standing nearby, back to the

cam era an d on the right side o f the screen, w alks away
in a n oblique p ath tow ards B, who is waiting in the
background, left. W hen A is close to B, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Same visual axis. Full shot. A (centre) walks two steps
tow ards B a n d stops beside her.
The key to this technique consists in having the m obile subjcct
concludc his m ovem ent a t the beginning o f the second shot, in the
centre o f th e screen, by walking only one or tw o steps and stopping
at th at point.
The same principle can be applied to a full sh o tm edium shot
camera coverage.
Case 31
Now consider som e cases where the player moves, n o t aw ay from
but tow ards us.
In the first o f these shots the m an (or vehicle) is approaching in
217

full shot (centre). W hen he is crow ding the film fram e (and this
does no t m ean th a t his body obscures o u r view com pletely, it
suffices fo r instance to have his head reach the to p boundary o f the
screen), cut to Shot 2. O n the sam e visual axis this, to o , is a full
shot.
T he m an placed in the centre o f the screen approaches once
m ore and stops in foreground. T he effect is to w iden the view in
the second take because the approaching m otion o f the player made
him grow on the screen, an d creates the visual need to cut back to
relate him w ith his surroundings and show his final goal. The first
fragm ent o f this continuous m ovem ent served to identify the playei
to the audience as well as to show his intentions o r feelings. Fig,
11.31 show s this situation.
T here was alm ost equal m ovem ent in these shots b u t a higher
or lower cam era position could be used for the second to contrast
with the (level) first.

Case 32
The follow ing exam ple is widely used by film m akers to show the
beginning o f a w alking m ovem ent. It m akes use o f repetitive
motion in th e sam e zone o f the screen (Fig. 11.32).
First, A is seen in close shot looking off-screen right. H e then starts
to m ove to th a t side. H is head approaches in a diagonal from the
centre to th e right. W hen his face touches the edge o f the screen,
cut to the second shot. This new (full) shot is placed fu rth er back
on a com m on visual axis w ith the player seen centrally, m oving
diagonally right.
Case S3
Now a static subject is seen in the shot o f a rapidly approaching
agure. P erfo rm er B in m edium shot, b ack to the cam era an d o n the
right o f the screen, w aits for A w ho approaches in a straight line
peft side o f screen). T he second shot is a close sh o t placed fo rw ard
on the sam e visual axis as the first. H ere B is seen in foreground
on the rig h t, w ith his b ac k to the cam era, an d in a huge close shot.
219

Mu

FIGURE 11*32 The beginning of a movement indicating departure can be Initiated

in a close shot and completed in a full shot placed on a common visual axis. There is
screen sector repetition for the fragments of motion.

A on the left, seen closer to o , stops w alking an d arrives in front

o f B. T he first tw o-thirds o f the m ovem ent are show n in the
full shot, the rem ainder in the d o s e shot (Fig, 11.33),

FIGURE 11.33 A m otion Indicating the arrival of a player at a destination in the fore
ground on both shots.

Com 34

Two cam era sites on a com m on visual axis can be used twice to
film a discontinuous action such as th at shown in Fig. 11.34.
Shot 1 The lone rider m oves in the centre third o f the screen
in a full shot. He is seen small over the ridge m oving
obliquely left to centre.
Shot 2 M edium shot. T he rider at the left screen edge a p
proaches us an d stops in m id-screen, looking to right.
Shot 3 C ut-away. F ull shot. H erd o f horses grazing on the
plain. This shot represents w hat the rider is seeing.
Shot 2 M edium shot. The rider in the centre o f the screen
begins to m ove again, advancing until his figure is
close to th e right edge.
Shot ] Full shot. The rider in the centre o f the screen m oves to
the right, advancing tow ards us. His m otion in this shot
always takes place w ithin the central screen area.
Shot 3 Reverse full shot. T he herd o f horses grazing on the
plain, the rider in centre foreground m oving aw ay from
us tow ards the herd.
Shots 1 and 2, on a com m on visual axis, were used twice, to cover
the discontinuous m otion o f the rider. N otice how the first time
those shots were em ployed, only the left area o f the screen was
used in b o th shots. A fter the cut-aw ay, both takes showed rider
moving from the centre to the right.
Thus th e left an d right screen areas were used in pairs, with
repetitive m otion in each sector before changing shot. The sequence
was; left sector (twice) cut-aw ayright sector (twice) reverse
shot (same site as cut-away). The rider was placed in foreground,
descending the slope tow ards the valley, thus capping the sequence
and reaffirming the value o f the cut-aw ay show n before, by the
rider covering the sam e ground. In fact, this cut-aw ay an d reverse
shot could have been shot on a different location from th at o f the
player.
By intercutting these tw o shots the two locations ap p e a r to be
the same place.
This time and place m anipulation is quite frequent on the
screen for practical reasons. It perm its the film m aker to m ake use
of outstanding locations th at are far a p a rt geographically. I f the
situation being shot allows it, we should resort to this recourse.
221

i
%

fw
m

FIGURE 11.34 Each o f the takes shown here Is used tw ice to cover the discontin uoua
motion of an approaching player who stops to reconnoitre the terrain and advances
again Into new territory.

Case 35

In the diagonal m otion across the screen, as depicted in Fig. 11.35,

half screen areas are used for each shot.

I
J

FIGURE 11.35 A diagonal movement across the screen Is covered using half screen
areas In each s h o t

A in the foreground, in full shot, w alks diagonally to B, seen in

long shot in the background. W hen A reaches the centre o f the
screen cut to a m edium shot. In this second sh o t fram ing A o n the
same visual axis and in the centre o f the screen, he continues m ov
ing away from the cam era diagonally from centre to right and
stops, facing B, who rem ained at screen right in b o th shots.
Right angle camera sites
Motion inside the screen is enhanced by the use o f right angle
camera sites, because this m ethod allow s to cover m o tio n over a
223

larger span o f terrain. A com m on visual axis for both camera

em placem ents lim its the view for across the screen m otion, cir
cum scribing it to a narrow space. R ight angle positions afford a
com bination o f across-the-screen an d diagonal m otion, or acrossthe-screen an d neutral direction m ovem ent.

Case 36
M o tio n by halves o f screen space is em ployed in the following
exam ple, using positions with a right angle ra p p o rt. In the first shot
th e player w alks across one h alf o f the screen, while in the shot that
follow s he m oves diagonally in the o th er h a lf area o f the picture
fram e (Fig. 11.36).

FIGURE 11.36 A noth er variant of movement covered by hall screen areas In each
shot. A right angle is used fo r the camera viewpoints.

Shot 1 Subject A o n the right side o f the screen, near the

b o rd er, m oves to the centre across the screen. When he
arrives there, a n d is still m oving, cut to . . .
224

FIGURE 11.37 A

Ight

angle

camera disposition covers

the

departing player.

Shot 2 Close shot o f A with his back to us, occupying the

full h alf right side o f the screen, moves away in a
diagonal to th e left side and stops in the background.
Case 37
A perform er m oving from one place to an o th er w ithout leaving
the boundaries o f the screen, m ay cover a long trajectory using two
shots th a t have a right angle relationship, by applying a neutral
225

direction m otion in the second shot. Fig. 11.37 illustrates a device

frequently em ployed by film m akers.
A crosses screcn right to left. As he reaches the third sector, left,
cut to a right angle cam era position, where we sec him move
away from us. The end o f Shot 1 an d beginning o f Shot 2 are on
the same picture a re a an im p o rtan t condition for this type of
cut. If the m oving figure is no t precisely positioned the cut will
not be sm ooth.
Case 38
Shot order can be reversed to cover an approaching movement,
instead o f a receding one as above (Fig. 11.38).

"

- '

R ightangle camera coverage of a movementthat usesth* centra o1the

screen as the centre lor cutting between shots.

F1GURE11.38

Player A, close to the left b o rd er o f the screen in the first shot

m oves to the centre. T here we cut to shot two, where A, centre, is
seen in long shot, approaching in a neutral direction.
A reversal in which the player comes to the cam era in a neutral
226

direction in th e first shot, and u p o n reaching a m edium shot, we

cut to th e second sh o t where he moves in m edium shot from centre
to side across the screen. This device is seldom used, although
technically feasible.
The technique being discussed here requires th a t the player in
motion has th e sam e screen size on bo th shots at the m om ent of
the cut, so th a t his second m ovem ent, either receding o r approach
ing, enlarges o r dim inishes his figure. D iscrepancies in the size of
the subject on the cut will render it aw kw ard.

FIGURE 11.39 R lflht angle coverage for a movement that takes place in the centre
o ith e screen In both shots.

Case 39
When a n eutral m ovem ent in the first shot ends in a half-screen
227

m otion in the second shot, it is n o t necessary for the moving

subject to enter the boundaries o f the screen in the second. He
may ap p ear from beh in d one o f the perform ers already located in
foreground. Thus, his horizontal m otion is shortened.
In Fig. 11.39 we see th a t in the first shot perform er A moves
tow ards us centrally o n the screen. W hen she is near B, we cut to
the second shot. S hot 2 is a side shot where A m oves from behind
B a n d walks across the picture area, stopping in the centre between
the static B an d C. T o shoot A leaving, after speaking to C, we have
only to reverse th e shot order b u t using the sam e cam era sites.
W hen A d isappears behind B (as seen from the second camera
position) cu t to the first cam era site, where player A (centre)
walks aw ay in a n eutral direction.

Case 40
T he fram e o f an open d o o r o r any o th er type o f fixed aperture
seen in the first shot, can be used to fram e the second p a rt of the
fragm ented m o tio n in the second shot (Fig, 11.40).

if- ^ r i

FIGURE 11.40 A noth er variant for righ t angle coverage of a movement that takes
pJace in the centre of the screen in both shots.

Shot 1 A player advances dow n a c o rrid o r tow ards the camera

in full shot. As he nears a d o o r left, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Inside the room , looking through the door. He appears
from the left in the doorw ay and stops to look in
to w ard s the cam era.
228

r
Both fragm ents o f m otion were centrally placed in the picture and
the player m oved from left to centre in the second take, because
the door was on the left side o f the corridor. But if instead th at
door were on the right, the cam era (site 3, Fig. 11.40) w ould see
him appearing from the right. Shot 1 would rem ain the same
because o f the n eutral m ovem ent.
Case 41
If the ap p ro ach in the first shot is oblique the second shot m ust
be placed on the sam e side o f the line o f m otion (Fig. 11.41).
I

t
FIGURE 11.41 Right angle coverage that uses halt screen movements in different
sectors for each shot.

Shot 1 A moves o n the right sector o f the screen. He walks

diagonally from background to centre. W hen he is
betw een B and C, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Side shot. Player A in the centre walks to the left and
stops there.
229

Both were fuJJ shots, and the centre o f the screen was used t
match the movement.
Case 42
N ow consider a case where /n the first take the m otion is from the
centre to one side and in the second shot from the opposite side
to the centre o f the screen (Fig. 11.42) i.e. the reverse o f the above.

Player A, centre, looking right, moves right: as he reaches the

right picture edge, cu t to the second shot from behind, framing
him left o f centre walking aw ay diagonally to the centre screen

A right angle coverage of a w alking o r running perform er can be

used to relate tw o different areas o f the set. Player A w alks across
the screen (centre to side) in the first shot, going away from C.
In the second shot he is already in the centre (m edium shot with
his back to us, fram ed from the w aist up) an d walks aw ay in a
diagonal to the right tow ards B. A ctor D on the left side o f the
screen, in the b ack ground, w atches his m ovem ent (Fig. 11.43).

i
FIGURE 11.43 Two different zones on the set are linked by the movement of a player
seen from right angled camera sites.

231

Case 44
Finally, a case where three takes (one at right angles to the
others) cover a running m an. T he exam ple has one peculiarity:
m ovem ent is cen tral in all three shots (Fig. 11.44).

FIGURE 11.44 The second camera position In this example Is at right angles to the
other two camera sites. The motion of the player Is recorded on the central sector
o f the screen In the three shots.

S hot 1 F ull shot. A n escaped convict in the centre o f the

screen runs aw ay fro m us (neutral direction) on a bare
m arshy plain.
232

Shot 2 Long shot. Seen very small on the screen, the convict
runs across left to right, within the central sector.
Shot 3 Full shot. H e is seen small in the centre o f the screen,
com es up to the cam era and stops in foreground
(m edium shot) to catch his breath.
Because the action is confined to the centre o f the screen it is easy
for the audience to follow the action even though the subject is
sometimes seen in very small scale.

Movement across the screen

When joining tw o fragm ents o f a continuous action w ithin the
boundaries o f the picture, m ovem ent across the screen m ay be used
to show the arrival o r d eparture o f a perform er as follow s:

Case 45
A. simple situ atio n ; in the first shot the perform er (centre) faces
the cam era and, tu rn in g round, he m oves to the left. His face
does n o t leave the screen in this shot but, on reaching the left
margin, cu t to the m edium shot where the perform er now in the
centre moves o u t o f fram e left (Fig. 11.45).
I

FIGURE 11.45 A movement across the screen seen (rom two camera sites on a
common visual axis.

233

Case 46
The next exam ple (Fig. 11.46) differs from the preceding one only
in th at the perform er is already profiled o n the screen in the first
shot. H is m otion there is sim ilar to the first shot in the previous
example, while the second shot is the same.
i

FIGURE 11.40 T his example Is sim ilar to that preceding, with the difference that the
player Is already profiled to the camera In the first shot.

Case 47
The variation shown next (Fig. 11.47) uses a long shot for the
second shot. The first shot is sim ilar to the one in the preceding
exam ple; w hen his face reaches the side o f th e screen, cut to the
long shot w here the tiny figure o f the player, right, walks slowly
to the left w here he stops.
Case 48
The technique o f m atching action in the sam e screen area in
consecutive shots, serves also to unite a panning shot an d a static
cam era shot th at record an across-the-screen m ovem ent (Fig.
11.48). T he player in the first shot runs from right to left framed
in the right screen sector in a m edium shot th a t pans with him.
His body position is m atch cut at the end o f this first shot with the
beginning o f the second, where he is fram ed in full shot with a
234

FIGURE 11,47 The difference between this exampJe and the two preceding Is that a
long shot is used for the second shot. The player does not need to go out o f the
second shot as In the previous cases.

FIGURE 11,48 By keeping the player constantly in the same sector o f the screen, a
panning and a static shot can be Joined smoothly.

235

static camera. In the second shot he runs from right to left, where
he stops. Both tak es have the same visual axis. T his solution is
often used to conclude a w alking o r running m otion across the
screen.
Case 49
H ere a h o rizontal m otion is filmed using opposed screen sectors
b u t with the m otion alw ays having the sam e sense o f direction.
In th e first shot (close shot) the m oving player walks from centrc
to right, close to the screen edge. In the second (full shot) he
w alks from the left to centre and stops (Fig. 11.49).

FIGURE 11.49 A horizontal movement covered by tw o parallel camera positions uses

different areas of the screen for each shot. In the firs t, the player moves from centre
to side, and In the second from the opposite side to the centra.

Case 50
U sing cousecutive screen sectors side/centre, cen tre/o th er side,
o n a com m on visual axis, Fig. 11.50 shows som eone in fro n t of a
group w ho starts to leave in th e first m edium shot profile view
(screen right), a n d m oves to the centre. C u t to a full shot o f the
group with him m oving centre to left, and so o u t o f the picture.
236

FIGURE 11.SC The horizontal action shown here Is covered for the movement from
one aide to
centre in the firs t shot, and from the centre to the opposite side In the
second $hol. Both shots have a common visual axis line.

Case 51
Now the arrival o f a character treated in the same way but in
reversed o rd e r: he arrives (full shot) m oving right to centre a n d in
the second (m edium o r close) shot walks centre to left, which needs
only one o r tw o steps. A slight variation is obtained by repeating
a m ovem ent across a sm all sector o f the screen: the moving
player enters the picture from one side and crosses say, tw o-thirds
o f the screen w idth (Fig. 11.51). T hen cut to a close shot on the
same visual axis, where he m oves from centre to edge on the
rem aining sector.
The repetition in th e second shot uses the central third o f screen
area.
Case 52
All cases o f m o tio n across the screen exam ined up to now have
had cam eras sited o n the sam e visual axis an d the sam e sense o f
direction in b o th shots. B ut two external reverse angles, o r a
com bination o f external-internal angles could be used instead.
In Fig. 11.52 player A is departing. In the first shot he moves from
centre to left. As he reaches the picture edge we cut to shot 2,

FIGURE 11.51 The movement Is repeated In a small sector of the screen In the secanc
shot to conclude the arrival of the walking actor.

FIGURE 11.52 The departure o f a player covered from reverse camera p o sitio r.j. His
movement on the screen is In divergent directions.

238

a reverse view w here A in the centre m oves to the right and, so

out o f view.
A n act o f arrival reverses the situation. In S hot 1 he w alks into
shot an d finishes the m ovem ent in shot 2 (Fig. 11.53).
i

i
FIGURE 11.53 A player arriving as shown by tw o contrasting movements on the
screen, tn the firs t shot he moves from one side to the centre, and In the second
from the other side to the centre. The second shot is an internal reverse shot.

This form ula presents a player w ith his b ack view in one shot
an d face~on in the oth er, so, if he is profiled, the suddenly opposed
direction will n o t give a sm ooth effect in editing. This is because in
profiled positions the centre o f interest m oves ahead, in fro n t o f the
player, an d by show ing the m o tio n in opposite halves o f screen,
th at interest is shifted ab ru p tly from one side to the other, thus
breaking th e principle o f co n stan t screen direction. B ut i f the
player in m o tion has his b ack to us in one h a lf o f the m ovem ent,
an d faces the cam era in the o th er half, the centre o f atten tio n
rem ains in the centre o f the screen. So, for this fo rm u la w ith
profiled positions either a neutral direction o f m otion (as in
Fig. 11.54) o r a pause (see p. 289) m ust be introduced betw een the
shots.
239

I
FIGURE 11.54 A n e u tra l d ire c tio n o l m ovem ent is in se rte d between tw o co n flic tin g
s h ots to sm o o th th e p assa g e fro m one s id e view to th e o th e r. T h u s , th e a c tio n Is seen
as a c o n tin u o u s m o vem e n t on the screen w ith a c o n s ta n t d ire c tio n , d espite the
opp o se d d ire c tio n s o f s h o ts 1 and 3.

Case S3
A significant m atching lim b m ovem ent can som etim es serve to
unite two otherw ise incom patible reverse cam era views o f two
players (Fig. 11.55).
T he girl (right) slaps the m an s face (left); as her han d reaches
his face we cu t to the second shot w here the arm m otion is com
pleted.
T heir positions are now reversed, yet the shots cut smoothly
because the arm m ovem ent in the sequence has been in a con
tinuous direction,
240

fIG U R E 11,55 T h e co n tin u o u s sense o f d ire c tio n o l m ovem ent. In th is case th e

svrlncing a rc of th e g irl's a rm as she p ro ce e d s to slap th e man. m asks a su d d e n
switch o f screen areas fo r b o th s u b je c ts In th e c u t fro m th e fir s t to th e second shot.

Going- through a doorway

Case 54
This is one o f the m ost frequent m ovem ents in films. W ith a
regular treatm ent, where the cam era sites, inside and outside,
remain on th e same side o f the line o f m ovem ent, the result is as
Fig, 11.56.
Case 5 5

If an irregular solution is consciously chosen, the fragm ents o f

action, are in opposed directions, because the cam era sites are on
opposite sides o f the line o f action (Fig. 11.57).
This solution is m ore dynam ic on the screen, especially if' the
motion is th rough an open d o o r in both shots. I f the d o o r has to
be opened, th at m ovem ent is used to m ake the cut from shot to
shot. The h alf circular m otion will help m ask a change o f direc
tor!.
Case 56

Seme film editors save tim e when showing a perform er walking

through a d o o r th at m ust be opened. Peter H unt, film editor o f

FIGURE 11.56 M ethod o f s h o w in g an a c to r p a s s in g th ro u g h a d o o rw a y u ses th t

tria n g le p rin c ip le fo r cam era p la ce m e nt In th e re g u la r w ay. B o th cam era site s are
o n the sam e side o f th e lin e o f m ovem ent.

Goldfinger, in the first sequence o f the film shows Jam es Bond, clad
as a frogm an kneeling at the base o f a huge tank. B ond presses a
hidden switch and a concealed d o o r hinges open. Cut. Inside the
tank Jam es Bond closes the d o o r behind him and com es forward
(to lay plastic explosives over nitroglycerine drum s). T he actual
m otion o f crossing the threshold was om itted, only the first part
and the conclusion o f the m otion was show n, com pressing time
spent on a m ovem ent th at had no dram atic value.
C onversely, should the opening o f the d o o r take place in a very
dram atic situation, th at could be stressed by delaying the opening
as m uch as possible, w ithout harm ing the effectiveness o f the scene.

FIGURE 11.57

An irre a u la r a pp ro a ch to c ro s s in g a th re s h o ld .

O n o th er occasions, a pause at the beginning o f the second

shot is used, where the d o o r is seen static for a few seconds, from
the inside. T hen it opens, and the player seen approaching it in
tile previous shot, enters.
Case 57
If two players are show n w alking together in a neutral direction
towards an open door, their screen positions will be reversed as we
cut to the reverse shot for the second h alf o f the action (Fig. 11.58).
Case 58
The sam e reversal happens if one o f the perform ers stands close to
the d o o r waiting for the o ther to ap p ro ach and enter the room .
The m ovem ent o f the walking player has a neutral direction in
both shots. W henever possible his position on the screen is m atched
(preferably in the centre), so th at the w aiting perform er is seen
first on one side o f the screen and then o n the other, while the
moving player is kept in the centre o f the fram e.
243

FIGURE 11,58 T w o pla ye rs w a lkln o away in a n e u tra l d ire c tio n exchanne screen
areas in th e second s h o t as they a pp ro a ch the cam era.

Case 59
A pause is som etim es used when a player enters a closed door.
In the first sh o t we see him arriving outside the d o o r and stopping
to knock. A fter the knock we cut to the second shot we see only
the door, from the inside. E ither som ebody answ ers from off
screen telling the player outside to com e in. or after a pause the
player outside opens the d o o r and enters. This pause at the
beginning o f the second shot serves to m ask a change in the
players direction o f m ovem ent. The static view o f the d o o r from
the inside, with no m ovem ent a t all on the screen, held for one or
two seconds before being opened, constitutes the visual pause.
Case 60
As we are dealing with cases involving a d o o r, let us digress for a
m om ent an d retu rn to the coverage o f two static players placed
one on each side o f a closed opaque door. To o b tain the feeling
244

FIGURE 11.59
e r

m o v e s

d o s e

A
to

r e v e r s a l o f t h e
a

s t a t i o n a r y

p la y e r s ' s c r e e n
p la y e r

w h o

p o s i t i o n s

w a t c h e s

h im

a ls o

q o

o c c u r s

when

o n e

play

by.

that they are com m unicating, the shots should be in opposed

directions. T hus the feeling o f ra p p o rt through a physical barrier
is obtained in situations where tw o players have to speak to each
other through a d o o r th at neither o f them can open. Fig. 11.60
shows such an example. N otice that one player looks to the right
while the o th er o n the opposite side o f the d o o r looks to the left
(the edge o f the screen to which the other player has turned his
back).
Brief sum m ary
The m ost im p o rtan t factors dealt with above m ay be sum m arized
as follows:
245

FIGURE 11.60 Opposed direction of Jooks where two players on different sides o f i
closed door must be presented to relate them visually on the screen.

1? a m otion is broken into a t least tw o frag m en ts; 2,1the cut from

shot to shot is on the action itself; 3, a change o f cam era to
(moving) subject distance is involved as we c u t; 4, there are two
basic types o f m otion on the spo t and along a p a th ; 5. for onthe-spot m otion, three variants o f the triangle principle for camera
placem ent are used to register a broken ac tio n reverse shots,
right angles a n d a com m on visual axis and all the variants (five)
for m otion along a p a th ; 6, all the form ulas presented can be
reversed, changing from shot 1 shot 2 to shot 2 shot 1; 7, to
film the fragm ents o f action the screen is divided into two or three
sectors; 8, the action filmed covers one sector p er shot.
Three com m on rules m ay be said to apply to dynam ic presenta
tion o f continuous m ovem ent split into two shots, each using half
screen a re a s :
246

The m otion is repeated in the same sector o f the screen, either in

the same o r opposed directions.

direction or in opposed directions.

The m ovem ent begins and ends in the centre o r starts o n one
side an d finishes on the other.

FIGURE 11.62 The movement begins in the centre and f$ concluded In the centre or
It starts on one side and finishes on the opposite edge of the screen.

247

T he m otion converges tow ards the centre o f the screen o r diverges

from it.
.............

FIGURE 11.63
from It.

The movement converoes on the centre of lhe screen or diverge*

A personal preference
M an y film directors and editors prefer the econom y o f action
offered by m ovem ent inside the screen. T he filmed m ovem ent is
edited so th at it does no t go o u t o f the screen in the first shot and
enters in the second.
T hese film m akers find th at the suggestion o f m otion given by a
subject m oving from centre to border o r vice versa, is more
effective and econom ical than allowing him to really move out
o f th e film fram e. A nd it does no t m atter how fast the subject is
m oving. T he stan d ard chosen rem ains unchanged.
U sing th at criterion with the form ulas and exam ples examined
so far yo u will really o b tain fast, econom ic and dynam ic transi
tions from sh o t to shot that register a w hole continuous m otion of
a perform er, anim al o r vehicle.
A lternatively, the subject can enter and exit the picturean
ap p ro ach discussed in the ch a p te r following.

248

12
MOTION INTO AND OUT OF SHOT
With this technique the m oving subject in the first shot leaves the
shot totally o r partially, and re-enters (o r not) in the second shot.
But there are two alternatives for the second shot: T he subject
re-enters shot by the o p posite side to his exit, or, he is already in
view in th e second shot, either in the centre o f the picture o r placed
to one side.
The three basic rules sum m arized a t the end o f the previous
chapter are applicable here except fo r the m odification im plicit
in prolonging th e m otion itself, so th at it really enters o r leaves
the sh o t com pletely.
W ith a m ovem ent o u t o f shot the cut would im m ediately follow
the subjects exit:
1 The cu t occurs when the subject is partially out o f fram e.
2 The shot is held for a few fram es after the exit.
The techniques are reversed for subjects entering the screen. W ith
the triangular cam era coverage (p. 32) all its five variants are
applicable here: external reverse angles, internal reverse angles,
right angles, parallel cam era sites, and a com m on visual axis for
two o r m ore consecutive shots.
Multiple fragm ents
If m ovemenl is sh o rt generally two visual fragm ents are enough to
show the beginning and conclusion. W ith a long repetitive m otion
a single shot w ould usually be a very poor solution. Instead it
could be b roken into three or four fragm ents, or a cut-aw ay could
be inserted betw een the beginning and conclusion o f the m ovem ent,
thus shortening it w ithout confusing the audience.
A repetitive m o tio n can weaken a story by adding length w ith
out significant m eaning or detail to the story. If the whole o f a
249

1
lengthy m ovem ent is to be retained it m ust be endowed with
visual qualities th a t justify its use, although those m ight sometimes
represent a forced, contrived misc en scene. A m ovem ent in which
the subject goes o u t o f the screen in one shot an d com es into it in.
the next helps blend separate locations together m ore naturally
and easier to accom plish as a convincing transition between two
separate areas.
Fig. 12.1 shows a m an walking in fro n t o f a building in the
first shot and in fro n t o f a scenic m ountain background in the
second. The building and the m ountain range m ight be oceans
ap a rt bu t on the screen the m otion o f the player will tend to con
firm th at they are close to one another. If the scene is shot in a
studio the actor merely walks twice in front o f the same back
projection screen o r blue backing for travelling m atte process.

FIGURE 12.1 A player who crosses horizontally in fro nt of two locations framed ly
the camera makes those places coexist side by side on the screen, notwithstanding
the fact of their actual distance apart.

M otion in three fragm ents

Som eone who begins to move from one area to an o th er can be
covered by three parallel cam era sites that record distant frag
m ents o f a continuous m ovem ent. T he subject exits from the a i
he occupies, travels through the space th a t m ediates between his
d eparture base an d his arrival area, and finally stops at his
destination. Figure 12.2 shows th at case simply covered by three
cam era sites on a line parallel to the subject m ovem ent. Thus, (he
250

cameras register views th at are fram ed at the same distance from

the subject.
In the first shot there is a h a lf screen m otion from centre to
side, where the player walks out o f shot. In the second shot he
enters from the o p posite side, crosses the screen profiled to the
camera a n d leaves by the other side; the whole screen is traversed.
In. the third the acto r enters again from the opposite side a n d stops
in the centre. T hus, a com plete cross-screen m otion placed betw een
two half-screen m ovem ents, served to record the w hole path
travelled. A m odification o f this is to change cam era-to-player
distance. T he m ost d ram atic effect is obtained by selecting the
centre cam era p osition an d m oving it backw ards so th a t a tri
angular cam era disposition is form ed with all three cam eras
pointing straig h t ahead.
The cam era sites covering the extrem es o f the line o f m otion
record the d ep artu re an d arrival o f the player, while the centre
camera m ay fram e:
1 The centre space betw een d e p a rtu re a n d arrival.
2 The interm ediate space an d the arrival area o r d ep artu re zone.
3 The whole space, including in the shot the d ep artu re area, the
intermediate space, a n d the arrival spot.
(The screen can be split into either tw o o r three zones).

Case A
Figure 12.3 shows the first possibility described above. T he first
and last takes are close shots where the d ep artu re (beginning)
and arrival (concluding) p arts o f the m ovem ent are recorded. The
in-between tak e is a full shot where o u r perform er is seen entering
from one side a n d w alking only to the centre o f the screen. H e and
his destination are in opposed screen sectors.
In. the exam ple discussed we get screen sector m otion repetition
in the last two shots. T he editing o f these takes is quite simple. In
the first tak e as soon as the perform er is ou t o f the screen com
pletely (or alm ost) cu t to the second shot where he re-enters from
the opposite side and m oves to the centre. O n reaching the centre,
cut to the th ird sh o t w here he again enters into the screen an d
stops.
This co m b in atio n o f close sh o tfull shot close shot, clearly
shows a perform er changing from zone to zone. T he m iddle take
251

FIGURE 12.2 A n horizontal movement covered by three parallel camera position!.

A li these are fuli shots.

acts as a so rt o f re-establishing shot (and is often used for that

purpose) by showing the next zone tow ards which the perform er is
heading, or by show ing b o th adjoining zones together.
Case B
W hen b o th adjoining zones are show n in the sam e take, the screen
is divided into three sectors, and these zones are placed o n the left
252

FIGURE 12.3 By placing the central camera position further back In a full shot the
detinatlo* o f th m o/lno player is revealed belore he reaches It.

and right, leaving the central area of the screen for the action of
The main performer.
In. such a case there is central m ovem ent only in the picture
area (Fig. 12.4).
The shots are edited as follow s:
S hot 1 Close shot. Player A hits B on the jaw , sending him out
o f screen, right.
Shot 2 Full shot. A is standing on the left. B staggers back in the
centre. There is a w agon on the right.
Shot 3 Close shot. B enters from the left staggering back and
his body slam s against the wheel o f the w agon, stopping
violently.
The violence in the first and third shot is accentuated by the
sudden cu t to a far away viewpoint.
253

FIGURE 12,4 In this example the central shot Includes the 1wo jortes of the set and
the Intermediate space between them re-establishlno the whole locals for the audience.
Shots 1 and 3 record departure and arrival respectively.

Case C
In the previous cases the three cam era sites were parallel to the
path o f the perform er, b u t can he placed in line w ith it, AH view
points have a com m on visual axis, an d the m otion is recorded in
fragm ents which move forw ard behind the walking o r running
player.
A further variation is obtained by com bining m ovem ent inside
the screen and m otion th at enters the screen. As shown in Fig. !2.5.
The first cam era position is located on the stern o f a sailing ship,
pointing to the prow. P erform er A in foreground begins to walk
tow ards B in the background. W hen she is halfway, cut to 2, a.
site on the sam e visual axis as the preceding shot. A enters from
right into the field o f vision o f the second cam era position and
continues walking tow ards B. W hen A is again halfway in he_D
rem aining path, cut to site 3, where A, close to the cam era on her
right, com pletes her trajectory and jo in s B.
254

FIGURE 12.5 In the case shown here the three camera positions are located on the
path of the movement itself, and advance as the walkina player moves away to her
destination.

Case D
In the exam ple explained (Fig. 12.5) the subject in m otion starts
from one area close to the first cam era site, and m oves to B. A
further variatio n can be obtained b y placing his destination b e
yond player B, T his m o tion can be either continuous, o r w ith an
interruption in the centre. T he follow ing exam ple, illustrated in
Fig. 12.6 m akes use again o f three fragm ents aligned on a com m on
visual axis.
Shot 1 A m oves from the right hand screen sector. C ut to . , .
255

FIGURE 12.6 A nother example of camera sites arranged on the line of movement it
self. Here the moving player goes beyond the stationary one, and on into tha back
ground. Player B on the left side remains stationary but her figure grows In si 2e aa
each new shot is introduced.

S hot 2 A enters from the right an d stops in foreground with

his back to us. A fter a m om ent he walks forw ard. He
m oves in the centre o f the screen.
Shot 3 Player A in the centre o f the screen takes two steps
forw ard and stops.
In the exam ple presented the perform ers have a com m on centre of
interest the car in the background.
T he three shots progress spatially tow ards the car. Two methods
256

were used to jo in the shots in sequence. F rom shot I to shot 2

iepetition o f screen zone m ovem ent was used A m oved m the
right sector at th e end o f shot 1 and beginning o f shot 2. To join
shots 2 and 3 a different solution was applied. A ction in the centre
of the screen was m atched precisely on th at spot. B rem ained static
in all shots and her figure cam e nearer from shot to shot, so that
we see her in a long shot in shot 1, in a m edium shot in take 2, and
in a foreground close shot in shot 3.

Case E

An action fragm ented in three shots may use screen sector repeti
tion in all the shots, a n d can apply a right angle relationship
between shots 1 and 2, an d an advance on a com m on visual axis
between shots 2 and 3.
The sequence o f shots (Fig. 12.7) is easy to assem ble;
Shot 1 A enters from right an d m oves across the screen to the
centre. C u t to . . .
Shot 2 Reverse right angle position. B seen in the background,
left. A , right, enters and m oves aw ay from us diagonally
tow ards the centre. W hen he is near B, cut to . . ,
Shot 3 Close shot o f B, Same axis as preceding shot. B on the
left o f the screen. A enters by the right and stops facing
B.
By piecing a m otion in this way, tw o different locations can be
ihown as if spatially side by side. T he illusion works perfectly on
the screen.
T he fragm entation o f a continuous m otion in m ore than four or
five sections becom es annoying an d defeats its ow n purpose.
Where the distance is very great fo u r shots could be used as show n
in Fig. 12.8.
M ovem ent can be confined to the same screen sector in the
last three shots. But the aim is to find an editing form ula th at
suggests the length o f the p a th travelled w ithout the full m ovem ent
which tires the audience a n d slows dow n the story.
For that purpose only three shots would be necessary. In Fig.
257

I
t

FIGURE 12.7 T his example uses screen sector repetition in the three shots for the
movement of player A. A combination of a right angle shot between shot 1 and 2
and an advance on a common visual axis between shots 2 and 3 allows this zone
repetition o1 motion.

12.8 we would use only shots 1, 2 and 4. On the first, the moving
player leaves his area. In s h o t 2, he is seen, small, traversing the
space th at separates h i m from his destination o n the right, where
the other perform er waits. Shot 4 w ould begin by showing the
waiting acto r alone on the screen for several fram es, and then the
player in m otion would enter the screen.
The length o f tim e th at the w aiting player rem ains on the screen
before the arrival o f the other, suggests the length o f the path
travelled. A time contraction is usually resorted to when using
this m ethod. M otion o f a repetitive n atu re (such as walking or

FIGURE 12.8 M ultiple fragm ents applied to a lengthy movement of a player. Screen
sector repetition is obtained in the last three shots,

running) is seldom o f dram atic value in situations w here the

intention is to move a player from one place to another.
Fast, o r violent m otions can be fragm ented into fo u r o r five
pieces to stress visually the violence im plicit in the m ovem ent
itself. T he case show n in Fig. 12.9 m akes use o f reverse angles.
In take 1 (a close shot) p erform er A lunges forw ard violently
going out o f the screen. In shot 2 (a full shot) he enters and runs to
the background. H alfw ay along his p a th we cut to shot 3 where
he is seen in m edium shot on the centre o f the screen. H e m oves
quickly tow ards us going ou t o f the screen.
259

JLL
FIGURE 12.9 M tiltipfe fragmentation of a movement to stress the violence of a per
son's movement.

The conclusion o f this m otion accepts three solutions:

1 We cu t back to sh o t 2 (full shot) w here the player ends his
m otion by arriving to the d o o r and pounding his fists o n it.
2 H e arrives by entering close shot 4.
3 B oth previous solutions are com bined to conclude the motion,
using shots 2 and 4 after the first three shots.
Solutions 1 and 2 involve four fragm ents, while ap p ro ach 3 uses
five sections to piece together the whole m otion.

13
PLAYER

AMOVES TOWARDS PLAYER B

The nu m b er o f visual p erm utations possible for one player

approaching an o th er or a g roup are alm ost limitless. T hose
described below are only suggestions for basic situations th a t m ay
k useful as a checklist fo r ideas.
Converging motion
The m oving player com es forw ard on the screen in bo th takes, but
in the first his m ovem ent is from right to centre on the right side o f
the screen, while in the second he m oves from left to centre o n the
left side o f th e film fram e. T he m ovem ent o f the approaching
player converges tow ards the centre o f the screen in both shots,
using b o th right and left areas o f the screen consecutively.
r

FIGURE 13.0 Converging directions of a single approaching motion towards a

ttallc player.

261

FIGURE 13.1 One of the m ost frequently used formulas for short range movements
employed when only one player moves towards another. The camera positions are
at right angles.

T he presence o f a m irro r in the first shot allows the viewing of

converging directions o f the sam e single action by the approaching
player, while the static perform er is seen on the same side of the
screen in bo th shots.
The inclusion o f one or m ore m irrors in a shot has always
fascinated film m akers because o f the opportunities they provide
for unusual visual arrangem ents on the screen.

Right angle camera sites

W here the tw o m ain cam era positions have a right angle rela
tionship, the sim plest solution is depicted in Fig. 13.1. A, with his
back to the cam era in shot 1, starts to walk aw ay from us towards
player B. Shot 1 is a full shot. T w o-thirds o f the m ovement are
covcred from this view point. W e then cut to shot 2, a medium
shot, where A enters the screen a n d stops, facing B. B may be
either standing, sitting o r lying dow n.
262

FIGURE 13,2

The firs i shot is an improvement on the previous example.

The difference in distance betw een the cam era an d the perform er
in b oth takes (FS to CS o r MS) adds a visual variety. A always
moves in the same sector o f the screen. A lthough we showed
m ovement fro m right to left, the reverse direction w orks in the
same m anner as in all the exam ples following.
An alternative, or ad d itio n to the above is where the beginning
of the m ovem ent is first show n in a reverse close shot (Fig. 13.2).
Player A begins to m ove in close shot (1) where he goes o u t o f
the screen, entering into full shot (2) an d concludes his m otion by
entering again in m edium shot (3). Several o f the follow ing situa
tions also open with a close shot.
A nother so lution is to m ake the first a panning shot. The ac to r
walks in a straight path tangential to the panning arc o f the first
camera site (Fig. 13.3).
T h e illu stratio n shows the 180 pan used in the first shot. It
achieves th e sam e as the tw o first shots in Fig. 13.2.

FIGURE 13.3 The firs t shot is panned. This is another variant of the basic formula
shown in Fig. 13.1.

In the first case exam ined, an d partially in the two variations

follow ing it, the m oving player began his w alk w ith his back to the
cam era and concluded by arriving a t a profile position. Fig. 13.4
uses the rig h t angle set-up to show the player starting the move
from a profiled position a n d concluding it facing the cam era. The
perform er in m otion m ay com e to the cam era in either zone of the
screen in the second shot.
264

FIGURE 13.4 In this variant of the basic form ula w ith a right a n Q l e relationship of
camera a tec. the moving player enters the second shot facing the camera instead
o f being profiled to it as In the previous examples.

A nother possibility reverses the variation exam ined in the

previous exam ple. T he m oving acto r com es up to the cam era in
the first shot and concludes by entering the screen in a profiled
position. (Fig. 13.5).

FIGURE 13.5 in this approach to the basic form ula the stationary player is used as
a pivot for t h e c a m e r a sites, keeping her in the foreground i n both shots.

Fig. 13.6 shows the a c to rs m ovem ent profiled to the camera in

the first shot, and with his b ack to it in the second.

FIGURE 13.6 In (his variant the camera sites are deployed In a pattern complementary
to that shown In Fig. 13.5.

The case shown in Fig. 13.7 shows a cam era pan applied to the
second shot. In the first shot A is seen m oving aw ay from us
tow ards B in the background. In the second shot A is in the centre
o f the screen (or entering it from the right) an d being followed by a
sh o rt panning m ovem ent th a t covers the conclusion o f his motion
as he com es to a stop facing p erform er B.

Reverse camera angles

Fig, 13.8 is the first (and m ost simple) o f several variations using
reverse cam era angles to show the m ovem ent.
In the first shot the player walks up to the cam era, and enter in
the second shot w ith his back to us. W ith this form ula we can also
use a close shot where the beginning o f the m ovem ent is recorded,
as show n in Fig. 13.9.
So far we have shown b o th players in the tw o shots. Using
internal reverse angles we can also cover the p ath traversed by the
m oving player.
266

FIGURE 13.7 The change introduced to the basic form ula in th is example is In the
second shot, where the camera is panned.

FIGURE 13.8

A simple approach using a set of external reverse camera angles.

I
FIGURE 13-9 The firs t shot is an improvement added to the external reverse angle
camera coverage in the previous example.

This v ariatio n was used before to show the beginning o f the

m ovem ent at the start o f o th er form ulas, b u t has sufficient value
in itself to be em ployed alone. In the exam ple shown in Fig. 13.10
b o th shots are at the sam e cam era/subjectjiistance, bu t this can be
varied.
Parallel camera sites
Parallel cam era positions have been extensively exam ined before
to record m ovem ent o f an ac to r across the screen, so it will suffice
to include here only one exam ple, the m ost simple (Fig. 13.11),
Common visual axis
C am era positions on a com m on visual axis are the key to the
exam ples th a t follow. Fig. 13.12 shows a frequently used example.
268

FIGURE 13,10 fn this variant, a set of Internal reverse camera angles Is used to cover
the player in motion.

The m ethod shown in Fig. 13.12 is simple to execute and quite

clear in the visual coverage th at it affords. N o w onder th at it is
used so often.
i

FIGURE 13.11 A parallel camera deployment used to register the movement of the
player as he walks towards his stationary companion.

269

I
I
FIGURE 13.12 A commo n visual axis fine for both camera sites is used here to show
the player In motion.

H ere (Fig. 13.13) the line o f m otion runs parallel to the axis line
o f the tw o cam era sites for covering o f the m otion.
In the foregoing exam ples the arrival p o in t (player B) was always
visible in the tw o o r three shots into which the m ovem ent o f A was
fragm ented. Tn the following exam ples she appears only in the
second shot. T his is due to the fact th a t the m otion covered
is a diagonal across o u r field o f vision (Fig. 13.14).
In the first shot player A m oves aw ay from the cam era, in an
oblique path, an d leave the picture, left. H e enters from the right in
the second shot a n d stops, facing B. A is seen from behind in both
shots.
In this case we reverse the situation in the preceding example.
The m oving player faces the cam era in b o th shots (Fig. 13.15).
In shot 1, player A advances to the cam era in a diagonal and
passes o u t o f shot, left. F o r shot 2 tw o solutions are available.
B is included in foreground in both possibilities. A is either in the
centre o f the right sector m oving tow ards us, or he enters from
the right and com es to the foreground.
270

FIGURE 13.13 Movement in a neutral direction Is covered by camera deployment on

a common visual axis.

This fro n tal ap p ro ach to a n unseen destination in the first shot

is the one m ost favoured by film m akers. C om ing forw ard is a
more dynam ic action than going away.

FIGURE 13.14 In the firs t shot A moves away obliquely from the camera and exits
left. In the second shot he enters from the right, still seen from behind, and stops,
lacing 6.

271

FIGURE 13.15 The difference between this example and that preceding it lies In the
fact that here 1he moving player arrives facino us, whereas in the previous case he
moved with his back to the camera.

A m irro r can be present in the second shot, in the background,

angled to the side where p layer A is still m oving off screen. In
this way, in the second sh o t, we first see her enter the screen (in the
m irro r) by the left, an d as her figure goes ou t o f the m irro r right,
her real figure enters the film fram e from the left, and stops

FIGURE 13.15A The use of a m irror on the second shot repeats the entrance of the
moving player twice on the same section of the screen.

272

FIGURE 13,16 The variant afforded by this approach fs tha t two stationary players are
involved. The moving actor advances from one to the other in tha two shots.

facing B. T hus, h er entering m otion in the second shot was seen

twice, and in th e sam e area of the screen (Fig. 13.15A).
As pointed o u t elsewhere, the use o f m irrors affords the duplica
tion o f m o tio n which gives startling and off-beat visual effects. , /
T he sam e form ula can be em ployed to show player A leaving
C to arrive beside ac to r B in the second shot. (Fig. 13.16).
T he m o tio n follow s an oblique p a th in b o th takes. C is excluded
in the second shot. In the first take C and A are talking, then A
moves diagonally crossing behind C an d approaches, going out
d fsh o t, left.

FIGURE 13.17 The moving player walks beyond the stationary one, who aervea as a
pivot for both camera positions, keeping him in the foreground In both (hots.

In the second shot he is already on the screen in the centre o f the

right sector, and com es tow ards B who is fram ed in the foreground
and then speaks to him.
A walks beyond B
A situation often found in a scene where the player in motion
crosses beside the static one, and stops beyond him. This might be
filmed as follows.
Player B, the static subject, can be used as pivot in both shots,
thus relating visually bo th shots into which the m ovem ent has
been split. As Fig. 13.17 shows,_B has his back to us in the firstshot and is facing the cam era in the second. A goes out o f the
screen in the first shot and enters the second. His m otion can be

FIGURE 13.IS A right angle camera relationship employed for a movement where Ihe
walking player passes beyond his stationary companion. The firs t shot is used twice
to show the beginning and conclusion of the movement. The second covers the
central part of !he movement.

motivated by giving him a significant piece o f business, such as

having him lift a heavy box in shot 1 and deposit it in shot 2.
The second ap p ro ach is show n in Fig. 13.18.
In sh o t 1, player A is seen in the.background. H e w alks to us in
a neutral direction, is seated on the right side o f the screen and
seen in full shot. As A nears her, we cu t to take 2, w here A enters
from the left a n d crosses o u r view passing in fro n t o f B an d going
out o f shot, right.
Cut b ack to sh o t 1, where A having passed B already, m oves
towards us and stops in the foreground.
As m entioned a t the beginning o f this chapter the list o f cases
included here is not a n exhaustive one.
275

USING MASTER SHOTS TO COVER

MOTIONS ON THE SCREEN

Very few screen m otions so far exam ined have allowed division
a n d use o f shots in two o r m ore parts. Inserts o r cut-aways in a
m aster sh o t m ay provide a pause in the action recorded, serve to
stress a situ atio n o r allow recognition o f the characters involved.
In the follow ing exam ple the player pauses in fro n t o f a large
building before m oving on tow ards It. A reverse shot is inserted,
M aster sh o t 1

Insert 2

M aster shot 1

Large building in the background. A enters

view fro m the left a n d stops with his back to us,
L ooking tow ards the building. C ut to . . ,
Reverse shot o f A seen on the sam e side o f the
picture. H e is looking off right. H e advances and
passes ou t o f view right. C u t to . . .
A , in the centre o f the picture, m oving away
from us tow ards the building.

T he co m b in atio n is easy to execute. T he m aster shot 1 is filmed

w ith o u t in terru p tion. Player A enters, stops, then m oves away
tow ards the building. Cut.
T he ac to r is b ro u g h t b ack a n d positioned for the second shot.
T here we see his expression as he exam ines the building and then
starts to w alk to w ards it. In editing, a po rtio n o f the m aster shot I,
co rresponding to the action seen in the insert, is rem oved and
replaced by the insert 2. This reverse shot, being a frontal shot
favouring the perform er, show s the players reaction m uch more
clearly th a n if we stuck to shot 1 in its entirety.
In a n o th er case a subject seen m oving in extrem e long shot,
generates in the audience the urge to identify him before becoming
involved in his fu rth e r actions. This can be handled as follows,

FIGURE 14.T Player A , afone, faces the building. He enter* shot, stops, then moves
away (In the **cond shot) towards the bulldino. again covered by the first camera
position.

M aster shot 1

A enters view from the left, running to the right.

H e is show n in very sm all scale, silhouetted
against the sky, running across a beach. W hen
277

FIGURE 14.2 The firs t shot Is used twice. The horizontal movement o f the player is
through thirds of the screen areathe firs t and third. The movement that sho t Id be
Inthe central part o f the screen In S h o tl is substituted by the movement shown in Shot
2, w hich Is from a right angled camera position, closer to the moving sub je ct

he gets ab o u t one-third o f the way across the

picture, cut to . . .
Insert 2
A in the centre o f the sc re e n ju n n in g towards
us, exiting close to the cam era, right. A s he
advances we are given a chance to recognise
him.
M aster shot 1 A runs the last third o f the w idth o f the screea
seen in small scale against the horizon and
leaves right.
Player A runs right across the picture in the m aster shot. A closer
shot shows a segm ent o f th a t m otion. T he division o f his movement

in thirds o f screen space in the m aster shot, allow s us to show the

perform er and his environm ent a t the sta rt an d a t the end, using
segments I a n d 3. T he m otion perform ed in the central segm ent o f
the screen is tak en o u t a n d replaced by the insert.
An im p ro v em en t uses the preceding set-up b u t after cutting
back to the m aster sh o t the sequence is concluded by adding a third
shot to cap the action.

FIGURE 14.3 Floor plan showing the arrangement of the cameras to cover a simple
movement of one player.

Full shot. T he girl, A , enters through a d o o r into the corridor.

She is unaw are o f the m a n s presence, B. She closes the d o o r w ith
her back to us. H e says q u ietly :
H ello !
S tartled, she begins to tu rn to us, we cut on the m ovem ent, to a
close sh o t o n th e sam e visual axis.
279

She ends tu rn in g tow ards us an d looks off screen, right. She

smiles as she recognizes him . T hen she starts to m ove towards
us, (right) an d w hen her head is halfw ay o u t o f the screen, cut
to the full sh o t again.

The girl in th e centre o f the screen is w alking tow ards us and

tow ards B in the foreground. As she draw s near, cu t to a side close
sh o t o f B.

280

A t the beginning o f the shot, A enters from the left a n d stops.

They talk.
An elaborate m otion recorded in a single m aster shot can be
enhanced by the in tro d uction o f two inserts. Fig. 14.4 gives the
camera positions in such a case.

FIGURE t4.4 Floor plan of the camera sites that cover a simple movement with
various camera viewpoints, one of them used as a master shot (1).

The scene takes place in a rocky desert where we see a m ountain

range behind. A p a th has been w orn into the ground by constant
use. The riders m ove in a line o f three abreast, m ore o r less
equally spaced ap art.
281

High long shot. R iders approach from left to centre.

Full shot. C am era on the ro ad travels with them . T hey ride to

w ard us.

High long shot again. R iders tu rn the bend to the rig h t an d move
across the screen. P an to the right w ith them .

282

Low ful! shot. R iders ap p ro ach diagonally from left to right

and exit th e screen, right.

H igh long sh o t again. T he riders tu rn the ben d tow ard the

cam era, a n d m ove in a diagonal from right to left. C am era pans
and tilts to follow them as they exit.

In this exam ple the two inserts w ere used to inject dynam ism
into th e m aster shot. T his m aster is a pan o ram ic view. Its value
lies in show ing the riders isolated in the large, w ild terrain. T he
inserts p rovide violent m o tio n th a t co n trasts w ith the calm ness o f
the m aster. An increase in sound level when the tw o inserts ap p e ar
on the screen, a n d a sudden decrease w hen the m aster shot follows
accentuates a feeling o f im pending m enace.
Several m aster shots can be edited in parallel to cover a p er
form ers m ovem ent in o rd e r to stress all the d ra m a tic possibilities,
and build a succession o f im ages th a t create excitem ent, suspense
or sheer actio n fo r the audience. H ere is a n exam ple from an un
finished film entitled E l Senor del E ste (L ord o f the East). T he
283

FIGURE 14.5 Sequence of shots edited in parallel as described in the text.

scene is Santa Teresa fortress, U ruguay. A gaucho, w earing the

uniform o f a Portuguese soldier he has overpow ered, is ab o u t to
cross the p atio o f the fortress to w ard the arsenal th a t he plans to
sabotage. A soldier o n the ra m p a rts stands w atch w ith his back
to th e co u rtyard. The gaucho starts to cross th e p atio (Fig. 14.5).
S hot 1 T he gaucho m oves from under the archw ay o f the
stone passage a n d w alks o u t o f shot, right.

284

Shot 2 Reverse shot. The gaucho enters from the left and
m oves tow ards the background. T here we see his
targ et: the arsenal.

Shot 3 F ro m th e. fp rt_walls we sce.4oregraund) the sentry

standing w ith his back to the gaucho, who is seen in
the b ackground w alking tow ards the arsenal.

M ood is im p o rtan t to this type o f sequence. A far away male

voice singing a song to the tune o f a plaintive guitar, punctuated
by the h a ish so u n d o f the sentrys boots scraping on the ra m p a rts
stones serve to highlight the sense o f latent danger th a t can be
suddenly unleashed.
Shot 4 Low angle. C am era m oves back with the gaucho as he
walks in m edium shot.
285

Shot 3 Full shot o f the walls. T he gaucho moves in the back

ground.

Shot 4

Shot 3 Full shot o f the walls. The gaucho reaches the arsenal
and disappears behind it.
286

S hot 5 T he walls o f the arsenal in foreground. T he gaucho

com es tow ards us from a neutral direction a n d kneels
below the lighted window . H e waits.

Shot 3 On the fo rts walls the sentry changes position and

looks tow ards the background.

287

Shot 5 The gaucho slowly rises and peeps through the slit
w indow o f the arsenal.

T he w hole sequence com prises ten fragm ents, taken from three
m aster shots a n d tw o single shots. These single shots are used at
the beginning o f the sequence to show the tw o extrem e zones
betw een w hich the m ovem ent takes place. In take ] we see the
g aucho leaving his hiding place, a n d in shot 2 we show him
heading for his targ et: the fa r aw ay arsenal. M aster shots 3 and 4
record his bold m ovem ent through the dan g er zone. M aster 3
shows the sentry in foreground who m ight tu rn at any mom ent
a n d challenge him . T he m ovem ent o f the gaucho is show n in this
sh o t in three successive zones o f the screen. T hey are intercut with
m aster 4 th a t show s us the feelings o f the gaucho as he moves
across th e o p en cou rty ard .
As o u r hero reaches the arsenal we cut to the m aster shot 5,
w here we show him com ing to the w indow.
T h en we in tercut the pay-off o f M aster 3. W e h ad toyed with the
em otions o f the audience by stating clearly (in a previous p a rt o f the
story) th at if the sentry tu rn ed , the plans o f our hero w ould be
ruined. (The audicnce already know s th a t there is a curfew en
forced every night w ithin the fortress walls). By show ing the sentry
turn in g now, wc stress th a t the danger was as real as we had
indicated, b u t o u r lucky hero saved him self o n the nick o f time.
T h en we retu rn to m aster sh o t 5 where the gaucho starts the next
phase o f his o p eratio n , a n d the story m oves on.

288

15
IRREGULAR CASES

Dramatic needs som etim es dictate visual presentations th at violate

the rules o f m otion already explained. T he exam ples th a t follow
fall w ithin this category. Tw o solutions were applied to m ake them
work a pause, o r use o f a small screen sector. In m any films a
problem arises w here a perform er m ust m ove between two different
zones o f interest th at have opposed d om inant centres so th a t from
a general cam era position we face one centre o f interest and see
only the rear o f the other. I f this is to be avoided, a visual pause
must be em ployed a t th e beginning o f the second take. Im agine
a case where two players are seen, one in m otion, the o th er static,
as in Fig. 15.1. O nly tw o shots are used to cover the m otion
between b o th zones o f interest.
Shot 1 L ong shot. P layer B is on the right, with his back to us.
He faces th e scenic background. A, on the left, walks
across th e screen tow ards B. W hen A reaches the centre
o f the screen, cu t to . . .
Shot 2 Reverse m edium shot. Player B is now on the left side
o f the screen, facing us. H e rem ains alone for a m om ent
and then A enters from the right and stops beside him.
Both players now face the cam era o r look at each other.
The pause th a t m asks the change o f direction is introduced a t the
beginning o f the sccond shot. The m oving player is m om entarily
excluded from the shot, so th a t the static perform er is briefly seen
alone. This allows the audience tim e to adjust to th i new cam era
position.
In a previous instance, when discussing opposed m otion within
the screen area, an exam ple was exam ined w here the m oving
player h ad his back to the cam era in one h alf sector and faced it in
the o th er (C hapter 11, Case 52). T h a t condition was needed to
achieve a coherent m otion because in th at case the centre o f
289

FIGURE 15.1 A visual pause is in tro d u c e d at th e beginning of the se co n d shot to

obtain a smooth change of direction In the m o vem e n t gf one player.

attention for the player, and the audience, rem ained in the centre
o f the screen.
W ith the present solution a pause is introduced at the beginning
o f the second shot and the m oving player presents a profiled body
position in both shots. The m otion o f the player o r other moving
subject can be either across the screen o r diagonally.
Visual pause with larger groups
W ith a large static group the fragm entation o f m ovem ent might be
prefaced by the m otion o f an o th er player (Fig. 15.2).
Shot 1 A an d C are seen talking, B enters from the right
passing behind C and stops (centre). B talks to A, who
then moves tow ards B. As A crosses one-third of the
picture area, the shot is cut to . . .
290

FtGURE 15.2 The people move, with a visual pause in the action of the second player,
The players interchange positions on the screen in the second shot.

Shot 2 Reverse m edium shot. B, now on the left is profiled to

the right. (Fig. 15.2). T hen,A enters from the right and
stops, facing B. Later both tu rn aw ay from us and walk
in a neutral direction to the background.
A reversal o f screen zone position for b o th m ain players (B and A)
is unavoidable with this solution, bu t a pause at the beginning o f

FIGURE 15.2A Opposed movement of a player In the same screen sector. A pause
at the beginning of the second shot b ridges both movements.

the second take helps to create a m om entary distraction for the

audience, allow ing their reo rien tatio n by breaking the direction on
the d o m in an t m otion.
Instead o f having the two subjects present in bo th shots, they
ca n be show n together in only one shot. (Fig. I5.2A)
Player A goes ou t o f shot by m oving from the centre to the left,
in the first shot. T he second shot begins w ith B (static) on the right
292

sector. A fter a pause A enters from the left and stops in ths centre.
M otion was accom plished in the same screen sector (left) in
opposed directions.

The pause is om itted

With a right angle cam era coverage, the pause is som etimes
omitted. A direct cut is used, and the player who m oves does so on
opposed halves o f screen from sh o t to shot (Fig. 15.3). W ith a
peculiarity. In one sh o t his m ovem ent is across a narrow central
area. In Fig. 15.3 the second shot m ak esu se o f this short m ovem ent.

Both fragm ents o f the m otion converge on the screen tow ards
its centre. This visually interesting presentation works well not
only where two persons m eet, b u t also in cases where one per
293

former, for instance, helps the other c/imb on to higher ground

where the first player is already placed (Fig. 15.4).
I

<

FIGURE 45.4 The pause a lth e beginning of the second shot has been om it led, anda
dire ctcut is m ado.The movement in both shots converges on th e c e n tre o tlh e scrsan.

A an d B converge on the centre o f the screen, A extends his

hand to B. C ut on the action to the second cam era position, right
angles, where A s body enters from the left an d joins B. Here the
small m ovem ent was in the first shot.

Using reverse angles

W here one perform er is seated, the other, standing, may feel
com pelled to m ove from one side to the other to stress a point or
for some other reason. Once m ore, this m otion is fragmented
using opposed halves o f screen (Fig. 15.5).

The speed factor is thus very im p o rtan t and m ust be considered

when planning this type o f set up. In the exam ple show n, the
small sector m o tio n was used in the first shot.
This solution is sim ilar to the one presented in C h ap ter 13, Case
52 except th a t in the second shot the player enters ra th e r than ju s t
moves from the side to the centre.
By using a close shot for the second take, the en tran ce o f the
player in to the screen is m ade swifter, so th a t she traverses the h alf
screen a rea faster th a n she to o k to cover the opposing h a lf screen
area o n th e previous shot.
As explained elsewhere, a single m otion split in tw o p arts should
have b o th halves m oving a t sim ilar speeds. B ut a close shot by
increasing the size o f the figure, also increases its speed o f m otion.
Since the close shot is used for visual em phasis, this speed increase
cuts well w ith th e slower m o tio n th a t preceded it. W hat will no t
work so successfully is a reversal, w here speed from shot to shot
decreases on the depiction o f a continuous single m otion,
295

from shot to shot; movement converges on the screen centre tn both shot*.

A lthough subject B was excluded from the second shot (which

was his view point), he can be present in th a t shot to o creating a
reversal o f players screen sectors (Fig. 15-6).
A s the illustration clearly shows, there are tw o alternatives for
the sense o f direction in w hich the m oving perform er travels. She
m ay either displace her body horizontally across a h a lf screen area
in each shot, o r she m ay m ove diagonally in a receding direction
first, ap p ro ach in g in the shot th a t follows.
A player m oving in a neutral direction can use the sam e formula
(Fig. 15.7).
296

FIGURE 15.7 Movement In 4 neutral direction where the players exchange screen
positions In the second shot as the moving person a, completes her action.

Shot 1 B in foreground, back to the cam era. A (right) a p

proaches us. W hen she is near B, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Reverse. B in foreground, right. A enters from the left.
W hen she is behind B, she tu rn s to him.
Instead o f crossing the screen to the centre the neutral m ovem ent
o f com ing a n d going away was perform ed in opposed sectors.
It is n o t necessary to show the player entering the screen from
one side in th e second shot. A lthough the use o f th at entrance
helps in m aking the m otion m ore dynam ic, it will work if we only
show the player with her back to the cam era, standing beside B,
and m oving aw ay to the background in the area o f the screen th at
is opposite to th at em ployed for the first shot. T he use o f close shot
framings for both shots forces the screen reversal o f both players
in the film fram e in a m arked way. If the action is photographed in
long shots, the sam e principle w ould apply, but the reversal o f the
players would be less noticeable, since both would be located in the

297

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I

I
I

FIGURE 15.8 The direction of the playei's movement diverges from centre to sides.

centre o f the screen, seen in full figure. T heir area reversal covers
less screen space th an the same action pictured in close shots.
Divergent motions
The perform er m ay m ove aw ay fro m the scene from the centre
instead o f com ing in to it.
F irst there is a m edium shot o f the group. A m oves from the
centre o f the screen to the right, exiting by th a t side.
Secondly com es a reverse full shot. A (centre) com pletes her
m ovem ent. She either exits by the left side o r stops there and turns
to face the group.

FIGURE 15.9 Player B remains stationary on the le ft side o f the screen In both shots
while the other player moves in a neutral direction In the first shot and across the
screen in the second.

Shot 1 B (left, static). A (right) m oves aw ay in a neutral

direction. C u t to . . .
Shot 2 Side shot. B (left, static). A enters from th a t side an d
crosses the screen, sto pping in the rig h t sector.
Both players move

In som e cases instead o f exchanging sides o f the picture one player

m ay be kept to a constant screen area while the other crosses
(Fig. 15.9).

A fu rth er irregular variatio n is in tro d u ced when b o th players

move. T he actors w alk on parallel path s, b u t in o p posite directions.
They stop sim ultaneously a n d face each o th er (Fig. 15.10).
Shot 1 A ctors en ter sh o t fro m op p o site sides and w alk tow ards
the centre fram ed in m edium shot. As th eir figures are
ab o u t to overlap, cu t to . . .
Shot 2 Reverse. B oth players en ter view in close shot, again
from o p posite sides, an d sto p , facing each other.
The positions o f th e acto rs in the second sh o t are reversed. B ut

298

299

Constant screen position fo r one player

FIGURE 15.10 The players move In opposed direction# towards a meeting po ln t.T h *
second camera position transposes them on the screen but the cut works smoothly
because the converging movements In both shots are equal.

their converging m otions in each sector o f the screen are identical,

although perform ed by a different player in each screen section
from shot to shot.

16

PLAYER A MOVES AWAY

FROM PLAYER B

Shots in which one ch aracter m oves away from an o th er in sim ilar

circumstances to those previously exam ined, only o f course,
requires a reversal o f the procedure. It w ould suffice only to
reverse the o rd er o f shots a n d direction o f m ovem ent, to obtain
smooth an d varied coverage for all these. As in chapter 13 where
player A m oves tow ards player B the triangular cam era placem ent
principle still applies.
Before going into the m o st used and classical approaches for
this type o f m o tio n , let us record an oddity. By including on the
screen im age tw o m irrors angled to each other, it is possible to
show th e d ep artin g player beginning his m otion by leaving one
mirror a n d entering the o th er to record the second h alf o f his
movement. T he m irro rs act as tw o m ini screens for his m ovem ent,
while th e static player is ever present on the large screen itself.

FIGURE 16.0 Two mirrors record on opposed halves of the screen the golnfl away
motion o l a player.

301

FIGURE 16.1 Two variations offered to cover a departing movement. The first covert
movement In a neutral direction and the second, movement across the screen.

Tw o cam era positions placed on a com m on visual axis can be

used to film a m otion o f departure either across the screen or
diagonally tow ards the cam era in b o th shots (Fig. 16.1).
The fragm ents o f m otion are recorded on only one h a lf o f the
screen, and in the sam e sector for bo th shots. A exits by the side
in the first shot and moves from the centre to the sam e side in the
302

FIGURE 16.2 A n external set of reverse camera sites is employed in this example to
cover the departure of one player.

second. A n external reverse cam era coverage w ould look like th at

shown in Fig. 16.2.
A right angle cam era placem ent used to cover the d ep artu re o f a
perform er w ould show b o th players in the first shot and only the
moving one in the second (Fig. 16.3).
A moves o u t o f view in the first shot b u t in the second she is
already in the centre o f the screen, a n d w alks aw ay from us in a
neutral direction.
303

FIGURE 16.3

A stationary player Is om itted from the second shot.

T his second sh ot becomes, in fact, the p o in t o f view o f the

player who rem ains in the place. T he distance a t which the moving
player is seen in this second shot, corresponds to the personal
p o in t o f view o f the static player. I f bo th were seen in full shot in
the first shot, the m oving player can be seen in a full shot moving
aw ay in the second shot, since the distance travelled across the
screen to its edge, is longer th a n if this action were witnessed by
the audience in a m edium shot. In th a t last case the departing
player is seen closer to the cam era in the second shot, to cor
respond w ith the shorter distance travelled in the first shot.
By seeing the player in m otion, first close to the cam era, then
far away, and then close again, a dynam ic visual rh y th m is con
ferred on the fragm entation o f the continuous m otion.
304

FIGURE 16.4 The camera is panned in the second shot to follow a player who walk9
away from her stationary companion.

A fu rth er developm ent when using a right angle coverage is to

m ake the second shot a pan (Fig. 16.4).
First, (close shot) A in foreground turns and goes out o f view,
right. C ut to a full shot where A (centre) continues to w alk to the
right. The cam era pans with her.
The effect obtained is sim ilar to that outlined in Fig. 16.3,
except th at now the second shot is not the point o f view o f the
excluded player, b u t an im personal point o f view th at stresses the
m otion o f the departing player. T hat is the subtle difference
between the two sim ilar m odes o f covering such a scene. The
first one is em phatic, the other is less so. The film m aker chooses
the one m ost ap p ro p riate to the narrative needs o f his scene.
305

FIGURE 16.5

The departing player's maveine.lt is divided into thraa s lu ts,

The m ovem ent m ay som etimes be covered with several camera

angles, especially for lengthy m ovem ents. Fig. 16.5 shows an
exam ple using three fragm ents.

306

Shot 1 A in foreground turns and exits right.

Shot 2 Reverse. B in foreground. A in the centre background,
m oves aw ay to the right. She does no t exit from the
screen in this shot.
Shot 3 Low close shot. A enters from the left and crosses our
view, leaving by the right (or alternatively stops in the
centre).
Two people face each o th er and are covered by two external

307

reverse cam era sites. T he d om inant person (seen beyond the one
in foreground) m oves aw ay from his com panion. If th a t motion
in the first sh o t is directed tow ards the cam era, the continuation of
the m ovem ent in the second shot will happen within the boundaries
o f the screen (Fig. 16.6).
The solution is sim ilar to the one show n on page 297 Fig. 15.7
except th at now the m oving player does not re-enter the screen.

FIGURE 16*6 The moving player comes towards us in a neutral direction. A s she
approaches the stationary person we cut to a reverse shot behind her, where she
moves away from the camera, passes the stationary player and continues on her
path to the background. Due to the external reverse angle coverage employed, the
positions of the players on the screen are transposed.

308

In the first sh o t the player starts to m ove; in the second she

completes the m otion passing the static player, and irregular case
where they exchange screen areas. But if the departing perform er
moves to the background in the first shot, he moves ou t o f view in
the second. In practice, two m aster shots are edited in parallel,
alternating betw een angles (Fig. 16.7).
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A and B. They enter shot from the
right and stop, facing each other. She has her back to
us, and he dom inates. H e says: W hen shall I see you
again ?
Shot 2 Reverse close sh o t o f both. She replies: A fter vespers,
in church. She begins to tu rn aw ay from us.
Shot 1 M edium shot. She ends h er turning m ovem ent and
walks tow ards us and o u t o f shot, left.
Shot 2 F ro m this reverse position we see her in the left sector
o f th e screen walking aw ay tow ards the background.
Shot 1 Close shot. H e rem ains alone for an instant looking
off screen left. Then he turns and crosses the screen
exiting left.
The m ovem ent o f th e girl was recorded in the same h alf o f the
screen in b o th shots. A farewell scene treated visually as we have
described, acquires a dynam ic quality o f m otion on the screen due
to the use o f th e same sector o f the screen for all shots o f m ove
ment an d because o f the repetitive editing p attern from intercut
master shots. Juxtaposed close and m edium shots add a contrast
in distances.
M ovem ent m ust flow sm oothly into m ovem ent. A departure
motion, th o u g h only a small p art, may be integrated within the
general design o f m ovem ent to a sequence (Fig. (16.8).
Shot 1 B in foreground rings off, tu rn s to the right. C am era
p an s w ith him , fram ing B, left, and A beyond. A is
packing a suitcase. B speaks to her.
Shot 2 M edium sh o t o f A. She raises her head a t the beginning
o f the shot, reacting to B off-screen. She replies, and
then closing the suitcase, takes it and exits view, right.
Shot 3 B in foreground, right. A enters from left and walks to
the d o o r, centre background. She opens it and exits.
Shot 4 Reverse. Close shot o f B bending an d picking up phone
again, he dials a num ber, puts the receiver to his ear,
waits for a m om ent and speaks.
309

FIGURE 16.7 Simple reverse camera eaveraae for a departing movement fragmented
Into several pieces using only two master shots obtained from the camera positions
shown.

FIGURE 16.8 Departure integrated into a more complex pattern of movement that
precedes and continues the central action shown here.

N um erous variants to shot 4 are possible. A fter she exits in shot 3,

the next shot m ight show her w alking dow n the c o rrid o r o f the
hotel, with the action o f the story staying with her. If, instead, the
story details w hat happens to player B, an incident th at develops
a relevant story p oint can be staged follow ing shot 3. M ovem ent
flows into m ovem ent.
N ote the curious way in which the cam era was m oved from the
right to the left side o f player A.
In th e first shot at the conclusion o f the panning m ovem ent he
is seen fram ed on the left side o f the screen, with his back to us.
Shot 2, featuring player B, is an advance on a com m on visual axis.
She is tooking left, which ties this shot visually with the preceding
one. T hen she m oves ou t o f shot by the right. In shot 3, she enters
left, an d goes to the background. B ut now we are on the o th er side
of player A, who is seen on the right side o f the screen. A nd yet the
action plays sm oothly, because her d o m in an t exit-entrance m otion
played on opposite sides o f the screen, overrides the fact th at
player A has been shifted to a new area o f the screen on the
re-establishing shot 3. The d om inant m otion o f player B m ade this
sm ooth tran sitio n possible.
311

I
FIGURE 16.9 The moving player Is excluded from the second shot, thus emphasizing
the stationary one. who remains In shot seen from close by,

T he m ethod used in this exam ple to visually m ove over to the

o th er side o f a p erform er, w ithout seeming to violate the triangle
principle for cam era placem ent ca n be added to the collection of
m eth o d s outlined in C h ap ter 9, em ployed to achieve the crossing
o f the line o f interest o r o f m otion.
I f a perform er moves o u t o f shot, the next shot need not
continue his m ovem ent. It m ight be m ore effective to cut to the
facial reactions o f the rem aining static perform er.
In Fig. 16.9, as soon as A leaves the screen in shot 1, cu t to a
close shot o f B on the sam e visual axis. I f applied to the departure
o f a vehicle passing o u t o f the full shot, cut to a close shot o f the
hero who was previously seen in the background.
This m ode em phasizes the player who rem ains on the screen,
m aking him the key figure. C utting to a close shot o f him stresses
any m ovem ent he m ight then m ake.
312

FIGURE 16 10 Ttie departing player moves In opposite screen directions from shot to
another. A external reverse camera coverage is used here.

A reversal o f the shot order is not as em phatic. F o r instance, we

cut from the Close Shot o f the static player, back on the same
visual axis to the player th at starts to m ove and goes out o f the
screen by a side, leaving the lone static perform er a small figure in
the scene. In this way both players are de-em phasized: the going
away player because she is so little time on screen on the last shot,
and the static one because he is fram ed far away from our position.
C ontrasting directions o f continuous retreating m ovem ent are
possible with two external reverse cam era sites that cover m otion
across the screen (Fig. 16.10).

FIGURE 16.11 The moving player is excluded from th second shot. The sta
tionary player turning his head in the second shot su 00 *ts the direction of move
ment of the player who Is now out of camera range.

F irst, a close shot o f b oth perform ers; A exits the screen, right.
C ut to reverse shot 2, also a close shot. Two approaches are
possible. In one, A is in the centre o f the screen hiding player B
with her body. A moves from centre to left and exits.
Alternatively, A enters the foreground from the right, with her
back to us, and crosses between B an d the cam era, exiting left. B
turns his head right to left.
W ith external and internal reverse cam era positions, the sub
je c ts d eparture is not shown b u t only suggested by the turning
head o f the other perform er (Fig. 16.11).
W hen A exits the first shot, cut to the second where B follows
the implied m ovem ent o f A.
A screen exit from one side to the centre is also possible (Fig.
16.12).

FIGURE 16,12 Two camera sites on a common visual axis are used to record a
person who passes behind the stationary player as she leaves.

Shot I

B an d A are talking. A decides to leave an d walks to the

left, reaching th e centre o f the screen. C ut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f B (an advance on the visual axis o f the
preceding shot). A enters from right and crosses behind
B a n d exits left.
In the first shot A s short m ovem ent to the left covers h a lf the
screen w idth very quickly. In the second she crosses the whole
picture w id th behind th e static player who dom inates the scene
from his central position.
A variation o f the above is to fram e b o th players in separate
shots. S tartin g w ith an establishing shot show ing them together,
move to single shots o f each, edited in parallel. One p layer then
moves away. Fig. 16.13 shows this sim ple variation.
315

FIGURE 16.13 The stationary person is excluded from the firs t shot. The moving
player passes behind him in the second.

S hot 1 Close shot. A m oves out o f shot centre to left.

Shot 2 Close shot o f B. Behind him, and o u t o f focus, A
crosses rig h t to left.
T his is a very usual way o f relating such individual shots without
reverting to an earlier establishing sh o t which w ould also create a
digression fo r the audience by em phasizing the w rong player. By
showing A m oving in the background o u t o f focus o f the second
shot her role is de-em phasized w ithout loss o f sense.
D ep artu re can be presented in such a m anner th at it discloses
the rem aining subject at the beginning o f the second shot, giving
us a fro n tal view o f this player (Fig. 16.14).
T he cam era sites are a t right angles to one another. In the first
shot, player A tu rns to m ove away. In the second, with the camera
behind her, she finishes turning as she leaves the sh o tdisclosing
the static player in fro n t view. By this sim ple dynam ic visual
presentation, atten tio n is throw n on to the other player. In the
exam ple show n, A tu rn s aw ay from us, b u t the same principle
applies if she tu rn s tow ards the cam era to leave (Fig. 16.15).
In Fig. 16.14 the d ep artu re is from the sam e screen sector in
b o th shots, w hereas in Fig. 16.15 it is from centre to sides of
opposing halves o f the screen. The statio n ary player rem ains in
the centre.
316

f
FIGURE 18.14 Right angle coverage of a departing player. In the firs t shot the person
starts to move away from the camera. In the second shotas sha completes the move
ment she discloses a frontal view of the stationary player.

I
I

l
FIGURE 16.15 The difference between this example and that preceding lies In the fact
that in this case the departing player begins her movement towards the camera In
the first shot Instead of away from It.

317

1
FIGURE 16.16 A pause at the conclusion of the firs t shot (remaining with the sta
tionary player) serves to shorten the repetitive motion on a lenothy path,

A departure involving m uch m ovem ent need not show more

th an the two extrem es o f the m ovem enta reversion to the time
shortening principle explained elsewhere. Fig. 16.16 shows the
present set up.
Shot 1 Close shot. A and B talk, then A turns and approaches
us exiting right. The cam era stays on B for a moment as
he continues to speak, then cuts to . . .
Shot 2 Full shot. A in foreground walks tow ards the camera,
stops and turns to face B in the background.
Once m ore, this action is in the same half o f the picture area and
on the same visual axis. T he difference in procedure lies in the fad
318

FIGURE 1.f 7 A diverting movement Is Introduced at the conclusion of the first shot
to Omit the long movement of the player towards the other In the background,

that when A goes to B the pause is at the beginning o f the second

: shot, but when A goes away fro m B the pause is m ade a t the end
of the first.
A sim ilar solution is m ade possible by supplem enting the pause
with a visual distraction. Such a problem arises when the departing
player m oves directly to the background w here his destination can
be seen. T he d istraction is aim ed at m aking us lose interest m o
mentarily in the m oving subject and his destination an d co n
centrate on the ch aracter who rem ains in foreground (Fig. 16.17).
Shot 1 A a n d B talk in the foreground. C, seen in long shot at

the to p o f a short flight o f stairs, waits in the back

ground. T hen A starts to w alk away from us tow ards C,
B, in th e foreground, m oves to the right and the camera
pans w ith him , excluding the others. T he cam era stays
on B m om entarily for a reaction o r for him to speak
an d advance the story.
S h o t 2 M edium shot o f C. A enters fro m left reaching the top
o f the stairs an d turns to lo o k with C off-screen right
to B.
H ere the com bined m ovem ent o f cam era and foreground player
is visually distracting. A cam era m ovem ent alone could have been
used by tilting to a detail in the foreground visually indicated by
th e rem aining player. The cam era m ovem ent, alth o u g h safer, can
be avoided if the foreground player walks tow ards the camera,
th u s blocking o u r view o f the background, and forcing us into a
close shot o f his face.
In stead o f a pause, a cut-aw ay m ay be inserted to shorten the
distance betw een d ep a rtu re an d arrival.
T his cut-aw ay m ust be related to the m ain action o f the story.
Fig. 16.18 illustrates an exam ple o f this type tak en from a well
know n film.

FIGURE 16.18 An example taken from A lfred Hitchcock's film North by Northwest,
where a cutway is used to shorten the path that must be traversed by the moving
player.

Shot 1 C ary G ra n t com es ou t o f the corn p lan tatio n and starts

to ru n to the highw ay in the background, w here a truck
is ap p roaching a t full speed.
320

Shot 2 Long shot. A biplane turns tow ards us and begins to

fly straight tow ards the cam era.

Shot 3 Full shot. T he cam era in the centre o f the highway.

C ary G ra n t enters right with his back to us an d stops
in foreground, waving his arm s to stop the truck driver.
The scene will be found in Alfred H itchcocks film North by
Northwest, and belongs to the now fam ous sequence in which a
plane chases G ary G ra n t in bro ad daylight through plain open
country.
The cut-aw ay in the exam ple given is relevant to the story,
since it inform s the audience o f the w hereabouts an d intentions o f
the pilot in the biplane. T his cut-aw ay is used to shorten the length
of ground travelled by C a T y G ra n t from the corn p lan tatio n to the
highway, and concentrates on the im portant points o f the action.

321

17
PLAYERS MOVE TOGETHER

W e have analysed screen m ovem ent where one perform er, the
dom inant one, enters and exits. B ut b o th players m ay move at the
sam e time and, in th a t event, three types o f m ovem ent are available
to them :
1 b o th m ove in the sam e direction
2 they m ove tow ards each other
3 they m ove ap art.
Each one o f these approaches will be exam ined separately and
several exam ples w ithin each v aria n t will be offered.

Case 1
W hen b o th players w alk in the sam e direction, i.e. one behind the
other, a dynam ic presentation can be obtained by editing the paii
o f external reverse shots as described below , a n d in Fig. 17.1.
Shot I F ull shot. B m oves fro m the centre o f the screen to the
right and exits. C ut to . . .
Shot 2 Reverse full shot. A enters shot from the left and moves
aw ay behind B.
In shot 1, A m oves from left to centre and B from centre to right.
In shot 2 b o th execute sim ilar m ovem ents in the sam e areas o f the
screen. B ut in shot 1 perform er B exits the screen, w hereas in shot
2, A enters from the opposite side. B, in the second shot, is already
in the centre o f the screen m oving aw ay into the background.

Case 2
I f three people are m oving in a single line, a som ew hat similar
solution is available (Fig. 17.2).
322

FIGURE 17.2 Movement that begins in the centre of the screen for the second ia
employed here to unite the shots visually-

T here is an alm ost right angle relationship between the two

cam era sites em ployed fo r this dynam ic cut ap p ro ach . The
principle at w ork is the same.
S h o t 1 A, B an d C m ove diagonally and in single file o u t o f the
shot, right. A s the last leaves, cut to . . .
S h o t 2 C in the centre o f the screen, m oving to the right. He
stops; B and A enter from left and stop.
As can be seen, the entrance o f C into shot was om itted. By allow
ing him to m ove fro m the centre outw ards, a m ore dynam ic effect
is achieved.
Case 3
A right angle coverage is also possible as show n in Fig. 17.3.
In the first shot four persons are standing, profiled to the camera,
w atching som ething off-screen left and then begin to m ove to the
left. A exits screen, B (centre) moves to left screen edge; C and D
reach the centre. C ut to the second shot, at right angles. A and B
are already in shot, right, an d walk away to the burning plane in
the back g ro u n d followed by others who enter shot from the right.
324

FIGURE 17*3 A right angle camera coverage for the departure of aeveral players,
nnovlno one behind the other.

Screen areas repetition fo r C and D is obtained, while A an d B

move in one half o f the screen first, and in the other in the next shot.

Case 4
Two players approaching each other suggest a right angle cam era
coverage (Fig. 17.4).
In the first shot b o th players, m oving in a neutral direction, w alk
towards each other. C u t to shot 2, where b o th enter shot from their
own sides and stop n ear the centre.

Case 5
Cameras placed o n a com m on visual axis will also record this
converging m otion well (Fig. 17.5).
The first shot is divided in three vertical com positional segments.
Both perform ers are placed at the extrem es, and are allow ed to
move up to the inner boundaries o f the segments. T hen we cut to a
close shot, advancing on a com m on visual axis, where each player
is seen from his own sides, and com ing to a stop.
325

FIGURE 17.4 The conversing movement c l two players covered by a rl*t*t mi fie
earner* arrangement.

It is perhaps unnecessary to p oint out that both players should

m ove a t approxim ately the sam e speed, so th a t their m otion on the
screen would allow them to arrive on cue to their allotted screen
areas. I f one perform er m oves m ore slowly than the other, he 01
she w ould have to delay his o r her entrance into the screen in the
second shot. T he visual presentation would be weaker.
Y et it is possible to cheat, if such a discrepancy is present in the
first shot, by m aking both enter the second shot at the same time.

FIGURE 17.5
v is u a l

Converging players seen from two camera positions on a common

a x is .

Case 6
The players m ight approach one a n o th e r a t right angles, as in
Fig. 17.6.
The editing pro cedure would be sim ilar to those in the preceding
case.
327

FIGURE 17.6 Both moving players converge on paths at right angles and are
covered by * right angle camera arrangem ent

H ere th e right angle cam era deploym ent coincides with the
rig h t angle m ovem ent o f the players themselves. N eutral and
transverse m otions are attenuated in half-areas o f the screen from
sh o t to shot.
Case 7
T his m eeting o f tw o perform ers whose m ovem ents converge on a
central point, can be extended to two groups. In editing, one could
altern ate betw een m ovem ents o r present them in the sam e shot.
F o r exam ple: an In d ian chieftain an d a cavalry com m ander agree
to m eet in neu tral ground to talk over th eir differences. B oth come
with arm ed escorts w ho rem ain u p in the hills as the chiefs descend

FIGURE 17.7 The movements o l characters who converge on a central point tan be
eitended to tw o oroups.

329

to their m eeting point in the valley. H ere is how the sequence is

developed.
Shot 1 Low full shot. T he group o f cavalry m en appear over
the rim o f the hill and stop. They m oved from right to
left. As they stop cut to . . .

Shot 2 Low close shot o f three cavalry men. A n officer, an

Indian scout an d the com m anding officer. They look
an d wait.

Shot 3 Reverse full shot. F rom behind the group o f m ounted

soldiers we see the o th er hill. F aint sounds o f hooves are
heard.

Shot 4 Low full shot. Indians appear o n the ridge o f their hill
and stop. (They m oved from left to right).
330

Shot 2 Close shot o f three cavalry m en. The com m anding

officer waves his arm .

S hot 5 Low close shot o f three Indians. T he centrc one is the

chieftain.

Shot 2 Low close shot o f the three cavalry m en. T hey wait.

331

S hot 5 Low close shot o f the three Indians. T he ch ief raises his
arm and then low ers it.

Shot 2 Low close shot o f three cavalry m en. T he Indian scout

an d the com m anding officer m ove to the left and go out
o f shot. They begin to descend.

S hot 6 Full shot. B oth cavalry m en (the Indian Scout and the
com m anding officer) descend to the left a n d go out of
shot. T he o th er soldiers w ait a t the to p o f the hill.

Shot 5 Low close shot o f the three Indians. T he chief and his
son m ove right an d descend o u t o f sh ot o n th a t side.

Shot 7 Full shot. Both Indians descend left to right and pass
o u t o f shot right. They ride slowly. The other Indians
spread o u t along the to p o f their hill.

Shot 8 Full shot. Several soldiers o n horseback in foreground.

Beyond, in the valley, the tw o cavalry men an d the tw o
In dians ride dow n tow ard each other. O n the hill be
yond, the row o f Indians watch.

Shot 9 F ull shot. O n the same visual axis as the preceding shot
with the row o f Indians o n top o f the hill. T he Indian
chief and his son ride tow ards us, descending the slope
an d passing o u t o f shot below.
333

Shot 10 M edium shot. T he Indian scout and com m anding

officer enter shot, right, cross the view diagonally
descending to the left and ou t o f shot.

Shot II Reverse full shot. Both pairs o f riders m ove towards

each other.

S hot 12 Full shot (side). The tw o Indians enter left an d two

cavalry m en from the right, converging a t the centre of
the screen.

334

Shot 13 Close shot o f the Indian chief. His face dignified b u t

inscrutable. He w aits in silence.

Shot 14 Close shot o f the com m anding officer. He is the first

to speak.

Shot 13 Close shot o f the In d ian chief. He replies.

Shot 14 Close shot o f the com m anding officer. H e speaks again.

The whole sequence has a slow rh y th m th a t confers a m easure o f

tension to the total event. T here is m istrust in b o th groups, and
they ap p ro ach each o th er cautiously. The construction o f the
sequence, from a story view point, is sim ple an d explicit:
T h e soldiers an d Indians arrive an d the agreed signal is exchang
ed. B oth leaders descend to the valley to talk.
T he filmic language applied to the scene is sim ple to o :
T he first g ro u p (the soldiers) is identified. Then the whole locale
is established. T he second g ro u p (the Indians) arrive. T he ritual
o f exchanging signals is perform ed. It is covered in single shots of
each group.
A delay is created w hen the Indians take th eir tim e in answering
back.
W h en b o th parties descend, they are first shown individually
w ith tw o shots for each group, w idening the view on the second
shots to include th e terrain in which they m ove. N ow a re-establish
ing sh o t is introduced. B oth groups are seen in th a t shot.
A fterw ards, atten tio n is centered o n the two chiefs an d their
com panions slowly riding to th e b o tto m o f the valley. F ro m now
on th eir respective arm ed escorts are excluded from the sequence.
T w o full shots show us how they stop, facing each other. The
faces o f the tw o leaders are now seen in close shot. These two
people d o m in ate the sequence from now on. W hen b o th parties
later retu rn to th eir arm ed escorts, their m ovem ents will be more
vivid.
W ith the conference over, there is no need to re tu rn so slowly. It
w ould be an an ticlim ax if they did.

Case 8
F o r the th ird possibility, m entioned at the beginning o f the chapter,
w here two players m ove aw ay from each o th er we have only to use
in reverse the fo rm ulas described for the players w ho walk towards
each o ther. A visual em phasis will suffice to give the idea, asshow n
in Fig. 17.8.
D uellists, back to back, an d seen in close view in the first shot.
T hey receive the o rd e r from off screen and start to m ove away
from each other. As soon as b o th leave the screen, we cut to a
second sh o t where we see them w alking a n d widening the distance
betw een them . Finally they stop.

I
I
r
FIGURE 17.8 Players move away from each other on divergent paths Right angle
camera coverage registers the movement.

Case 9
A group o f players m oving aw ay from each o th er m ay som etim es
serve to disclose a goal hidden by their presencea m otion sim ilar
effect to where theatre curtains p art to reveal the stage. T he follow
ing case m akes use o f this effect:
la a sum ptuous hall o f a large palace, the nobles are gathered
to dance. Suddenly a lackey enters an d in a pom pous voice loudly
announces: His Highness, Prince C harles!
The music fades and the dancers break up a n d begin to clear a
path to reveal th e lords a t the end o f the hall. T he Prince advances
through the crowd, tow ards the ow ners o f the castle. H ere we are
only interested in show ing th at p arting m ovem ent o f the crow d.

Shot I Long shot. T he people in the first row s o f the crowd

begin to move to the sides o f the screen and exit view
at either side.

Shot 2 Full shot. C loser to the crow d. Those in the foreground

move out o f view at either side.
i,

Shot 3 M edium shot. The last few people m ove aw ay oat of

shot disclosing the three ow ners o f the castle.
Each shot lasts ab o u t two to three seconds. All shots have a
com m on visual axis, and we progress into the crow d with the
in troduction o f each new shot. The courtesans m ove from near the
centre to the sides. T he m ovem ent is identical in all the shots.
338

FIGURE 17.9

A parting curtain effect that reveals the stationary players at the back

o f the g roup.

Intermittent motion
Looking back on o u r exam ination o f horizontal m ovem ent in and
out o f shots, we lealize th at we have covered only continuous
movement o f one or two perform ers. But in term itten t m otion, i.e.
where the perform ers m ove in turn, is very com m on in films. It
happens in m ost dialogue scenes where players shift position. This
will be exam ined later w hen we discuss shots edited w ithin the
film fram e and the construction o f sequences.

339

18
SOLVING DIFFICULT EDITING SITUATIONS

T w o difficulties in editing film shots concern those extrem es for

which there is often som e dram atic need nam ely the to tal lack, or,
over-abundance, o f m ovem ent. This ch ap ter presents a selection
o f ap p ro ach es to cover such difficult situations clearly yet in
terestingly.
M ovem ent between camera and static subject
Case 1
Let us first exam ine a case o f lack o f m ovem ent in the central
p erfo rm er o f th e scene.
O u r p lay er is seated at a lone table in a night club. Empty
tables aro u n d him em phasize his loneliness as we see him in a
long shot o f the room . N ow we wish to cut to a m edium shot of
him , so th a t the audience can identify the player a n d see the
expression on his face: tired, disenchanted, eyes lowered, fixed on
a n em pty glass.
T he m an does n o t m ove. It is no t necessary. In fact it would be
a d ram atic e rro r to give the perform er any type o f m otion. But
how do we cu t from a static long shot to a static m edium shot yet
avoid a visual ju m p on the screen ? O ne way is to introduce a
d istracting m ovem ent perform ed by a passer-by and cut using
this m ovem ent (Fig. 18.1).
S hot I L ong shot o f A. A fter a m om ent a passer-by enters from
one side and walks across the screen. W hen her figure,
in the centre o f the screen, hides A com pletely, cut to . . ,
S hot 2 T he cam eras view com pletely blocked by the body of
the passer-by w ho continues m oving to disclose A in
340

FIGURE 18.1 A smooth cut Is obtained by hiding the stationary player In the centre
o f the screen and cutting on the movement of the passing player across the screen.

m edium shot. The passer-by exits. This shot is on the

same visual axis as before.
W hat m atters is th a t a sm ooth passage from shot to shot be ob
tained.
It is n o t necessary for the passing figure to fill the screen com
pletely, either in the first o r second shot. But he should hide
completely, o r alm ost com pletely, the person to be shown in
closer view.
341

n i m y :1/ )/1 n

t
1

*
I

FIGURE t8.2 The player who produces 9 hiding effect by moving across the frame
need not leave the shot In either of the two shots Into which the movement is divided.

Case 2
T he person who is used on the screen to facilitate a sm ooth cut
m ight already be on the screen, say, also in a static position. He
has only to cross o u r view to effect the above result (Fig. 18.2).
Shot 1 A seen in m edium shot seated a t the table. In fore342

FIGURE 18.3 A player moving from centre to side of the screen can unite the shot
with a previous one w ithout movement. The stationary player is seen beyond the
moving person in the second shot,

ground, right. B stands talking to him . M om ents later B

m oves to the left. As soon as she hides A in the centre
o f the screen, cut to . . .
Shot 2 B, in the centre o f the screen, discloses A an d stops
m oving. A is now in close shot.
Motion a t the beginning o f the second shot
Case 3
The above situation can be reversed so th at we m ove back from a
close sh o t o f the static perform er (Fig. 18.3).
Shot 1 Close sh o t o f A, She is sitting still, talking on the phone.
C u t to . . .
Shot 2 Full shot. A person in the centre o f the screen m oves to
one side disclosing A in the background.
In the first sh o t there was no m ovem ent a t all. But m otion is
sharply introduced at the beginning o f the second shot. Back
ground m ovem ent can be introduced behind the static player and
continue during the second shot. It w ould no t interfere w ith the
cut because m ovem ent which is closer to the cam era is sharper
and dom inant.
For this key m ovem ent, any natural ch aracter th a t can be part
343

FIGURE 184 In the firs t shot the background woman moves out o f view. In the
second shot the moving woman, blocking our view, sits down and reveals the woman
on the phone behind her. The seated woman is seen in profile. The movement of this
woman affords sm ooth continuity and reestablishes the scene.

o f th e scene w ould be suitable a w aiter, fo r exam ple, if the scene

takes place in a restau ran t.
344

Case 4
Instead o f an incidental person, a n im p o rtan t player can be used.
He m ight be som eone w ho is reintroduced to the audience, while
at the same tim e his m ovem ent helps to sm ooth the cut which
repositions the static player (Fig. 18.4).
In th e first sh o t a girl is o n the phone, standing. A nother wom an
close to her pauses for a m om ent an d then m oves aw ay o u t of
shot, left. A fter a while we cut to the second shot w here o u r view
is blocked by the second w om an, who is sitting dow n near the
camera, As she sits she reveals the first w om an, still speaking.
The shot now fram es the second w om an close by a n d in the fore
ground, profiled w ith the first w om an seen in the background in
full shot, on the o th er side o f th e screen. Thus, bo th purposes
were neatly accom plished: the second character was reintroduced
into th e scene and was visually related to her friend whose new
position o n th e film fram e is clarified for the audience.
Motion beyond the static players
Case 5
In the exam ples exam ined, the m ovem ent was between the cam era
and o u r m ain subject, and the em phasis was placed on the static
perform er. But if this player is in m otion, an d m oves behind the

FIGURE 13.5 When the moving pfayer fs hidden behind the stationary subject in the
first shot, the cut is made to the second shot where the moving player emerges from
behind the other.

345

static subject, it is he who becom es im p o rtan t while the other

acquires a subordinate role (Fig. 18.5).
Shot 1 M edium shot. B stands in the centre. A enters from
right m oving left. As she passes behind B, and is hidden
by him , cut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f B on the right. F rom behind him appears
A who moves to the left an d stops in th a t area o f the
film fram e.
T here can be several static persons in the first take, b u t only on eis
in m otion: A. B m ust be on the centre o f the screen in the fiist
take to get an effective cut from shot to shot.
Case 6
A panning shot and a static one can be related using this technique
o f blocking the character o r vehicle in m otion as it passes behind
a static subject (Fig. 18.6).
In the first shot a person stands in the ro ad at left waving his
h ands at an approaching car. The c a r crosses the screen right to
left in long shot. W hen the car begins to pass behind the static
person (both fram ed now in the centre o f the screen) we cut to the
second shot at right angles to the preceding cam era position, and
fram e a m edium shot o f the static player w ith his back to us. From
behind him em erges the car crossing the screen and exiting left.
The static player turns to us to w atch the receding ca r (off screen)
with a disappointed expression on his face. This second shot is a
fixed cam era set-up. (This example belongs to A lfred Hitchcocks
film North by N orthw est an d happens in the sequence where a
biplane chases C ary G ra n t on a lonely country road.) The other
noticeable variation m ade on this exam ple was the introduction
o f a right angle relationship for b o th cam era sites, instead of sn
advance on a com m on visual axis as happened in all the previous
examples. T he m ovem ent recorded in the first shot lasts longer than
th at in the second where the subject m oves out o f shot quickly due
to its increase in size, thus creating a dynam ic visual emphasis for
the m otion itself.
Using right angle camera sites
Case 7
W here two static players are featured separately, one in each shot

(at right angles), they can be linked by the m ovem ent o f a sub
ordinate subject (Fig. 18.7).
In the first shot o f A, a w aiter in the foreground stands for a
m oment with his back to us, then turns an d exits left. C ut. In the
second shot, a t right angles, the w aiter (centre) m oves out o f shot
left, revealing B. Thus we dispose o f the establishing shot where
both m ain players (A and B) would be show n together, giving the
audience their true physical positions o n the set.

347

By resorting instead to the form ula ju st described, the intro

duction o f player B is m ore dram atic an d clear for the audience
due to the m ovem ent o f the subordinate subject, the waiter, whose
relation to the first player (A) h ad already been established fo r the
i
r
1

FIGURE T8,7 Tw o stationary subjects related by the departure of a secondary

person, A rrght angle camera arrangement Is used.

audience in sh o t I. A lso with this m ethod bo th m ain players may

have their individual centres o f interest (food they are eating, for
instance) w ith o ut the need for opposed glances to relate them from
sh o t to shot. Such a requirem ent m ay, in fact, w ork against the
g o o d o f the scene.
Both players move
Case 8
B oth players m ight be in m otion, crossing each o ther. The same
fo rm u la can be applied. (Fig. 18.8.).
In the first shot, a full shot, A walks obliquely from left to centre^,
while B m oves across from right to centre. A s they cross, and B is
hidden by A, we cut. M edium o r close shot o f the players (same
348

FIGURE 18.8 When both performers cross in the centre of the screen, the cut can be
made on this crossing using two camera sites on a common ads.

visual axis). B emerges from behind A an d , finally, the players stop

at the sides o f the screen.
Hiding a moving subject in the fir s t shot
Case 9
If a subject is m oving in a neutral direction in the centre, o f the
screen, we can rarely cut directly to a closer shot on the same visual
axis. A s a figure recedes it also dim inishes in size. A forw ard cut
would increase its size suddenly, and then it w ould decrease again.
N aturally the effect is visually jarring. It is no t the sam e with a
cross-screen m otion, because there the subject rem ains the same
size. So, for a n advance o n the same axis tow ards a subject m oving
in neutral direction, a distraction m ust be introduced (Fig. 18.9).

FIGURE 18.9 A subject In the foreground moves to hide the departing person In th
centre of the screen. As soon as this main performer is hidden we may cut loiwsrd
to a closer shot of him, obtaining a smooth cut.

Shot 1 A m an, his back to us, is seen o n the right side o f the
screen looking tow ards a lake. A m o to rb o a t appears
right, turns, and m oves aw ay from us in the centre of
the screen. The m an m oves forw ard, blocks o u r view of.
the boat. C ut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f the b o a t (same axis). T he b oat moves
away.
A simple solution where m ovem ent in a neutral direction is
hidden by a distracting stronger m ovem ent fo r a sm ooth cut.

Using a strong foreground motion

Case 10
A bundance o f m ovem ent is the o th er extrem e th at presents
difficulties fo r a precisely m atched cu t when tw o shots are o n the
same visual axis. This m otion, usually found in crow d scenes, is o f
a conflicting nature. Several m ovem ents with opposed directions
are present in disorganized crowds. O ne o r tw o central perform ers
m oving o r standing against such a busy background, could be
difficult to edit w ithout some very noticeable visual jum ps.
The principle o f using a distracting m ovem ent on which the cut
is to be m ade, is also applied to solve this m ultiple m otion problem .

Case 11
A right angle cam era change can use the sam e technique o f
em ploying two different persons to m om entarily m ask the player
to be em phasized by a cut with a busy background (Fig. 18.10).
A stands alone in the centre o f a crow d. F o r the cut a person
enters th e foreground and obscures him. A second person in the
foreground (and approxim ately sam e scale) m oves in the same
direction and we see A no t only closer bu t in side view.

Case 12
Two crow d shots can be filmed on the sam e visual axis w ith this
type o f solution. F irst we have a m edium shot o f several couples
girating o n the dance floor. To m ove back to a position where the
dance hall is seen in full, if tw o characters cross the foreground
the m om entary d istraction is so strong th a t m ism atches in the
background will go unnoticed.

Substitution o f the static subject

Case 13
M ovem ent o f a player who hides o u r centre o f interest previous
to a shot change on the screen, can also be used for tim e transition.
David Lean in his film Doctor Zhivago em ployed the device in a
351

FIGURE 18.10 The subordinate players moving In a right angle relative to each other
provide a smooth cut from shot to shot on a main stationary subject who stands be
yond the others.

sequence where Y evgraf (Alec G uinness) visits his half-brother

Zhivago (O m ar S harif). Y evgraf finds Zhivago tearing dow n a
fence to o b tain w ood for his stove. L ater in Z hivagos ro o m he
m eets his family and they talk. This scene is n arrated on the sound
track by Yevgraf, A lm ost in the centre o f this sequence the effect
th at interests us takes place.
Zhivago stands in m edium shot, against a bare wall, Yevgraf
enters, right, a n d crosses to the centre hiding Zhivago. T here is a
cut to the second shot, o n the sam e visual axis, w ith a foreground
figure m oving aw ay to disclose Y evgraf in close shot standing still
352

against th e wall. The effect is startling. This reversal o f roles

suggests a change in time as well (Fig. 18.31).
1

FIGURE 13.11 The players' positrons are transposed, the moving person Is rendered
static and vice versa to obtain a transition in time using a cut n r the centre of the
screen which hides the stationary subject.

Redirecting attention
Case 14
W hen cutting back from a close shot to a long shot o f a person
moving in a neutral direction, the problem o f size is very acute in
the second shot, because the distance involved minimizes and
353

weakens movement. So a dom inant action should be introduced at

the beginning o f the second shot. O ne ap p ro ach m ight be as shown
in Fig. 18.12.

F1GU&E 18.12 Our attention is redirected by the strong foreground movement of a

second player at the beginning of the second shot. The main player in the back
ground comes forward.

A comes forw ard and exits left. In the second shot a secondary
figure m oves from centre to exit left, revealing the small figure of
A approaching from the background. A lternatively, the sub
o rdinate character enters view from the side by which A left
(Fig. 18.13).
T he m ovem ent o f this subordinate subject redirects the au
diences attention tow ards the central perform er. H er entrance
close to the cam era is a strong one and the direction o f her motion
will be followed by the audience.
As A again becomes the centre c f o u r atten tio n , the passer-by
loses herself in the scene by stopping in front o f a window or
going into a store o r disappearing through a side street.
354

FIGURE 18.13 The entrance of a subordinate pJayef at the beginning of the second
shot redirects our attention towards the diminutive main character in the background.

Case 15
A sim ilar solution is applied when dealing with a crow d placed
behind and to the sides o f the m oving m ain subjects (Fig. 18.14).
In the first shot A a n d B w alk to us from a m oving crow d beyond
and occasionally in front o f them . too. A a n d B approach head-on
and exit left. W e cut (same visual axis) to w here an onlooker, C,
enters, right, crosses diagonally and stops at the left, together w ith
other m em bers o f the crow d. F ro m the central background com e
A and B, (.2, crossing close to the cam era, helped to disguise all the
m ism atches in the background crow d. W hen A and B pass C and
resch'th e foreground, they m ight stop or perhaps the cam era m ay
begin to track b ack w ith them depending how the scene is to
continue.
Case 16
A variation is w here the scene is totally blocked at the beginning
o f the sccond shot (Fig. 18.15).
355

ifar

FIGURE 13.14 The strong foreground motion of a subordinate subject (C) at the
beginning o f She second shot Is used to minimize the mismatches that a c ro w d scene
creates fro m shot to shot.

S hot 1 A an d C face us, A is talking. He advances a n d exits

left.
S h o t 2 (Sam e visual axis) B in foreground, back to the cam era,
blocking o u r view. He m oves aw ay to the left an d stops,
revealing A advancing tow ard the cam era. He stops to
talk to B. C rem ains in the background.
T he screen was blocked at the beginning o f the second shot,
because when player B crosses in front o f C, the cut com es before
he leaves the screen com pletely. T h at crossing m otion takes place
in the left han d sector, and to m atch it properly should be con356
t i n .

FIGURE 18.15 A player who blocks the camera lens at the beginning of the second
shot Is used to provide a strong motion that hides any mismatches In the motion of the
second player (A ) as he comes forward, seen on the same visual axis as In the

preceding shot.

eluded in th at area in the second shot. Instead, they are seen on

the right, hence the foreground distraction.
Using non-human movement
Case 17
The lens o f the cam era need no t be blocked by a player. Such
natural phenom ena as w ater, sand, dust o r sm oke can serve the

FIGURE 18.16 The vigorous movement of the group of players in the foreground
towards the sides revealing the scene beyond, serves to mask many Incomplete move
ments of the player disclosed. in this case the fall from the horse was suggested in the
first shot and not shown in the second, where it was substituted by the strong move
ment In the foreground. When the main player is revealed he feigns thefl.ial part of tne
fall without actually carrying It out, because it could be dangerous,

358

same purpose. They fall or pass betw een the cam era an d the player
and reveal a closer shot o f the em phasized player when they cease
or thin out. A flash o f light flaring in the cam era lens can be used
to o btain a sim ilar effect. The next shot w ould also begin with a
flash o f light and then regain n orm al exposure, revealing a closer
shot o f a ch aracter, o r a new angle o n him o r a different player.
The shots w ould be cut on the flash. F ran k lin Schaffner used a
shadow crossing th e screen to o b tain the sam e effect in his film
Pap i lion.
Parting curtain effect
Case 18
Sometim es a players m ovem ents m ust be faked to avoid a
dangerous stunt. This rules ou t the possibility o f cutting on the
action o f the m ain player. A distraction m u st be introduced at the
beginning o f the second shot to hide the om itted full action.
This d istractio n is a m otion th at begins in the centre o f the screen
and p arts to th e sides like curtains. In Fig. 18.16 the tw o ex
tremes o f a dan g ero u s m otion, falling off a horse, are faked.
In the first sh o t th e central player sim ulates the beginning o f a
fall from the horse. In fact he only bends dow n. In the second shot
the crow d in the foreground, with th eir backs to the cam era, p a rt
to reveal the player slum ping to the g round w ith exhaustion. T he
crowd m om entarily obscured the supposed fall. This can be done
with vehicles o r o th er objects relevant to the scene.

19
OTHER TYPES OF MOTION

A lthough straig h t line action is by far the m ost usual, circular and
vertical m o tio n , passing out o f an d entering view are the further
varian ts th at m ake screen action m ore vigorous and interesting.
A gain a nu m b er o f cases are given here.
Circular m ovem ent
Case 1
W ith circular m ovem ent, the perform ers action m ust be visually
clear to av oid conflicting sense o f direction (Fig. 19.1).
S hot I H igh shot. A enters the background from the left,
ru n n in g in an arc tow ard the right a n d then left, close
to th e cam era. Exit lower left side.
S hot 2 Reverse. A enters a t the low er right corner a n d runs in
an arc to the left, tu rn s right an d exits.
S hot 3 A enters left and stops in the centre.
T h e circular m ovem ent is tangential to the tw o first cam era
positions, placed outside the periphery o f the circle. T he third
cam era po sitio n is located inside the circle. C hange o f screen
direction by reason o f the circular p ath o f A is clearly visible in the
first tw o shots.
If the th ird cam era position is placed outside the circular p ath
travelled by the running player, the m otion depicted in Shot 1
w ould be repeated.
T he use o f the tw o first shots can be applied to record a person
tu rn in g ro u n d a street corner. Even if high cam era angles, eye
level, o r low angles are used to record this m otion, recording it by
using halves o f the screen rem ains unchanged to convey the
circular path.
360

FIGURE 19.1 A player's circular movement i$ covered using half screen sections of
motion. The tw o firs t camera sites are tanoentlal to the circular path of the player,
while the third is inside the circle itself.

Since the ap p ro ach described for the first two shots involves a
pair o f back to back reverse cam era positions, the device can be
used to link two different locations by a m otion th at becomes con
tinuous o n the screen. It suffices to have the sam e ac to r present on
both locations, carrying o u t the m ovem ent.
Case 2
Coverage from inside the circular p ath is also possible. The cam era
positions m ay be back to back (Fig. 19.2).
In the first shot A exits right, and in the second enters left. He
stops there facing B who waits for him. In the first shot A looks
361

FIGURE 19.2 Both camera locations are within the circular floure formed by the path
traversed by the player In motion,

o ff screen left while going ou t by the right, thus stressing the cir
cular n ature o f his path.
Case 3
If one cam era position is outside the circular p ath and the other
inside, the respective position o f the players on the screen will be
reversed from shot to shot (Fig. 19.3).
B holding A by her hand pulls her to him. This forces her to
accom plish a circular m ovem ent pivoting on Bs right arm. She
exits screen left, in the first shot an d re-enters right in the reverse
shot. T he m ovem ent o f A is recorded on opposite sides of the
screen, bu t always m oving in the sam e direction.
362

FIGURE 19.3 The players are transposed on the screen 1r> this exterior reverse
camera angle on a circular motion.

Case 4
A. circular m ovem ent covered by tangential external reverse
camera positions, featuring tw o perform ers, tran sp o ses th eir
positions. O nly one o f the players m oves, an d b o th have the sam e
centre o f in terest in the m iddle o f the screen. This is im plied in one
of the shots a n d visible in the o th er (Fig. 19.4).
Shot 1 M edium shot. A, in foreground m oves in a half-circular
p a th tow ards the window where B is looking out. A s he
nears his com panion, cut to . . .
Shot 2 C lose sh o t from outside the window. B in foreground
a t right. A enters left, com pleting his m ovem ent, a n d
stops.
As m ovem ents in these shots are in opposed directions; b o th
converge tow ards th e centre o f the screen. In this a n d the previous
363

1
llg jij

7)1

i
i

3 5

FIGURE 19.4 Tangential external reverse camera silos produce a transposition e l the
screen areas occupied by the players.

exam ples the fragm ents into which the circular m otion was
broken were executed using only half-screen areas in each shot.
Case 5
A perform er m oving aro u n d a large g roup can be covered by two
reverse cam era sites, one inside and the o th er outside the circle.
Fig. 19.5 shows the floor plan o f the scene. Players B, C and D
are all seated and therefore static. A executes the circular motion
aro u n d them .
In the first sh ot we see B in the foreground. Behind him A enters
fro m the rig h t and crosses to the left. As soon as she is ou t of
sh o t cut to th e reverse second shot.
B has his b ack to us a n d players D and C are seen. A enters in
fo reground left and crosses rapidly to the right. F o r a few m om ents
we see only B, D a n d C then A re-enters in the background, right,
an d stops am o ng the group. She has a tray w ith drinks on it that
she begins to d istribute to the o ther players. Leaving a n d then re364

FIGURE 19.5 A n internal and externa! camera location used to cover a circular
movement. T his moving player exits atone side and re-enters shot from the same side
(instead o f the opposite) in the second shot.

entering the sh o t on the same side in shot 2 clarifies A s m ovem ent

as circular.
Case 6
A sim ilar im pression is given in this case except th at the m ovem ent
takes place in the background in the first shot an d in the fore
ground in the second (Fig. 19.6).
365

FIGURE .19.6 A circular movement registered In the background of the firs t shot and
In the foreground on the second.

Both cam era sites provide an external angle coverage around the
static players in the scene. In the first A m oves and exits right. In
reverse shot 2, where A enters from right (foreground) a n d moves
to the left. A pause at the end o f shot 1 is necessary to account for
the path travelled by player A o u t o f shot before re-entering.
366

FIGURE 19.7 A righ t angle camera positioning to cover ths circular movement of a
player behind a stationary companion. The firs t shot is a pannino camera movement.

Case 7
A right angle cam era placem ent w here a m oving and a static
player are present can be used to em phasize the static player in the
second sh o t (Fig. 19.7).
The change in angle m aintains the travel o f the player across th e
screenthe direction which m axim ises screen activity.
Shot 1 M edium shot. A, left, and B, right. T hey talk. A fter
a m o m en t A w alks behind B an d turns tow ards the
cam era. T he cam era, having followed A , is now fram ing
367

b o th perform ers in the centre o f the screen. W hen A is

directly behind B, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot o f B. B ehind h er A m oves o u t from the
centre o f the screen to the right. B rem ains alone in the
shot.
T he m ain p a rt o f the circular m o tio n is covered in the first shot,
while the concluding p o rtio n is fleetingly show n at the beginning
o f the second.
Case 8
I f the subject exits by the left, leaving an em pty screen (and the
shot continues) he ca n n o t re-enter into the screen from the other
side.
T he audience w ould be conscious th a t a trick had been used on
them . B ut if a second subject rem ains in the shot after the first has
left and m oves his head as if follow ing the m ovem ent o f the other
player behind the cam era, th a t player can then re-enter the shot
from th e opposite side.
H ead m ovem ents o f this kind can indicate to the audience that a
circu lar change in direction is taking place behind his viewing
p osition (Fig. 19.8).
By placing a m irro r behind the static player the one leaving in
the foreground w ould be seen in the m irro r m oving in the back
gro u n d , so th at his reflected im age is followed by the film audience,
while the player with his back to the m irro r w atches him going.
W hen the m oving player later re-enters physically into the screen
from th e o th er side, the audience is in n o confusion as to his
w hereabouts. Such a shot offers only one problem : how to conceal
th e cam era from the m irro r. In this instance the static player
rem aining in shot blocks the reflection o f the cam era in the m irror
with his body.
A fu rth er v ariant, is to introduce a forw ard zoom , as the moving
p layer goes out o f the screen, so th at the com position is tightened
o n the screen by fram ing a closer view o f the static player and the
reflected im age o f the m oving perform er on the left. Then the
m oving player crosses behind the static one to the right o f the
m irro r. L ater as his im age tu rn s and begins to w alk forw ard, as
seen in the m irror, the cam era lens zoom s back giving him space
to re-enter th e screen from the o ther side, and stop in foreground,
left.
368

FIGURE 16.8 A player who passes out of shot on one side of the screen and re ente rs
by the other in the same shot, calls (or a stationary player who Indicates the palh of
(he absent player by turning his head or following him w ith his eyes. This Justifies his
reappearance from the other side to the audience.

369

FIGURE 19.9 A vertical movement covered by two shots with a common visual axlt.
We cut forward to the second shot.

Vertical movement
Vertical m ovem ent in and ou t o f shot can be up o r down, The
triangular cam era placem ent principle applies here.
Case 9
An advance on the sam e visual axis is simple to execute. A raises
her body, the upper p a rt passing ou t o f shot and in the (closer)
second shot rises into the fram e. It is a strong entrance that
clearly punctuates the vertical m otion perform ed (Fig. 19.9).
T he effect can be obtained w ithout the rising player moving out
o f the first shot (as when she is seen in long shot) using entrance
m otion o n the second shot only. If m ore people are present in the
370

FIGURE 19.10

A right angle camera coverage o f vertical movement.

first shot, they can be excluded as we cut in to the closer shot, o r the
order o f shots can be reversed for different situations.
Case 10
A right angle coverage m akes use o f the sam e rules outlined for
preceding exam ple, as show n in Fig. 19.10.
She rises inside th e shot as seen from a side view and concludes
her m otion by entering the second shot from below, but with a
frontal cam era position.
In this and the preceding case the second cam era position occu
pies a higher level th an the site th a t precedes it. This is in o rd e r to
accompany the upw ard m ovem ent o f the rising player.
371

FIGURE 19.11 Reverse angle coverage o1 a vertical movement where the rising pJayer
is used as pivot in the scene.

Case 11
A reverse cam era coverage, using externa! angles, obeys the same
rules as in the two form er cases. In the case depicted in Fig. 19.11
the rising player is used as a pivot in the scene.
Case 12
Som etim es a horizontal m ovem ent perform ed in a neutral direc
tion becom es a vertical m otion on the screen in the second shot
because for this shot the cam era is placed high over the players
pointing dow n tow ards them (Fig. 19.12).
The description o f such a scene w ould ru n as follows:
Shot I Low shot. In foreground two people enter from the
right, tu rn and walk aw ay into the background.
372

FIGURE 19,12 A high camera angle gives rfae to a movement of the player* upwards
through the field of view.

Shot 2 H igh shot. They enter from below and w alk into the
background (either o u t o f shot o r w ith cam era follow
ing).
If, in the second shot the cam era follows the players from above
in a vertical upw ard tilt, they will rem ain in the same screen
373

sector, until the cam era stops the upw ard m ovem ent, and then the
players will ascend the screen as they continue m oving to the
background.

FIGURE 19,13 The vertical movement In thla case occur* flrat In a mirror and then
with the real player present in the a h o t

Case 13
A n im aginative film m aker will alw ays look fo r new approaches to
the know n an d com m on event. A curious way o f editing a down
w ards m otion can be obtained by using a m irro r (Fig. 19.13).
S hot I Close shot o f B, foreground, left. A , right, reflected
in a m irror (located behind B) begins to sit down.
S hot 2 M edium shot. E, left. A, right, sits dow n. Both per
form ers are now seen in profile.
T he reflected an d the real vertical actio n to o k place in the same
picture sector.
Case 14
In the act o f sitting dow n the body norm ally m oves through an
arc. A n interesting effect arises w ith a right angle cam era position.
374

In the first shot (Fig. 19,14) A begins to sit. C ut. Side shot o f A
blocking the screen and sitting dow n in an arc to one side revealing
B beyond.

FIGURE 19.14 Right angle camera placement. A t the baginnine o1 the second shot
the player seated in the foreground blocks the screen to disclose his companion In the
background.

Case 15
Hum an lim bs often describe an arch as we m ove ab o u t. A w om an
lowering an object above her head dow n to waist level m ight
be presented in two shots. The second shows details o f the object
lowered.
375

FIGURE 19.15 A vertical movement w ith screen repetition using the upper area of the
screen fo r both hoU.

In the first sh o t (Fig. 19.15) the player brings the object down
to th e central h o rizontal line o f the picture area. W e cut to a close
sh o t on th e sam e visual axis. The object enters from above and is
low ered in to the scene.
Som etim es a reverse angle is used fo r the second shot, contrast
ing the arc p ath s travelled while keeping the m otion constantly in a
vertical d irectio n (Fig. 19.16).
D ynamic stops
Case 16
A n a c to rs m ovem ent m ay be intended to end abruptly, particularly
if he is ru n n in g and suddenly stops o r if he interrupts his walking
376

FIGURE 19.18 Opposed senses of direction for a vertical movement (to the right In
the first shot, to the left In the second). The upper area of the screen Is used lor both
shots.

movement. A dynam ic presentation stresses the violence o f the

force th at is b ro u g h t to a halt. Tw o cam era sites placed on a
com m on visual axis are m o st a p t here (Fig. 19.17).
Shot 1 A ru n s head-on to the cam era at full speed. He exits
sho t (alm ost) close by the cam era.
Shot 2 A, in th e centre o f the picture, runs only tw o steps
tow ards us and stops abruptly (same visual axis for
b o th shots).
The stop com es as a slight shock because the preceding shot
377

FIGURE 19.17 A dynamic stop is achieved by showing the player moving at lu ll speed
in the first shot and coming to a halt with only a couple of steps forward in the second.

im plied the opposite. If the running player in the second shot

m oves only one step forw ard an d then jum ps dow n into a trench,
a pit, o r dow n a small flight o f stairs, his a b ru p t descent will look
stronger on the screen, especially if a natural obstacle is suddenly
revealed when the second cam era is m oved backw ard.
Case 17
The same technique can be applied if one or bo th perform ers rolls
alm ost out o f shot an d com es to rest in the centre o f the picture
area in the second shot. This second shot is behind b u t on the same
visual axis as the first cam era site as if m ade to com pensate for the
inadequate coverage o f the first.
If, for instance, we have two m en in a fight, struggling on the
ground, we can show them rolling forw ard alm ost ou t o f view
and in the second shot in the centre o f the screen, near the camera
com ing to a halt. The m an on to p raises his knife and stabs his
opponent.
The action gains dram atically if presented with the second shot
em phasized in this way.
378

Case 18
The form ula also w orks if the action is covered from above in the
first shot and from a level cam era position in the second (Fig. 19.18)

2
FIGURE 10.18 A shot from above and a level view o f the player can be combined to
obtain a dynamic stop.

Since th e player is w alking, only one step fo rw ard in the second

shot, will suffice to bring him to a halt. H a d he been running, tw o
or three steps w ould have been necessary.
In the exam ple in Fig. 19.18 only one perso n is involved, b u t
a group o f six o r seven m oving in the sam e direction can be
brought to a sto p using th e sam e technique a n d cam era coverage.

379

20
TWENTY BASIC RULES
FOR CAMERA MOVEMENT

T he m oving cam era brought to film a new dim ension, a new

freedom , b u t in the process it also becam e a dangerous weapon.
It can so easily destroy illusion. U njudicious use o f a moving
cam era quickly develops into an annoyance th a t conflicts with the
pace and even the m eaning o f the story. Jo h n F o rd is credited with
the dictum N ail dow n your cam era and depend on the cutting'.
Such a drastic view point was not m ade w ithout reason although,
like ali condensations, it contains a m easure o f exaggeration.
M ovem ent and the camera
R oughly, there are three types o f m ovem ent th at can be pu t on
film:
1 People o r objects m ove in fro n t o f the cam era.
2 The cam era moves tow ards, across o r aw ay from static
persons o r objects.
3 These m ovem ents take place at the sam e time.
T he cam era itself can provide three different m ovem ents: panning,
travelling o r zoom ing (during the shot). The speed at which the
film travels inside the cam era w ould also affect the speed o f a
m o tio n seen on the screen, adjusting it, perhaps, to above or
below the norm .
Successful screen m ovem ent lies in know ing n o t only how to
create it b u t w hen and why.
Basic guidelines fo r camera m ovem ent
T he follow ing list will help y o u to control cam era m ovem ent
properly.
380

1 A m oving cam era can give th e audience the heightened

physical sensation felt by a character in the story, by introducing
his p o in t o f view w hen involved in a violent m otion. T he driver
in a car suddenly feels th a t he has no control on the brakes. We
see his face react with fear as he looks a t the ro ad ahead. T he next
shot is m ade from his point o f view. T he cam era hurtles dow n a
winding ro a d tow ards a dangerous curve seen straight ahead.
2 T he cam era behaves as if it is the eyes o f an actor. This is the
so-called subjective technique. It provides a greater involvem ent
with the feeling o f a character. In the preceding exam ple we oc
cupied the place o f a perform er only m om entarily, cutting back
im mediately to exterior shots o f him or the vehicle. If the shot is
longer the cam era m ore convincingly becom es one o f the per
formers. It lurches, staggers an d m oves forw ard o r backw ards, just
as a player w ould do. AH the o th er players in the scenc treat the
camera as a perform er an d look and react directly into the cam era
lens when addressing it.
It is, however, rath er difficult to obtain successful shots using
this technique because the audience is aw are th a t a trick is being
played on them .
The film Requiem fo r a Heavyweight, directed by R alph Nelson,
had a good scene at the beginning th at m ade use o f this technique.
R obert M ontgom erys Lady in the I^ake, a film m ade in the forties,
explored this technique to the full, revealing its lim itations as well
as its possibilities. I t is probably the only full length feature film
to em ploy this technique from beginning to end. O ther film m akers
have used the technique m ore sparingly; K a d a r an d K los in Death
is Called Engelchen, D elm er Daves in Dark Passage for the first
twenty m inutes, John G uillerm in for the G erm an com m ando raid
sequence o f I Was M onty's Double.
3 Panning o r tracking (travelling) can be used to present the
scene either directly o r through a players eyes. T he inform ation is
usually presented directly in a docum entary style film. A series o f
objects is presented w ithout being related to a previous o r follow
ing shot where a player is seen watching. If a person in a police
station is told to look at the line o f suspects, the panning or
travelling sh o t across their faces becomes his subjective view,
because this shot is preceded an d followed by others showing him
making th e inspection.
4 Panning o r tracking shots can disclose an expected o r un
expected situ atio n at the end o f the m ovem ent. F or example, the
381

cam era first shows an over-turned chair, then a lam p lying on

the floor, a pair o f shoes abandoned in aw kw ard positions, a
broken flower-pot, and finally a dead body. W hat to expect at
the end o f this panning o r travelling shot was gradually suggested
to the audience as the shot progressed.
A n unexpected conclusion would be achieved if a t the end o f the
shot a goat was seen chewing on the rug. F o r the audience, con
ditioned to expect a definite result, the pay-off com es as a surprise.
5 A straight cut is faster than a m oving shot because it establishes
the new point im mediately. I f we p an o r track to a new point, of
interest instead o f cutting, we expend a lot o f useless footage
p h otographing irrelevant things, simply to travel there. Significant
action o r objects m ust be photographed during the p an o r track
to justify its use o r the sequence m ay drag.
6 A pan o r tracking shot from one point o f interest to another
can m ove with a secondary subject that m ight com e into view at
the beginning and leave as the cam era stops on the new centre of
interest.
F o r exam ple, the beginning o f a shot m ight be an exuberant
floor show in a crow ded nightclub. A w aiter carrying a tray with
drinks com es into cam era range, an d we pan o r track w ith him as
he m oves aloftg the tables. T he cam era stops on two central
characters in the story seated a t a table in the foreground an d the
w aiter goes on ou t o f shot.
7 A panning o r tracking shot th at m oves from one point of
interest to an o th er has three p arts: a beginning, where the camera
is static, a m oving centre section an d a conclusion, where the
cam era again becomes static. W e ca n n o t cut from a m oving to a
static shot o f the same static person o r object as a visual jump
w ould occur. B ut after the cam era has com e to a standstill in the
first shot we m ay successfully cut to a static shot o f the same
subject in the following shot.
8 C om bined panning an d tracking are often used to follow a
subject o r vehicle m oving in fro n t o f the cam era. W e travel along
with a m an in a wheelchair going dow n a corridor. As the man
reaches a co m er he turns away from us. T he cam era stops tracking
and pans with him as he m oves into a crow ded auditorium where
his presence is aw aited.
9 A tracking o r wide panning shot following a subject performing
a repetitive action, can be cut to any desired length, as necessary,
in editing, A tracking shot o f a m oving car, constitutes repetitive
382

m otion, so th at ten seconds o r tw o seconds o f the shot can be used

as needed. In fact, the shot m ay be broken into two or three frag
m ents, and intercut in parallel w ith an o th e r series o f m oving or
static shots th at cover different, o r the sam e subject m atter.
10 W hen cutting from a pan o r trac k to a static shot where a
m oving person o r object is show n, it helps to keep the subject
fram ed in the sam e sector o f the screen. D irection o f m ovem ent on
the screen m ust be constant too. F o r e x a m p le:
A m an swims in the river. Seen in static long shot. He m oves
approxim ately in the centre o f the fram e from right to left.
Close shot. Pan w ith the swim m ing m an from right to left. H e is
fram ed co n stantly in the centre.
L ong shot, from an o th er p art o f the river. The m an is seen small
in th e centre o f the screen swim m ing from right to left.
T racking m edium shot. F ro m a b o a t accom panying the m an as
he swims from right to left. He is fram ed centrally.
11 C am era m otion, either panning o r tracking can be used
selectively to exclude undesired m aterial and introduce new
persons, objects o r backgrounds, into the scene, all the while
moving with a central action.
12 P anning o r tracking m ust be executed in a secure, precise
m anner. Y o u m ust be sure o f the m ovem ent you w ant. Jerky
panning, o r undecisive pivoting o f the cam era first to one side,
then to the o ther, reveals an am ateur, inexperienced conception
and execution.
13 Subject m ovem ent draw s atten tio n aw ay from cam era m otion.
Let your subject m ove first before follow ing him w ith the cam era,
and sto p the m o tio n o f the cam era before y o u r subject stops too,
to allow him to m ove a little fu rth er o n the screen.
14 W hen executing continuous pans or tracks, m ove the cam era
along sim ple paths. Let the actors o r the vehicle d o all the com
plicated m otions within the fram e area.
15 P an o r track ing shots should start and conclude in pictorially balanced visual com positions.
16 The useful length o f a static shot fo r editing purposes is based
on the actio n it contains, while the length o f a m oving shot
depends upon the d u ra tio n o f the cam era m otion. T he tim ing o f a
panning o r tracking shot m ust be just right. T oo sh o rt o r to o long
a m ovem ent will w ork against the story being told.
17 P anning o r tracking shots are often used to re-establish
pictorial balance. W hen a subject leaves the shot, the rem aining
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"h

perform er o f group bccom es visually unbalanced in the picture

area. A slight p an o r trac k fo rw ard m ay re-establish balance quite
sim ply. T he sam e thing happens w hen a new player enters into the
scene. These cam era m ovem ents are slow, and only involve small
displacem ents.
18 T he illusion o f m otion can be obtained by seating the subject
in fro n t o f a back, o r fro n t, projection screen o r blue screen fo r the
travelling m atte process. A lthough the subject is static, the back
g ro u n d m otion will supply the illusion th at he is on a moving
vehicle. If we actually w ant to show the player walking in front of
the process screen, a treadm ill is installed o u t o f cam era range on
the floor o f the studio, and the perform er walks on it. T he tread
mill will m ake his m ovem ents look n atu ra l while keeping him in
the sam e position.
19 T racking shots are frequently used to o b tain a static screen
com position th a t is held for the whole d u ra tio n o f the shot. A
cam era m oving b ack in fro n t o f a w alking subject alw ays frames
him from th e sam e distance while his background changes con
tinuously.
20 F requently the m o tio n o f a vehicle where the players are
located is m erely suggested.
A n establishing shot shows a car going dow n a street a t night.
N ext we cu t to the actors inside. F o r practical a n d econom ical
reasons these shots are filmed in the studio. It is n o t necessary to
set up a back projection screen behind the car m ock-up. A play of
lights falling first from one side and then the other (suggesting the
street corners being crossed as well as the areas o f light and shadow
found on any street o r ro ad a t night) will be enough to com plete the
illusion o f m ovem ent. I f the sequence is capped w ith a shot where
the car is seen m oving along the road, the illusion will be streng
thened.
S o lid dramatic m otivation
C am era m ovem ent m u st have justification a t all times. Y our
decision to use a m oving cam era m ust be in term s o f results
obtained. These reults m ust co n trib u te to a clearer, dynam ic, and
precise story telling.

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21
THE PANNING CAMERA

A panning sh o t can scan a subject horizontally o r follow a m oving

subjcct.
In the second instance the cam era an d subject m ight m ove con
tinuously o r interm ittently.

Scanning panoramically
Case 1
A continuous horizontal pan reveals a collection o f static subjects,
such as people, m achines, objects o r distant views. These scanning
pans cover wide sectors, up to a half circle a t a m edium -paced
scanning rate. (Full circle pans are m ore difficult to perform and
look less n atural). T o o fast o r to o slow a p an defeats the purpose
by dwelling to o long o n the subject for the visual reporting
involved, o r hurrying across it w ithout allow ing the tim e necessary
to grasp the details. These shots are often preceded o r followed by
another w here one o r several people are show n looking aro u n d and
are, in fact, th e subjective view o f the onlooker. S hort pans are
sometimes used to move across from one centre o f interest to
another. W ith only tw o centres o f interest, the panning m otion
serves only to link two subjects visually.

Case 2
In the previous case the reaction o f the player as he begins to look
around is seen in the shot th a t precedes the pan. But it is possible
to integrate b o th m otivation an d reaction in the sam e shot. In
385

FIGURE 21.1 The turning player motivates a camera pan at the end of which it
disclosed the subject w hich caused the person's reaction.

Fig. 21,1, the shot begins w ith the cam era fram ing playei A
looking left. She hears a sound off-cam era and, as she turns her
head to the right to look, the cam era begins to pan to th a t side with
her an d , leaving her, continues until it reaches player B who
attracted A s attention.
T hus action an d reaction are contained in a single shot. This
procedure can also b e applied to a perform er who begins to move
to a new zone o f the set. T he shot begins w ith the player static in
the first zone, then, as he starts to m ove to one side, the camera
begins to pan with him. But instead o f staying with him, it pans
faster, reaching the second zone before him . So the audience has
a view o f the second zone with its ow n centre o f interest (which
m ay be static o r in m otion, an d w ith its ow n pictorial composition)
before the ac to r re-enters.
Chase sequences
Case 3
Chase scenes frequently m ake use o f repetitive pans th a t follow
pursuer and pursued either individually o r together. Several
com binations are em ployed. O ne involves m aking a p a ir o f panned
shots from the same place, before m oving to an o th er site where,
386

again, a pair o f panning shots are m ade from the same cam era
position. H ere is an exam ple:
Shot 1 Full shot. Two cavalry m en run tow ards us. W e pan
with them through a h a lf circle from right to left, and
see them.
Shot 2 Full shot. Sam e place. F o u r Indians ap p ro ach at full
gallop. W e p an with them in a h a lf circle right to left.
T hey follow into the distance.
The same technique is applied at the next cam era position where
the action is in a different terrain. Pursued an d pursuer are shown
in different shots.

Case 4
A nother technique uses parallel editing o f pursuer and pursued
moving in individual panning shots th a t p an continuously. Each
player is fram ed centrally in half-circle pans.
In the previous case the acto rs p ath was tangential to the
camera m ovem ent (Fig. 21,2).
Now the players are m ade to ru n in a circular p ath and equi
distant from the cam era. If a long focus lens is used a t close range
the shallow depth o f field will keep only the players in focus, while
foreground and b ackground appear blurred, (Fig. 21.3),
This helps to disguise the fact th at the p ath traversed by the
players is not a straight one. I f obstacles are placed betw een the
camera and the players in m otion, the effect obtained in these
panning shots will be very dynam ic, as the players are constantly
seen th rough a succession o f interm ittent clear spaces. But if these
obstacles are a series o f vertical bars, such as a fence, a disturbing
stroboscopic effect will be obtained. Irregular shapes are therefore
preferred.

Case 5
Pursuer and pursued will be seen alternately in the centre o f the
screen, as shot follows shot. If, instead o f two persons, five o r six
run in the same direction, each photographed individually with
long lenses, and with progressively shorter pans, tension is b uilt
up as each player is substituted by an o th er in a seemingly con
tinuous panning shot.
387

FIGURE 21,2 The moving subject runs along a path tangential to the panning move
ment of the camera.

Case 6
This sam e technique can be applied to a running person.
Seen in close shot (using a long focus lens) the player moves
behind obstacles in a circular p a th around the cam era. If, each
tim e the cam era is blocked in f u l l by a foreground obstruction
the cu t is m ade to the next shot th a t also starts on a fully blocked
fram e, a p ath im possible to cover with a travelling cam era can be
o btained, and all these shots cut into one a n o th er will seem to be
one co ntinuous take, o f rem arkable length and precision in
fram ing.
T he v ariation in distance from cam cra to subject in each cut
should n o t be too great. If to o large a disparity com es after each
fleeting black screen (during the blocking o f the cam era lens in the
panning m o tio n ) the shots w ould not seem continuous, but a
receding and approaching p a tte rn w ould be achieved instead,
w hich is also an interesting visual variant.
383

If the background an d lighting o f each panning shot, as well as

costumes are changed, the passage of tim e is suggested.
Case 7
Akira K urosaw a, th a t extraordinary Japanese m aster o f film
language, has used the preceding effects extensively in his films.
But he im proved th e crude technique o f alternating panning shots
to cover a chase sequence, by cutting from a panning shot o f the
pursuer to a static tak e o f the pursued, thus generating a visual
contrast particularly well suited to the violence o f the scene.
As we shall see in th e exam ple th a t follows he was no t content
with the sim ple ju x tap osition described, but im proved on it with
a subtle variation introduced in the second p a rt o f the sequence.
Thus his visual treatm ent o f the scene was enriched.
His film The Hidden Fortress contains a fam ous sequence where
Toshiro M ifune, on horseback, pursues two soldiers arm ed with
spears who fled on their horses. T he action takes place in a narrow
road th rou g h a dense forest.
We quote a section o f the sequence to illustrate the editing
technique used by K urosaw a.
Shot 1 T he first soldier in the centre o f the scrcen rides away
from us. A second rider enters, left, and moves away.
T he cam era is in a fixed position and m ovem ent is from
left to centre.
389

Shot 2 M ifune rides from left to right. T he panning shot

keeps him in the centre o f the screen, the background
blurred, foreground em pty. M ifune raises his sword.
T he panning m ovem ent covers only a right angle.

S hot 3 T he tw o soldiers enter by the left and ride tow ards the
centre o f the screen. They are looking b ack over their
shoulders. Static cam era.

Shot 4 M ifune on horseback seen in m edium shot (framed

from the knees o f the h orses fro n t legs). Mifune is
holding his sw ord high, and is standing on stirrups.
Pan fro m left to right (90).

Shot 5 S tatic cam cra. T he first soldier in the centre o f the screen
in full shot. H e rides aw ay looking back over his shoulder.
Second soldier enters, left, an d when he reaches the
centre o f the screen in m edium shot, cut to . . .

|
.....b

Shot 6 Big trees in the background. M ifune rides from left to

right. A lm ost a right angle pan.

Shot 7 C am era low. Static. T he first rid er (centre) m oves away.

Second soldier enters left a n d as he reaches the centre
cu t to . . .

Shot 8 P an left to right. M ifune in m edium shot crosses in

fro n t o f the cam era until fram ed from beh in d pursuing
the second soldier. T he p an is alm ost a h a lf circle.

S hot 9 M ifune in m edium shot. He rides left to right. A nearrig h t angle pan.

Shot 10 Close shot o f the second soldier. P an to the right to see

him m ove away. T he first rider is seen in the background
M ifune enters, left, a n d catches u p w ith the second
rider. H e begins to strike dow n w ith his sword. C ut
o n the dow nw ard stroke. (R ight angle pan.)

Shot 11 Low shot. P an left to right. The second soldier, fore

ground, right. Left, M ifune ends the dow nw ard m ove
m ent o f his sw ord. T he second rider begins to fall
during the pan. A t the end o f it he hits the ground in a
cloud o f dust. The first soldier is glimpsed in the back
ground, right. W hen M ifune a n d the riderless horse
cross the centre o f the screen, cut to . . .

Shot 12 Low shot. Static. T he first soldier a t the left rides to

the centre, looking back over his shoulder as he moves
a w a y As soon as he is a t the centre, cut to . . .

Shot 13 M ifune, centre, full shot, runs to the right. O n the left
we see the other lone horse galloping behind. Pan
alm ost 90 right. Low shot.
393

Shot 14 Low shot. P an left to right. T he shot begins with a

m edium shot o f the first soldier leaving right. Mifune
enters left. T he first rider turns back on his saddle and
prepares his spear to repel the attack. T he cam era stops
panning and sees how b o th ride aw ay along the road.

S hot 15 Low shot. P anning left to right fram ing only the legs of
the tw o horses. T he swift pan covers a h alf circle.

S hot 16 Both riders in the centre o f the screen seen in full shot.
M ifune, behind, strikes som e sw ord blows that the
first soldier blocks with his spear. T he pan covers a
right angle.

Shot 17 Low shot. H a lf circle pan follow ing the legs o f the tw o
ru n ning horses m oving left to right. T he shot has 24
film fram es.

Shot 18 B oth riders in the centre o f the screen m ove tow ards us,
ride close to the cam era a n d pass into the background
(h a lf circle pan). T he m en exchange blows.

Shot 19 Low shot. A h a lf circle pan, left to right, follow ing the
legs o f the horses as they ru n p ast the cam era. T he sh o t
consists o f 29 film fram es.
395

Shot 20 M edium shot o f bo th riders (fram ed from the knees of

the horses upw ards). T he anim als ru n side by side. The
m en exchange blows. A panning m ovem ent catches
them close to the cam era as they ap p ro ach and is cut
as soon as they have their backs to us.

Shot 21 Low shot. A h a lf circle p an , left to right, following the

legs o f the horses as they ru n (27 fram es).

S hot 22 C am era high. H orses side by side. The m en still fighting.

S hort p an from left to right.
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Shot 23 Low shot. A h alf circle pan, left to right, following the
legs o f the horses as they run (25 frames).

Shot 24 Full shot. B oth riders in the centre o f the screen. Pan
from left to right through right angle. W hen both riders
reach a close shot, M ifune lunges a t the back o f the first
soldier. A t the conclusion o f the pan the soldier begins
to fall forw ard o u t o f shot, right.

Shot 25 Low shot. Static cam era. B oth horses enter close to the
cam era and the w ounded soldier falls in foreground.
M ifune and the horses m ove into the background. Then
he tu rn s to the left and disappears am ong the bushes.
397

T he technique used by K urosaw a in this sequence is simple and

rich. Shots 1, 3, 5 and 7 show the pursued soldiers moving away.
Their actions take place on the left side o f the screen only, and are
filmed from fixed cam era sites. T he pursuer, T oshiro Mifune, is
shown in shots 2, 4 an d 6 moving forw ard in right angle pans, left
to centre. H aving established a violent rhythm for the chase, the
director disposes o f the first pursued m an in four shots.
Shots 8 to 11 docum ent how M ifune reaches his first opponent
an d kills him. S hot 8 establishes the distance betw een these two
men, shot 9 shows M ifune gaining ground, and shots 10 and 11
p o rtray the death o f the soldier.
The establishing shot 8 is a h alf circle p an; shot 9 only a right
angle p an o f M ifune, left to centre. Shots 10 to II move from
centre to right and there is a cut on the dow nw ard stroke of
M ifunes sword. In shot 12 (static cam era) the rem aining soldier
is re-established. H e m oves on the left side o f the screen. Shot 13
shows M ifune riding ahead o f the lone horse o f the soldier he has
killed. In shot 14 M ifune reaches his second opponent. Shots 13
and 14 arc right angle pan shots, b u t the first is from left to centre
and the second from centre to right.
Now K urosaw a changes his visual tactics. He intercuts shots
o f the tw o m en on horseback exchanging blow s with close shots
o f the legs o f the horses galloping side by side. Shots 15, 17, 19, 21
and 23 show swift panning shots o f the legs running on the road.
Each o f these shots lasts only one second on the screen. Shots 16,
18, 20 and 22 show the m en fighting. W ith the exception o f the
first (a right angle pan shot) all are half-circle pans. One long, wide
pan (shot 18) and two faster, close pans (shots 20 and 22).
The director needs only tw o shots to end the sequence. Shot 24
shows how M ifune w ounds his op p o n en t in a right angle pan from
left to centre. The w ounded soldier begins to fall.
398

The last (static low) shot o f the sequence shows bo th horses

tntering, close to the cam era, an d the soldier falling in foreground.
Mifune an d the riderless horse continue dow n the ro ad an d away.
The co n stru ctio n o f the sequence is a m odel o f econom y. All
irrelevant details are om itted. F o r exam ple, shot 12 no t only re
establishes the excluded soldier, b u t m asks M ifunes advance
along th e ro ad w ho, in the next shot, is show n far ahead o f the
riderless horse. In sh o t 14 M ifune has reached his other o p
ponent. O ut o f twenty-five shots, six use a static cam era while the
remaining nineteen are all panning shots.
Intermittent panning
Case 8
Interm ittent activity by various groups can be covered
continuous p an (Fig. 21.5).

by a

FIGURE 21.5 A continuous pan covers overlapping actions of several groups who
move around the camera in the same general direction.

A. group o f soldiers m ove in double line (I) from right to left.

The cam era begins to pan w ith them . As they m ove aw ay they
meet an onlooking group turning to the left (2). T he cam era
follows them . The soldiers stop in fro n t o f a gardener (3) pushing a
wheelbarrow. The cam era follow s him . T he gardener stops as a
man on horseback (4) passes in fro n t o f him . The cam era m oves
399

with the rider. As he exits screen left, the cam era stops in the
foreground.
C am era m ovem ent was slow an d continuous throughout. The
end o f the sh o t was static. T he interm ittent, overlapping actions
gave a sense o f place while a t the end the tw o central characters
(5) were in troduced naturally as p a rt o f the whole ensem ble.
Case 9
I f a p an n in g shot m ust cover several points o f interest in its path,
it is wise to provide pauses in the m ovem ent, which allow the
audience a b etter view o f them (Fig. 21.6).

FIGURE 21.6 The subjects are stationary, the camera pans Interm ittently from player
So player as they interrelate w ith one another.

T he players are given bits o f business ap p ro p riate to the situa

tion an d which m ove the action o n to the next player o r group,
thus justifying fu rth e r cam era m ovem ent. T his way, results on
the screen look m ore n atu ral. A succession o f sh o rt p an s th at
cover stationary subjects will need stronger dram atic m otivation
400

lhan if the players them selves provide th at m otivation with their

own actions. In the second case the m ovem ent o f the cam era
complements th a t o f the players.
Full circle panning
Case JO
Panning by degrees need n o t be supplied only to covering sta
tionary players. Perform ers who, in turn, m ove within a circle,
the cam era panning w ith them as they move to new positions,
suggest coverage by a full circle cam era pan which can record a
whole scene. M ichelangelo A ntonioni used such a set-up in his
film Cronaca di un Amore, Fig. 21,7 gives a schem atic diagram of
the m ovem ents executed in th at shot.

FIGURE 21.7 Movements for a 3*0 degree pan in Michelangelo A ntonioni's film
Cronacn d l tm Am ort. The continuous scene runs fo r 132 metres of film (about 5 mln)
n d takes place on bridge.

401

T he scene to o k place in the centre o f a bridge and was acted out

by the tw o m ain characters. The m ultiple pauses used paced the
shot so com pletely th at you have to pay extra attention to notice
th at a full circle panning m ovem ent is involved.
Such a shot m ust have strong plotted action in fro n t o f it to be
successful.
Case 11
Fast circular panning is som etimes used to cover a dance routine,
as if taken from the view point o f one o f the dancers. The dance
p artn er m ay rem ain in the foreground but behind, the scene spins
swiftly round. The usual way to film this scene is to tie the cam era
m an and the ac to r w ith a short rope round their waists. This will
ensure som e accuracy in fram ing as both persons girate.
U nless a strong dram atic reason m otivates its use, this type of
shot should be used sparingly. It is ju st a form o f cam era acrobatics
and one th at has been overdone.

FIGURE 21.7A M aintaining a constant camera to subject distance In a seen*

involving a rapidly rotating pan.

402

Case 12
An acto r walking slowly in a circular p a th followed by a panning
camera will cover th e to tal surrounding background while keeping
the player co nstantly fram ed in the foreground a n d on the same
side o f th e screen. I f there is a crow d in the background, the idea
that the player is com pletely surrounded will be very graphically
conveyed. (Fig. 21.8). H arry A ndrew s in the prison rio t scene in
Sidney L u m ets The H ill, an d B urt L ancaster a n d his group
surrounded by the M exicans in R o b ert A ldrichs Vera C ruz arc
two films w here the technique described was used quite effectively.

FIGURE 21.9 A circular camera movement w hich keeps a player constantly in the
foreground throughout the shot.

Fast panning
Case 13
A very fast circular pan is called swish pan. It connects tw o points
of interest an d provide a sh o rt blurred im age o f the scene en route.
403

It is used to link tw o adjoining scenes spatially. A t th e end o f the

first sh o t a swish p a n is initiated. T he second sh o t begins with a
swish p a n a n d then stops, fram ing a new scene. I f bo th blurred
p arts o f th e tw o shots are joined a fast linking device is obtained.
N ow adays, som e film m akers use swish pans o f p u re blurred
m ovem ent sandw iched betw een tw o static shots to accomplish
th e sam e effect. C hanges in tim e o r locale are indicated by th e use
o f such pan s.
D avid L e a n in his film D octor Zhivago uses a swish p a n to relate
tw o scenes th a t tak e place o n the sam e set. K om arovsky a n d Lara
are dancing. T h e m usic ends an d the couple com e to a sto p on the
dance floor. T here is a swish p a n to the rig h t an d we see K om
arovsky helping L ara to a seat a t the table on the edge o f the dance
floor. T he swish p a n serves to om it their w alk across the room
w hich w ould a d d n o th in g to the scene and m ight even te n d to
slow it dow n. T hus the swish p an bridges tw o p a rts o f the set
d isposing o f dead time.

Case 14
A swish p an can be used to relate tw o different vehicles visually,
conveying the idea th a t some tim e has elapsed a n d the player is
now travelling a t a different place an d time. R ichard B rooks, in
his film In C old Blood, uses this effect. A bus is seen approaching,
The cam era begins to p an w ith the vehicle to the right. W hen the
bus passes close by the cam era as it pans, a blu rred view o f the
body o f the bus is obtained. A cut is m ade o n this blur. The next
shot starts w ith the blurred m otion o f a train passing the camera,
T he in stru m ent p an s in the sam e direction as the preceding shot
a n d stops, fram ing the train going into the distance (Fig. 21.9).

Case 15
A swish p an is som etim es used in the m iddle o f a shot in a chase
sequence. The shot starts fram ing player A running from left to
right. The cam era p an s alm ost a h a lf circle with him. Suddenly the
cam era swish pans b ack to the left in a swift blurred m o tio n , to
fram e player B, the pursuer, com ing into cam era range. T he cam era
now pans w ith this new player, to the right again, following him
until he leaves the shot.
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FIGURE 21.9 The blurred pan la uaed In In Cold Blood, to unite tw o vehicle* moving
In the tam e direction across the screen.

Case 16
Sometimes a p anning shot starts by fram ing the m ain subject on
one side o f the screen an d ends w ith th a t subject o n the o ther side.
That is to say, in th e p anning the cam era m oves faster than the
subject it covers. T his is som etim es required to keep well balanced
pictorial com positions at the extrem es where the cam era is fixed.
(Fig. 21.10.). This recourse is also em ployed to give the perform er
screen space in fro n t o f them th ro u g h which to m ove o u t o f the
screen w hen th e cam era stops panning.

In two directions
Case 17
The cam era m ay p an in opposite directions in the sam e shot,
provided th a t there is a pause in between. H ere is a simple ex
ample. B and A are standing together. A walks to the right and
stops d u rin g which m ovem ent the cam era pans to the right
fram ing him alone. A fter a m om ent A returns to B. The cam era
now pans to the left again fram ing both perform ers.
405

FIGURE 21.10 The camera pans faster than the subject being covsred so th a t at tha
end of the shot she Is on the opposite side o f the screen.

Vertical tilts
A vertical p an is know n as a tilt. T ilt m ovem ents a re not used as
frequently as horizontal pans. A cam era tilt, up o r dow n, is easier
to execute since, in general, it is used only to cover vertical move
m ents o f a perform er o r object.
Case 18
A continuous vertical p a n m ay connect different points o f interest
placed one above the other. The cam era is usually tilted slowly to
allow the audience tim e to take in the changing view proper!/.
406

Here is an exam ple: I t is night. F irew orks explode in a d ark sky.

As they finish the cam era begins to tilt dow n, it passes a group
of musicians, placed on the flat ro o f o f a house, w ho begin to
play a gay m elody. T he cam era continues dow nw ards to fram e an
open patio w here people in evening dress have assem bled aro u n d
long tables fo r a b an quet w hich is being b ro u g h t in by waiters.
The cam era m oves dow n fu rth er to fram e a n elab o rate cake o n a
table in th e foreground. T here is an inscription o n it: T o T is h \

Case 19
A discontinuous vertical p an serves to connect centres o f interest
placed vertically b u t the players o r objects suggesting th a t coverage
need n o t them selves necessarily m ove vertically as the exam ple
chosen fro m Jo h n H u sto n s film The Unforgiven illustrates here.
A door opens th ro u g h a rectangle o f light on the floor. W e see in
the foreground a painted anim al skin, stretched on the ground.

Two pairs o f boots w alk into the ro o m th ro u g h the d o o r an d stop

in front o f the skin.

The person on the left w alks aw ay to the background. The

camera tilts up follow ing him . He opens a w indow an d m ore light
comes in. T he player on the right tu rn s tow ards us. W e see the
centre section o f his body a n d a gun in his right hand.
407

T he player o n the left com es back to the foreground. The camera

tilts u p again and fram es the faces o f b o th m en. They look down
a t th e skin (now off-screen).

T he player o n the right bends dow n o u t o f view to pick up the

skin an d th en re-enters fro m below holding the skin.

N ow b o th players tu rn an d m ove aw ay to a table in the back

ground where they spread the skin out. T he cam era tilts dow n to
fram e them in m edium shot.

As the exam ple shows the shot is a continuous one where the
camera m oves fro m one centre o f interest to an o th er and rem ains
on each before tilting up o r dow n again.

Case 20
Tilt shots m ove either u p o r dow n in right angle arcs relative to the
horizon. I f a tilt starting a t the horizon m oves through a h alf circle
the whole scene will be upside dow n a t the end. Some chase
sequences m ay som etim es profit by the use o f this property of
a tilt shot. F o r exam ple: a ta n k pursues a m an. They ru n tow ards
us. T he cam era is high up, fram ing them from above, an d con
tinues the tilting m ovem ent after they pass below us. N ow the
scene is upside dow n an d m an and tan k seem to defy gravity by
clinging to the face o f the earth as they run tow ards the inverted
horizon. A well know n R ussian film, Ballad o f a Soldier, used such
a shot. (Fig. 21.12),

Side tilts
Case 21
Sometimes the upside dow n fram ing at the end o f a tilt is used to
com m ent on the disrupted m ental balance o f the central character
in the scene. B ut a sideways cam era tilt is favoured by o th er film
makers. T he cam era leans partially to one side as the m ental
breakdown takes place, an d is kept tilted in the following shots
until the ch aracters condition is norm al again. Tilted reverse
shots have a n opposed direction from shot to shot (Fig. 21.13).
A right-angle sideways tilt is used only fo r very strong dram atic
reasons since it brings the horizon into a vertical position.
Tilts first to one side and then to the other, are applied to a
camera held inside a set o f a ships cabin o r o f a subm arine, to
simulate an explosion by rocking the cam era rather than the set
sideways. The actors m ove, to assist the illusion.

Joining a static and a panning shot

Case 22
A static and a m oving shot can be joined together, covering
horizontal o r vertical m otion, by m aking the second take a hori409

VERTICAL
AXIS

FIGURE 21.12 A shot used In the Russian film Baltad of a Sofdter, where the canera
is tilled down through an arc o f 130 degrees thus giving an inverted view of events in
the final part of the shot.

410

FIGURE 21.13 Tilted com positions on the screen are used to denote an abnormality
In the situation or in the characters portrayedand w ith opposed senses o f direction
provide a visual contrast from shot to shot.

zontal pan o r a vertical tilt. The procedure is sim ple enough. In

the first sh o t A goes o u t o f one side o f the fram e. (H e either m oves
across the screen or, com ing tow ards us, he exits close to the cam era
In the second sh o t he enters from the opposite side a n d the cam era
pans with him . W hen he has reached his destination in the b ack
ground, the cam era stops. (Fig. 21.14).
Case 23
With two perfo rm ers in the shot, one m oving a n d the o ther
stationary, th e sam e co m b in atio n can be applied (Fig. 21.15).
411

FIGURE 21.14 Tw o sim ilar formulas for jo in in g a stationary and a panning shot to
cover an actor's movement. In the firs t case the player exits parallel to the camera in
shot 1, while in the second case the player In shot 1 comes diagonally toward* the
camera.

In the first shot A com es from the background, passes B and

exits right, close to the cam era. A t the sta rt o f the second shot,
b o th players are seen in profile. In the centre o f th e screen A moves
to th e right. T he cam era pans w ith him excluding B left.
Case 24
A n advance on the sam e visual axis to record the m ovem ent o f A
crossing behind stationary B, showing how B stops on th e othei
side, can be easily achieved using a static full shot follow ed by a
panning close shot (Fig. 21.16).
412

Flo. 21-15 A n o th e r varia n t fo r Joining a s ta tic and a p an n ing sh o t. Here th e cam era
site s are a t rig h t angles to each o th e r.

Here is a description o f the scene:

Shot I Full shot. B stands on the left side o f the screen. A, right,
starts to m ove left. W hen she reaches the centre o f the
screen, and is close to B, cut to . . .
Shot 2 Close shot. B, left, and A, right. A t the sta rt o f the shot
the cam era is already panning to the left with A who
now crosses behind B and stops on the o th er side.
F inal screen com position is A on the left and B on the
right.
The cu t o n the action is with the m oving player in the same
screen area in b o th shots.

FIGURE 21.16

A fu rth e r va ria n t fo r Joining a s ta tic and a p anning s h o t (sae test).

414

Editing two consecutive panning shots

j

Case 25
In our survey o f the uses o f panning m ovem ents we find th at a
further possibility is to have the m oving player go ou t o f one shot
and enter a second (Fig. 21.17).

FIGURE 21.17 T w o co n s e c u tiv e p a n n in g s h o ts o f th e sam e m oving c h a ra c te r are

Joined by le ttin g th e m o vin g fig u re leave th e scre en in th e firs t s h o t and ente r in th e
second.

F rom the first position, the cam era fram es the m oving player in
close shot. A t the end o f the p an she exits. She enters the next from
the opposite side. This new take is a full shot, and we continue
panning in the sam e direction as in the previous take following
the m oving player.

FIGURE 21.1B F o re g ro u n d o b sta cle s a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e fir s t s h o t and b eg in nin g

o f th e second are used to Join tw o co n s e c u tiv e p anning s h ots.

416

Case 26
Two consecutive panning shots where the player never leaves the
screen can be edited together if a foreground obstruction is used
to achieve the cut (Fig. 21.18).
Here is a description o f the scene.
Shot 1 A walks th rough a crow d. T here are people in front of
and behind her. She is fram ed in full shot. Panning
with her, we fram e a person so close to the cam era th at
o u r m ain player is hidden behind. C ut to . . .
Shot 2 A person in close shot on the right. F ro m behind
ap p ears A in ciose shot and m oves in the sam e direction
as before. The cam era pans with her. T here are now no
obstacles between her and the cam era, although the
crowd continues to move behind her. A t the end o f the
pan, A stops. People continue to cross the screen from
side to side.

Case 27
Two shots th at p an in opposite directions can be joined together if
the acto rs m ovem ents is in a diagonal across the screen (Fig.
21.19).
In the first shot the actor m oves off round a corner and into a
street, the cam era p anning w ith him left to right. Cut. The player,
still on the right, approaches walking left and we p an with him
right to left.
In order to achieve a successful cut, the players position and
size m ust be identical on the screen at the m om ent o f the cut. As
shown in Fig. 21.19, the perform er is seen on the right side a t the
same distance from the right edge, and with approxim ately the
same vertical height in bo th takes. M inor m ism atches will be
accepted by the audience. P anning speeds are im p o rtan t. The
camera is slowing dow n o n its horizontal p an a t the end o f the
first shot and begins to increase its speed in the opposite direction
on the next shot.
417

FIGURE 21.19 T w o co nse cu tive pan s h o ts fro m o p p o s e d d ire c tio n s b u t w hich cover
th e sam e s u b je c t can be jo in e d if th e c u t Is m ade w ith th e player loca te d in the same
screen se cto r.

Case 28
P ositioning the player in the centre o f the screen allow s two pan
ning shots o f him to be edited consecutively. T he shots have a
com m on visual axis (Fig. 21.20).
The first shot here is a close shot an d the second a full shot but
th e order can, o f course, be reversed. If the player is located on one
side o f the screen in b o th shots a reverse angle coverage can be
ob tained, with bo th shots panning in the sam e direction (Fig,
21 .21 ).
W ith this form ula the second shot can b e in a totally different
place. T hus a transition in tim e is obtained using a continuous
m ovem ent by the sam e player.

FIGURE 21,20 The consecutive shots of the same subject where the camera posltions are on a common visual axis at the moment of the cut.

Case 29
Interrupted m ovem ent in one direction can be covered with a
panning shot on the first phase o f the m ovem ent an d a static
reverse shot for the second part (Fig. 21.22).
Here is a description o f the scene.
Shot 1 Low shot. A car approaches. It then tu rn s to the left
an d the cam era pans w ith it. T he car stops several yards
aw ay in a full shot, now seen fro m behind. As soon as
th e car stops, cut to . . .
419

FIGURE 2T.2T T w o co n se cu tive external reverse p a n n in g s h o ts o f the sam e player

w ho moves in th e sam e d ire c tio n in b o th sh ots.

S h o t 2 Reverse low shot o f the car. Its do o rs open and people

ju m p o u t a n d ru n forw ard o u t o f shot, left.

Case 30
V ertical tilt shots can be joined to static shots using the formulas
described.
T hose p anning shots suggested here can be reversed with the
static shot used first and the p an second extending even fu rth er the
possibilities for covering action.
420

----------
----- r

-5 ?

45b
1

11

U\

.2
FIGURE 21.22

T h e fir s t s h o t Is 0 pan w hile th e second Is s ta tic .

Acrobatic pans
The two examples th at follow depict panning shots th a t are
visually stunning.
F o r this purpose the cam era has to pass through som e so rt o f
aerial loop.
Case 31
A horizontal pan is m ade with the subject com ing tow ards the
camera an d passing in fr o n t o f the cam era operator, who follows
it with his cam era.
But w hat happens if th e subject in m otion passes behind the
camera o p erato r during a horizontal p a n ?
In order to keep him fram ed on the screen the cam era op erato r
will be forced to bend his body backw ards. This m otion dem ands
that the cam era should be placed upside dow n during a sector o f
421

'"1
\ M r\J
\\l
ij 1

\
FIGURE 21.23

the panning m otion. O n the screen the subject covered behaves as

follows: he is seen upright approaching tow ard us, then his body
tu rn s sideways as he begins to travel aro u n d three edges o f the
screen; first on one side till he reaches the to p edge, a t which time
he is seen com pletely inverted o n the screen; and descends by the
opposite side o r edge to attain a n orm al standing position and
m oves aw ay from the cam era.
This visual som ersault was used quite extensively by the
cam eram en in the TV series M ission Impossible.
Fig. 21.23 illustrates the case described.
Case 32
W hen the cam era is pointed straight dow n to record a n across the
screen m otion, a startling effect is obtained by rotating the
422

camera 180 degrees on its vertical axis. In the film The Strawberry
Statement such an occurrence to o k place. A slim row ing b o at seen
from above entered the screen from the right. As it reached the
centre o f the screen, the cam era was turned a h a lf circle on its
vertical axis, so th a t the b o a t reversed direction and w ent o u t o f
the screen by th e right, the sam e side from which it had entered
(Fig. 21.24).

It does not m atter if th e tu rn is done to the left o r the right, the

final result will be the sam e, as long as you keep to a 180 degree arc.

423

22
THE TRAVELLING CAMERA

O n the screen, m ovem ent has direction, strength, speed, duratio n

a n d tim ing. In general, a large num ber o f m ovem ents create a
feeling o f energy, hurry, excitem ent o r violence, Little o r no
m ovem ent suggests dullness, quietness, depression, solem nity or,
a t th e o th er extrem e, depending upon the context o f the scene, an
em otional tension so great th a t all activity is suspended.
M ovem ent o ften coincides w ith the line spoken. I f the m ovem ent
precedes th e line, the line is em phasized. I f the line precedes the
m ovem ent, th e m ovem ent is em phasized.
M an y o f th e m ethods used fo r pan n in g shots a re equally ap
plicable to tracking shots. H ere are som e suggestions:
1 The m ost pleasing m oving shots are o b tain ed w hen the cam era
track s sm oothly, w ithout bum ps, a t a co n stan t speed. I f a n in
crease in speed o r a slowing dow n are required, these m ust never
be sudden m ovem ents.
2 T rackings th a t cover subjects fram ed in long shot o r full shot
are enhanced if static objects are placed betw een the p ath s of
subject a n d cam era. B etter pictorial com positions are o btained by
providing pi anal co n trasts so avoiding a n appearance o f flatness.
3 T racking shots w ith pauses where the cam era a n d the subjects
m o m entarily sto p can a d d variety o r even b re ak the m onotony
o f a continuous repetitive m ovem ent.
4 I f th e p layer a n d cam era are to pause during a tracking shot,
it is generally b e tte r to avoid stopping where there are objects
in the foreground unless they have som e special significance in the
story, because they will certainly be em phasized very strongly,
I f they are only obstructive they are b etter avoided.
Interm ittent action covered by a continuous tracking
A co n tin u o u s tracking shot need n o t follow a single person or
g ro u p from beginning to end. I t can, for exam ple, begin with a
424

m edium sized g ro u p th a t halts in stages, while the cam era con

tinues tracking in a constant direction.
Suppose we track w ith a g roup o f soldiers a n d their officer,
taking som e condem ned prisoners to the execution ground. A
priest walks w ith them . F irst we travel w ith the full group. Then
the soldiers stop. T he priest, the stretcher bearers an d the officer
continue walking. T he stretcher bearers kneel dow n to atten d a
wounded prisoner. T he officer an d the priest go on. T he officer
stops. T he priest continues an d jo in s one o f the prisoners. The
cam era stops. Stanley K ubrick em ployed such a shot in his film
Paths o f Glory. (Fig. 22.1).

PRIEST
OFFICER
STRETCHER BEARS
SOLDIERS

TRAVELLING

--

FIGURE S2.1 A simple case of Interm ittent movement covered by continuous

tracking. The group decrease In number as they slop along the way. Only one reaches
the final destination.

In th e exam ple given, cam era and players were m oving on

parallel paths. But the sam e principle can be applied to a group
which is follow ed from behind by the cam era. (Fig. 22.2).
A approaches along a corridor. E enters from behind the cam era,
right, a n d walks aw ay p ast A w ho turns a corner into an o th er
corridor a n d the cam era, panning with him (left) begins to track
behind A. F com es dow n th e corridor. H e greets A an d continues
to w alk tow ards us, going o u t o f shot, left. As A reaches the
phone b o o th w here C is talking into the phone, we see B enter
from a nearby d o o r an d cross in fro n t o f A, w alking to the left
into an o th er co rridor. The cam era tu rn s left, follow ing B. A t th a t
m om ent C leaves the phone b o o th an d walks behind B. T he cam era
travels in the new co rrid o r behind both B and C. H alfw ay along
the corrid o r B enters by a d o o r on the left and we continue to
track behind C who jo in s a noisy group o f four m en. A t that

FIGURE 22.2 A nother example of overlapping action covered by a tracking camera

which moves behind the players in action.

in stan t a n usher, D , asks fo r silence a n d points to a d o o r on the

left. The cam era stops and pans to the left w ith the gesture o f the
usher, to a d o o r with the w ords Jury Room o n the glass.
The continuous tracking had, a t all times, overlapping move
m ents th a t led the audiences interest to the culm ination o f the
shot. T he m ovem ents were carefully integrated w ith each other as
if in a ballet designed exclusively for the cam era.
Joining a static and a tracking shot
W here a cam era tracks with walking o r running people it is not
easy to slow it dow n when they stop, the fram ing a t the end of

such a sh o t is critical, th o ro u g h rehearsals a n d a good cam era

crew are required to synchronize m ovem ents. It is easier to achieve
th at sto p by sim ply cutting to a static cam era position.
Case 1
If the perform er w alks tow ards us an d the cam era tracks back with
him for the latter p a rt o f the w alk, we can cut to a fixed cam era
position on th e sam e visual axis b u t a t full sh o t distance (Fig. 22.3),
where th e player is centrally placed.

FIGURE 22.3 Motion on a common visual axis Is used to Join a tracking and a static
camera ahot of the same moving subject.

427

Case 2
W ith quick m ovem ent in the first shot, such as where the acto r runs
tow ards a b ack-tracking cam era he can increase speed a t the end
o f th e shot an d m ove forw ard o u t o f shot. In the second shot the
player (centre) runs forw ard tw o o r three steps and halts (Fig.
22.4).

FIGURE 22.4 It Is easier to |oin s fast tracking shot to a static camera position If the
moving subject Is allowed to go o u t of the screen In the tracking shot.

Case 3
I f we trac k back with a player w ho then changes direction it is
b etter to show the change in the second static shot (Fig. 22.5).
T he first shot corresponds to those in the previous examples.
T he player walks in close shot a n d we trac k b ack with him. W e
428

FIGURE 22.5 A change of direction In the subject's movement is best shown in the
second, static camera position.

then cu t to him in full shot, centre. H e takes a couple o f steps

tow ards us an d then tu rn s and walks o u t o f shot possibly followed
by a cam era pan.
Case 4
A sh o t tracking parallel to the player can m ake use o f other
solutions. In the first, close, shot, we track with the player pro
filed o r in three-quarters view. W e cut to a static full shot. The
player enters from th e side opposite to his direction o f m ovem ent
an d stops in the centre (Fig. 22.6).
429

JZZL

[^ O cc
(/ \
r

f-4
FIGURE 22.6 A parallel camera arrangement for the static camera site is used
In the formula depicted here.

Case 5
A panning shot can be used as the second shot, thus slowing down
w ith the perform er as he stops walking o r running (Fig. 22.7).
In the first shot he m oves w ith the tracking cam era. W e cut to a
full shot.
T he player, centre, m oves in the sam e d irec tio n ; the cam era pans
w ith him till he stops.
As pointed ou t in previous cases, the size o f the figure in b o lt
shots an d the position o n the sam e screen area, are critical for the
430

,J T

FIGURE 22.7 If the subject movement Is too rapid, the second shot w ith this right
angle arrangement, can be a pan.

success o f the tran sitio n on the m om ent o f the cut. P articularly

here, w here the a c to rs figure begins to decrease rapidly in size as
he m oves aw ay o n the second shot.
Case 6
A static right angle cam era site can be used as the second shot to
cover a ru n n in g person. In the first shot the player is p o rtray ed
centrally in a m edium shot. T he cam era m oves w ith him along the
same line. N e a r th e end o f the shot the cam era p an s slightly to one
side leaving a h a lf screen em pty in fro n t o f the player. In the next,
fixed, sh o t th e player in the sam e screen po sitio n runs aw ay from
us to th e centre o f th e p icture area (Fig. 22.8).
431

FIGURE 22.8 In this right angle arrangement, the moving player remains on the sane
side of the screen in both shots. The static shot frames him from behind going away
in a neutral direction.

Case 7
A reverse angle cam era position can be used to show a group of
players halting in a place (Fig. 22.9).
In th e first shot the cam era tracks with the g roup seen in full
shot.
C u t to a reverse m edium shot. S tatic cam era. The players enter
sh o t m oving in the opposite direction, and stop.
T he fixed cam era position is placed on the o ther side o f the line
o f action, thus obtaining a very dynam ic visual conclusion to
w alking o r ru nning m ovem ents.
432

FIGURE 22.9 A n external reverse camera set-up using a tracking and a static shot to
cover a group in m otion who c o n e to a halt In the second shot.

Intermittent camera tracking

Case 8
For m ost tracking shots the cam era is m ounted on a dolly running
on some form o f suitable tracks assem bled for the particular shot.
The cam era m ay travel continuously o r interm ittently o r reverse
its direction o f m ovem ent a t any point. Fig. 22.10 is a floor plan
view o f a scene using a tracking cam era.
Tw o soldiers, A. and B, are walking through a battlefield. The
camera travels sideways with them . W hen they reach position I,
433

FIGURE 22.10 Interm ittent camera tracking, where the direction of the march Is
reversed once and then resumed.

b o th lie dow n and wait. T he cam era stops tracking. T he soldiers

get up again but only A continues to position 2, where he stops,
followed by the tracking cam era. R ealizing th at he is alone, A
turns and goes back to B. T he cam era reverses to the other side
with A, returning to position 1the third cam era stop. B is
w ounded. A helps him to his feet and puts one o f Bs arm s ovei
his shoulder. B oth walk laboriously to position 2 the fourth
cam era stop.
The cam era resum es the original direction o f m ovem ent. Both
soldiers rest, then continue to position 5, where, again, they stop

with the cam era. B says he ca n n o t go on. He w ants to be left there,

to die.
The actors can m ove behind various obstacles betw een stops
for exam ple, barbed wire, upturned cannon an d tall grass.
Case 9
The cam era m ight track the w hole length o f the long run, stop and
then retu rn to the first position. In Fig. 22.11 the actors move
interm ittently.

FIGURE 22.1t
example*

Interm ittent movement ot both camera and players is used in this

The shot begins from a static cam era position fram ing A in the
centre o f a group. W hen A starts to w alk through the parting
crowd, th e cam era tracks right. He reaches B, stops, an d B walks
to the right and stops beside C. The cam era stops fram ing B and C
among the group. C then com es forw ard an d stops in the fore
ground. The cam era is still static. C w alks to the left th ro u g h the
crowd. T he cam era starts to track back (left). C stops in fro n t o f
D and gives him a key. D moves to the left and inserts it in a
machine. The cam era stops fram ing D in the foreground operating
the m achine. O ther players are seen beyond.
435

Using both sides o f the track

Case 10
T he cam era m ay reverse its direction o f travel o n the screen
though m oving in only one direction, by m erely panning through
a h a lf circle to the o th er side o f the track. T he m ovem ent is
co n tin u o u s an d the audience can accept the contrasting directions
w ith o u t difficulty (Fig. 22.12).

r~ i

\Y
*

1H

------------------

>

FIGURE 22.12 Both sides of the track are used in the same shot by panning in the
middle of the trackino shot.

Case 11
A shot m ight track dow n the entire length and use both sides
(Fig. 22.13).
A approaches B a n d bo th ru n a sh o rt way to point 1 where they
stop. They sta rt to ru n to the left again an d the cam era tracks with
them to th a t side passing in fro n t o f a fence briefly seen in the
foreground o f the previous shot. The cam era stops at point 2 and
pan s from 2 to 3 follow ing the actors.
The cam era faces the o th er side o f the tracks and starts to move
again, tracking with bo th players from 3 to 4. C am era a n d players
halt for a m om ent, a n d then ru n back to point 5 where they fall.
T he cam era follow s to p o in t 5 to conclude the shot.
436

FIGURE 22.13 A nother example In which both side* of the track are used for a con
tinuous travelling shot which keeps reversing its sense of direction perlodfcally to
accompany tha action.

A h alf circle pan a t one end o f the track turns the cam era from
one side o f the tracks to the other. W hile the m otion o f the
camera from points 1 to 4 was continuous, the m ovem ent o f the
dolly was not. The fence was included to add visual variety to the
shot at intervals.
Winding paths
Case 12
An actor who appears in a tracking shot does not have to be
confined to a straight line; he could approach or m ove aw ay from
437

the cam era by following a sinuous p ath b u t with the camera

m oving in a straight line. W ith this kind o f action, static objects
between the cam era and the ac to r are essential to give the illusion
o f dep th and planal contrast. I f he is supposed to give the illusion
o f struggling to find a p ath through a difficult m edium (a crowd or
a forest, for exam ple), it is m uch m ore convincing if he weaves in
an d ou t an d perhaps is occasionally engulfed. H e adds to the
realism o f the situation by pushing people o r bushes aside, as if
they offer som e resistance.
The cam era m ay track parallel o r diagonally to the crowd or
forest. C am era m ovem ent is as in Fig. 22.14.

FIGURE 22.14 The sinuous path of a player is covered from a straight camera track

Case 13
In a further variant, the cam era tracks back in a straight line, while
the subject m oves on in fro n t following a w inding path. The
cam era pans from side to side to keep him in view.This form ula can
be used to show a character pushing through a thin crowd waiting
for some event (Fig. 22.15).
Case 14
T he same straight cam era path with the cam era panning from side
to side can be applied to a static group placed in semi-circle. The

FIGURE 22.15 When the player advances In a winding path this can be covered by a
straight camera movement retreating in fro nt o f the player.

camera starts with a long shot an d tracks in, pan n in g from side to
side as it goes and finally com es to rest fram ing the central player
(Fig. 22.16). Such a m ovem ent requires strong dram atic m otiva
tion. This sam e ap p ro ach can be applied to a zoom shot.
Case 15
Interm ittent cam era tracking follow ing a person w ho m oves from
zone to zone in effect tu rn s the w inding p ath into a series o f
triangles (Fig. 22.17).
From position 1 we fram e A in close shot. W hen he m oves to
zone 1, the cam era tracks w ith him to position 2. H e is seen now
439

FIGURE 22.16 The camera advances on a straight line forward, panning from one
side to another until it stops, framing the central character in the sem icircular group.

in full shot. He pours him self a drink. B crosses in the foreground.

T h en A com es forw ard a n d stops in close shot in position 2.
B ehind him B crosses the screen from one side to the o th er in the
o p posite direction. N ow A m oves b ack to zone 3. The camera
track s from position 2 to 3. A sips his drink as he looks o u t o f the
w indow , th en turns an d advances to zone 4. The cam era tracks
from position 3 to 4 to fram e A in close shot again. The horizontal
m ovem ent o f B w as introduced to b re ak the back an d forth
m o tio n o f the m ain perform er, thus adding variety to the screen
presentation.
Case 16
T he w inding paths o f tw o actors m ay cross in fro n t o f a con
tinuously m oving cam era (Fig. 22.18).
This allows som e co n tra st in the num ber o f figures appearing on
th e screen. Player A in foreground slows dow n and is excluded by
th e tracking cam era w hich now concentrates on B as he comes
forw ard. W hen B is nearby, A re-enters the background from the
side where she passed ou t o f view an d crosses behind B to place
herself on the right side o f the screen. C om position B-A is main440

,
V

z. -uiH

FIGURE 22.17 Interm ittent camera movement covers fntermittent player's movement
which assumes an irregular shape or arrangement, form ing triangfes.

441

FJGURE 22.18 T h esinuouspatternsof m otionarecom binerfm this shot, sothat each

of the two players appears alternately on the screen.

tained for a m om ent, then B slows dow n and A is Framed in

close shot once m ore. Later B re-appears in the 'background. The
d o tted lines in Fig. 22.18 correspond to the paths o f the performers
n o t recorded by the cam era.

FIGURE 22.19 A panning movement in the middle oi a tracking shot changes ths
framing of the subject from a front to a rear view.

442

Panning while (racking

Case 17
A half circle can, o f coarse, be executed in the m iddle o f a tracking
shot as well as at the end. Tw o variations are possible. If the shot
starts with the cam era fram ing the fro n t o f the player, after the pan
the cam era will be fram ing her from behind (Fig. 22.19).
The reverse effect will be obtained if the cam era starts the shot
framing the players from behind. They will face the cam era at the
conclusion o f the shot with their positions reversed (Fig. 22.20).
In these two exam ples the cam era tracks along a straig h t p a th and
the distance between the actors and the cam era rem ains constant.

FIGURE 22.20 If the camera starts tracking w ith the rear view of the players, a pan
in the middle changes that relationship to a frontal coverage. Thn camera m ust move
faster than the characters during the pan to be able to frame them from the front, in
the previous case the camera slowed down during the pan.

443

Case 18
T he cam era m ay track in a straight p ath th at then m oves round
th rough a right angle tu rn if, say, the acto r abruptly turns a corner,
If the player w alks in front o f the cam era as it tracks back, the
sh o t is simple to execute (Fig. 22.21).

FIGURE 22*21 A players rig h t angJe path of movement is repeated for the camera
movement that precedes him.

In a m ore elaborate set-up the players m ight m ove along a right

angle p ath , opposed to the one followed by the cam era (Fig. 22.22).
T he cam era tracks behind tw o soldiers who ru n through a
deserted street. W hen they reach a corner, the tw o players move off
tow ards a w recked trolley bus which has been ab an d o n ed in the
m iddle o f the street. D istant m achine-gun fire is heard. The two
soldiers sto p beside the trolley a n d check their w hereabouts. The
cam era continues tracking all the time, panning to keep the actors
fram ed and turns into the new street. T he soldiers then sta rt to run
to w ard the cam era and then keep pace with it as it tracks.
The changing subject distances here give the take added pic
to rial value. W hen the actors pause b u t the cam era continues to
444

FIGURE 22.22 A right angle camera turn on a continuous tracking shot to cover an
Intermittent movement o l the players in the scene.

move, a suggestion o f doom is introduced, derived from the

contrast o f m otion an d quietness and the context o f the scene
the isolation o f a deserted street, m enacing sounds from an un
known place, a w ar going on.
Case 19
A pan in the m iddle o f a tracking shot can be used when covering
two static players as in Fig. 22.23.
The cam era begins fram ing a close shot o f A and B. T hen it
tracks forw ard to B. W hen the cam era reaches her it begins to pan
to the side, the direction opposite to th at in which it is travelling.
The panning m ovem ent uses player B as a pivot. The cam era
continues tracking b u t now recedes from A an d B until it stops,
framing th em in m edium shot.
445

FIGURE 22.23 A player is usd as a pivot for the panning shot as the camera tracks.
Both subjects are stationary.

Camera and perform ers move in opposite directions

O ccasionally, a shot is arranged in which cam era and performers
m ove in opposite directions. Several variations are available.
446

iX .

V ^

FIGURE 22,24 Player and camera, both in motion, converge toward each other in a
neutral direction.

Case 20
Player and cam era travel tow ards each o ther and stop face to face.
Iffo reg ro u n d players are involved, they are excluded at the end o f
the sh o t (Fig. 22.24).
As can be readily appreciated, the solution outlined has good
potential for stressing a p erform er o r a situation. T he opposed
movements o f cam era and players are equally em phatic if a
departing player m oves away as the cam era recedes. By m oving
away from the scene as the m ain player goes aw ay, a break in the
mood o f the play is underlined by visual m eans on the screen.
Several m ovem ents o f this type in succession, either all converging
or diverging featu rin g different players will stress the situation th at
follows after th o se m ovem ents are com pleted. It is enough to
involve tw o o r th ree players fo r visual stress.

Cas
I f the cam era and the actress have converging oblique paths, the
take will sta rt also in a full shot an d conclude in a close shot
(Fig. 22.25).

FIGURE 22.25

A n oblique path for tho camera and player are used in this example.

Case 22
A n o th er set up has the cam era and subject cross on parallel paths,
the cam era p anning to follow the subject as she passes. She appears
to ap p ro ach and then m ove aw ay from the cam era (Fig. 22.26).
448

FIGURE22.26 Camera and pfayer move In opposite dfrections. When they cross, the
camera pans with the player as it continues to move away from her.

Both cam era and subject move at sim ilar speeds in opposite
directions. She m ay stop first, m om entarily before the cam era
does.
Case 23
A further variation is obtained if a central static player is in
cluded in the shot. The player in m otion, and the cam era, converge tow ards the static player b u t the m oving player stops before
the cam era does. The cam era halts only after obtaining a reverse
view o f its initial position (Fig. 22.27).
449

FIGURE 22.27 One of the players and the camera move in opposite directions. The
stationary character is used as a visual pivot in the scene.

Case 24
If the cam era m oves in the opposite direction to that o f an on
com ing group an d does not pan to follow it, it is wise to have the
cam era angled forw ard in a three-quarter position. (Fig. 22.28),
This cam era position allow s us to w atch the players comfort
ably, as they ap p ro ach from the background and m ove out of
shot. If the cam era is placed parallel to the players, it gives a
profile view and they will ap p e ar to cross the screen m ore quickly.
But the speed is too great for com fortable viewing and the fast
repetitive m otion quickly becom es annoying.

FIGURE 22,28 A large group moves in the opposite direction to the camera, which
observes them trom a three-quarter view.

Case 25
This case involved a q u arter circle p an on a tracking shot (Fig.
22.29).
Here th e cam era m oves in the opposite direction to the walking
player, A, using the static subject, B, as a pivot.

Case 26
If player A w alks tow ards B, the last cam era position is a side shot
of both (Fig. 22.30).
The difference is th at at the end o f A 's m ovem ent, she rem ains
facing B in profile, while in case 25, both players adopted an L
relationship in their bodies ra p p o rt'. A stood beyond B, in a
frontal view, while B was profiled to the audience.
451

FIGURE 22.29 A track is used to move the camera from one static zone to an othe r<1
right angles to the firs t.

Case 27
A n inversion o f the position o f the players on the screen is obtained
if the m oving ac to r walks betw een the static player and the moving
cam era (Fig. 22.31),
M ore involved track an d pan m ovem ents can be obtained by
reversing the trac k and p an in the second p a rt o f the shot. A girl
talks to h er m an, then she w alks to the left. T he cam era travels
with her left an d pans to th at side to pick up her image and [hat of
her co m p an ion on a m irror. She stops, facing the m irror, and the
cam era stops tracking and panning fram ing her on the right, her
reflection in the centre and the reflection o f the m an on the left.
452

FIGURE 22.30 The procedure here Is sim ilar to that used in the previous example
except that at the end the players face each other.

She tu rn s to face the cam era. In the m irror the m an advances to

her and stops closer but w ithout physically entering the screen.
She starts to com e forw ard to the right, and the cam era tracks
back and pans to the right with her. She crosses beyond the man
and the cam era tracks with her alone. She stops; so does the
camera. She turns to face the m an off screen, left. As she completes
her tu rn , the m an enters the picture from the left, and bo th remain
in profile to the cam era. C am era and players m oved in a chor
eography for the screen, which is the basis o f editing shots in
the cam era to be explained later on.

FIGURE 22.31 Hftre the camera movement is sim ilar to that used In the previous
examples, but the players cross over and exchange 1heir position on the screen.

Case 28
A panning m ovem ent can be used a t the opening o f a shot,
followed by a track as a continuation o f the p a n capping the shot,
in effect, w ith an o th er p an w hen the dolly has stopped moving
(Fig. 22.32).
It is a simple form ula for introducing the players (in the first pan),
travelling w ith them as they speak, a n d seeing them head for their
destination (in the second pan). In this way the tracking is used
only for the m ost im p o rtan t p a rt o f the shot. In the p an at the end
o f shot 1, the destination o f players A, B an d C m ay be seen in the
background (actors D an d E).
Shot 2 w ould cover the ap p ro ach o f the m ain players, by means
o f a q u arter circle pan, an d fram e the whole group when they meet.

Single file form ations

W hen players move in single file, a cam era w hich tracks with them
m ay move faster o r slower th a n they do.
454

FIGURE 22.32 Motion flows into motion as both shots feature camera movement that
dovetails sm oothly to cover a group walking to a waiting twosome.

]f the cam era m oves faster, the actors can be revealed one by
one and swiftly left behind. But if the cam era m aintains a co n stan t
speed, th e actors m ay com e in to range one by one, slow dow n to
keep pace with the cam era, then increase their speed an d advance
out o f sh o t while the person behind takes his place. T he cycle is
repeated w ith as m any people in the line as desired.
455

A n o th er v ariant is to have one person o u t o f line m oving with

the cam era faster th a n the others so th a t he gradually passes each
o th er player.
H e can w alk either between the cam era and the row o f people,
o r beyond th e line. In the first case he is in foreground, in the
second, the background.
A fu rth er refinem ent is to have the line o f people m ove in the
opposite d irection to the m ain ac to r an d the cam era so that he
rem ains in the centre o f view either in the foreground o r back
gro u n d , while the line o f people cross o n the o th er side. T his gives
a very dynam ic shot.
But to b e effective in this, an d the previous cases, the camera
should be angled three-quarters tow ards the line, never parallel to
it (Fig. 22.33).

FIGURE 22.33 A three-quarter view to cover a moving group from a tracklno camera
shows the action in a much clearer way than would a parallel moving camera,

Tracking speed
Tracking speed for a cam era is alm ost always dictated by the speed
o f the subject being covered. I f the cam era m oves tow ards or
aw ay from a static subject o r group, the speed with which it does
it will, in effect, com m ent upon the scene.
A typical change from a full shot to a close shot o f a player can

r
i
*

be used to stress any facial expression o r body m ovem ent o f the

player on the term inal sector o f the tracking m otion.
A swift d ep artu re m ovem ent can be used to revea! new infor
mation in foreground th at has caused a reaction in the player seen
in close shot.
Slow tracking provides a n intim ate m ood, creeping in quietly
to the player.
Slow and steady tracking in m ovem ents tow ards a speaking or
silent player, m akes the audience identify with him m ore fully.
His problem s becom e ours, o u r sym pathy for him (lows ou t more
freely.
Slow, backw ard tracking can stress a feeling o f sadness or
loneliness. It isolates the stationary player from the audience.
When repetitive tracking m ovem ents are used, either m oving
sideways across the landscape o f different locations, o r accom pany
ing different subjects covered separately in each shot, the speed of
tracking should m atch. Likewise, when repetitive forw ard m ove
ments are used tow ards different subjects (or repetitive receding
movements) th e speed should be the same. W hen you intercut
receding tracking shots between forw ard tracking takes, to com
ment on static subjects o r objects, the sam e requirem ent applies.
Different speeds from shot to sh o t will m arr the effect.
Subject approaches tracking camera
Subjects covered by a cam era tracking frontally need no t start
from a close position. A car m oving along a n avenue is seen in
full shot w ith the cam era m oving back in front o f it. The car gains
speed and approaches. W hen it is alm ost parallel, the cam era pans
slightly to one side with it an d fram es a m edium shot o f a pas
senger on the back seat. C ar and cam era now m ove a t the same
speed (Fig. 22.34).
The shot could begin with only the subject moving tow ards the
camera which only begins to move w ith her when she is nearby
(Fig. 22.35).
W hen the cam era begins to move, a slow start which gradually
gains speed will avoid the cam era draw ing attention to itself.
Yet, it is wiser to have the player pause in fro n t o f the cam era and,
as she moves on again, start the cam era m oving with her. In this
way the new m otion o f the player m otivates the m ovem ent o f the
camera.
457

FIGURE 22.34 T h e car moves faster than the camera as it cornea towards us, then tfie
car slows down to the same pace.

M otivated action is accepted naturally by an audience because

it does no t draw attention to itself em phatically. It fulfils their
subconscious desire to m ove with the scene.

Editing consecutive tracking shots

A long tracking shot o f a player can be broken to intercut with
reverse tracking shots o f w hat the perform er is looking at when he
moves. The direction o f the m ovem ent is reversed. Such a shot in
fact becom es the p layers subjective view (Fig. 22.36).
458

*4

FIGURE 22.35 The camera waits in a stationary position as the player approaches.
When she is close enouoh, the camera begins to track backwards w fth her.

The view point o f the m oving player is thus visually stressed, as

the audience alternately becom es th e player advancing to a
target.

FIGURE 22.38 The second camera position is the subjective point o f view o f the
moving player. Here a neutral direction Is used.

459

I f we are tracking sideways with a player, he will rem ain in the

sam e screen sector w ith the background revealed at one side of
the screen and hidden on the other. This is reversed in a travelling
reverse shot (Fig. 22.37) th at represents this point o f view.

FIGURE 22.37 The second camera position is again a subjective viewpoint, but here
a horizontal camera movement is used for both shots.

Static shots intercut within a tracking master shot

Case A

If the cam era tracks behind a subject, going forw ard after him,
in the reverse shot the cam era tracks back with the player who is
com ing tow ards it (Fig. 22.38).
H ere is such a ca se :
S hot 1 O n the lower patio. C am era follows the acto r from
b eh in d ; he then clim bs the stairs. As the cam era reaches
the first step we cut to . . .
Shot 2 C am era above on the edge o f the stairs, facing the
actor. It pulls back w ith him as he com es to the top
an d travels back with the perform er dow n the corridor.
A m ore simple m ovem ent, where the acto r walks on a plain
ground, can be covered using the sam e form ula.

A frontal tracking shot will allow intercutting o f static cut-aways.

The m ovem ent o f cam era an d the player is kept co n stan t in the
master tracking shot. R elated shots, th at com m ent on o r stress
the story point, are intercut.
Here is a sam ple sequence:
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A. C am era, low, moves back with the
player as he walks tow ards us. He has a set o f head
phones clam ped over his head and a small m icrophone
in front o f his face. He holds a b o ard with a check list,
an d m oves in the m iddle o f a crow ded underground
control room .
A : All right. L ets h ear y o u r final rep o rts.

460

461

Shot 2 Close shot o f B. He is sitting profiled left in front o f a

large control panel. He presses some switches.
B: 'C o m p u ter ready, sir.
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A. C am era tracks back w ith him.
A : O .K ., B urke?
Shot 3 Close shot o f C. H e is standing in front o f a bank of
instrum ent panels, profiled right.
C : T racking station is locked on the signal.
Shot 1 M edium shot o f A. C am era tracks back with him. He
checks his list with a pencil.
A : Ignition systems read y ?
Shot 4 Close shot o f D. He has his back to us, and is seated in
fro n t o f two m onitoring TV screens, where a rocket on a
launch pad is seen.
D : Yes, sir. G reen lights all a ro u n d .
S hot 1 M edium shot o f A. He walks tow ards us and stops.
C am era stops too, keeping the m edium shot distance.
A : All right. C ontrol. Two m inutes to g o .

22.38A

As the example shows, the interplay o f questions an d answers gives

the visuals greater coherence, even when as in this case none o f the
players are related visually by lines o f interest between them.
T he four players involved have all their backs to each other.
462

Case B
A com m on noise held on the sound trac k will help give coherence
to a sim ilar editing situation, w here a m aster tracking sh o t is
intercut w ith statio n ary shots. H ere is an ex a m p le:
Shot 1 O n th e to rn , ravaged street, am ong the debris an d the
wrecked buildings, a heavy arm oured ta n k m oves fo r
w ard. A g ro u p o f arm ed soldiers advanced behind it,
co n tinuously on the lo o k o u t for snipers. T he cam era
travels sideways to the subject, w ith the group fram ed
in full shot.
Shot 2 A sniper w ith a rifle takes up position behind a w recked
w indow fram e on the first floor o f a n ab an d o n ed house.
H e aim s in a diagonal tow ards the low er right corner.
Shot 1 T he ta n k a n d the group o f soldiers m ove with the cam era
Shot 3 T w o m en near a d o o r fram e, behind a pile o f debris are
ready w ith a m achine gun. T hey aim left.
Shot 1 T he tan k and g roup o f soldiers m ove with the cam era
o n the street littered with b u rn t objects an d chunks o f
cem ent.
Shot 4 T w o civilians prepare a b az o o k a, and p o in t the gaping
m o u th o f the w eapon tow ards us.
Shot 1 T he ta n k an d the g ro u p o f soldiers advance along the
street follow ed by the cam era.
Shot 5 In the fo reground, the m en holding the b azo o k a have
th eir backs to us and are aim ing it tow ards the ta n k
a n d the soldiers, seen in the background com ing tow ards
us.
Shot 4 Reverse view point. T he tw o civilians face us. T hey fire
the w eapon left o f the cam era.
Shot 1 T he tan k and the g ro u p o f soldiers. T he cam era travels
w ith them . T he shell suddenly explodes o n the street
u n d er th e fro n t o f the tank. A geyser o f sm oke and
flame billows up.
Shot 2 T he sniper behind the w recked w indow begins firing
his rifle.
Shot 3 T he two men by the d o o r fram e, fire th eir m achine gun.
The tank engine and track s shaking the pavem ent m ake an
impressive noise used th ro u g h o u t the sequence. Shots 2 and 3 are
intercut into the m aster shot to show how the resistance m ovem ent
is preparing its surprise attack . A lthough no precise reference to
463

22.31SB

their w hereabouts in relation to the ta n k is given, they are related

by intercu ttin g and the all-pervading noise o f the advancing tank,
The last p a rt o f the sequence introduces shots 4 and 5. Shot 4
when first show n has the sarne vague relationship to the m ain event
as shots 2 an d 3, But when shot 5 is introduced, relating both
elem ents visually in the sam e take, then significance is clarified.
T he m aster tracking shot, being co n tin u o u san d o f repetitive action,
allowed freq u en t intercutting.

Circular tracking
C ircular cam era m ovem ent is tricky and m ust be used with re
strain t an d only w hen strong d ram atic reasons dem and it. A
continuous tracking circular shot lends to eclipse the story point
by calling atten tio n to the cam era acrobatics.
C ircular tracking around two people is often used to convey an
em otional experience so overw helm ing that it becomes a key point
in th eir relationshipfor exam ple, a couple kissing after an
unexpected revelation has restored their faith in each other
(Fig. 22,39).
464

Some variation is obtained if the cam era m oves with one o f the
players in a circle aro u n d a stationary central perform er. The
moving player rem ains facing the cam era, the other is seen from a
constantly changing view point (Fig. 22.40).
Sometimes only a half circle is enough to convey a specific
mood in a shot.
For example, a leader is addressing the peasants. T he cam era
moves in a h a lf circle behind them keeping the leader fram ed in the
centre o f the background (Fig. 22.41).
A feeling o f dependence on a central figure o r force is stressed
because atten tio n , even during the m ovem ent, conveys on the
leader as a pivot. A half-circle cam era m ovem ent can involve
panning for the shot a t the extrem es. Thus the internal p art o f the
465

FIGURE 22.40
camera.

Player A walks around his stationary partner and is followed by the

circle is covered frontally at the beginning o r conclusion o f tlie

shot. Such an arrangem ent was used by L aurence Olivier in his
film version o f Hamlet.
D uring the presentation o f the play in the castle, arranged by
H am let to prove the guilt o f his stepfather, the King, and the key
figures in the dram a are distributed in three groups in front of e
stage (Fig. 22.42).

Here is a description o f this unique shot.

The shot begins by show ing P olonius, K ing C laudius
and Q ueen G ertru d e (1) seen in full shot from one side.
The king is visibly disturbed and Polonius is w atching
him. He walks one step forw ard to observe the king
better. T he cam era pans to the left (2) to show H o ratio
on the o th er side o f the central pit. H o ra tio is looking
at the king too. The cam era continues panning left
(3) to show the w om an on stage entering and discover
ing the body o f the other player. H am let is seen in the
foreground looking right tow ards the king, off-screen.
Behind him the actress kneels beyond the o th er player
on the stage miming. Now the cam era travels right in a
h alf circle passing behind the players as the play con
tinues. The cam era (4) passes behind the Q ueen, the
king and Polonius. A t th at m om ent the m u rd erer in the
play com es on to the stage and com forts the weeping
w om an. Tw o hooded men enter and take the dead m an
away. T he cam era stops (5) beh in d H oratio. He is seen
in the foreground, right, the players behind on the left.
H o ratio now looks to the left and steps th at way. The
cam era pans with him (6). H am let and O phelia are seen
in the back ground left, H o ratio still in the foreground,
right. T hen he walks again to the left, the cam era pans
w ith him to th at side. C laudius an d G ertrude are
467

fram ed left (7). H o ra tio still in the foreground, right,

turns his head to the right tow ards the stage and the
cam era tracks in a h a lf circle to the left, panning to the
rig h t as it begins to m ove (8). It fram es the miming
players in their reconciliation. T he cam era passes
behind P olonuis, the king an d the queen and in the
b ack g ro u n d we can see the tw o players on the stage
m oving aw ay. A s the cam era tracks left, p a st th e queen
in the foreground, it pans right (9) fram ing H oratio in
th e background, the courtesans lined aro u n d the central
pit, a n d stops in a m edium shot o f the king a n d queen
profiled, left. T he king stands up, visibly disturbed, and
raises his hands to his eyes.

FIGURE 22.42B Diagram that shows the movements of the camera, using a half circle
path, during the mime played for the king and his court in the film version of Shake
speare's Hamlet directed by Laurence Olivier.

As the description clearly shows, the half-circle cam era path was
used twice in the sam e take, and at the end o f each h a lf circle pans
reveal fro n tal views o f the central characters (queen-king) scru
tinised by the o th er two groups (H am let an d H oratio). T he action
in the centre o f the stage continued uninterrupted during the whole
shot, b u t this activity was glimpsed at intervals and only at peak
m om ents o f action th a t were significant fo r the reactions o f the
o th er three central groups.
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23
THE CAMERA CRANE
AND THE ZOOM LENS

With the aid o f a cam era crane the cam era with its crew can be
raised vertically o r in an arc. F o r the m ost part, the crane is not
used to provide cam era m ovem ents b u t simply for stationary
shots from angles th at would otherw ise be difficult o r im possible
a id certainly tim e consum ing to obtain.
Following action
A crane is used to execute simple an d usually gentle m ovem ents.
Its m ost obvious application is to follow actors who move up or
down from one level to another. Such is the case w ith a player
ascending a staircase. T he cam era o n a crane keeps him in m edium
shot fo r example, th ro ughout. C rane m ovem ents allow visual
'punctuation shots o r to m ove from a tight group in the foreground
to a large g ro u p in the background. Or, again, to com m ent
emotionally on the m o o d o f a scene by using slow vertical m ove
ments. Som etim es a n unexpected aerial view o f a scene, perhaps
tracking, gives the audience a detached view point suggesting an
impartial fram e o f m ind.
Foreground props stress height
If an object w ith some vertical height is kept in the foreground
when executing an upw ard crane m ovem ent, a n increased sensa
tion o f height will be conveyed to the audience, because o f the
illusion o f depth. D ow nw ard crane m ovem ents m ay profit from
the same form ula.
In Fig. 23.1, a group o f riders, fram ed in long shot, advance
towards us. T h e cam era, high on the crane, captures them in the
469

FIGURE 23.1 A vertical prop In the forearound stresses the sensation of hioli1 M
a cranu shot.

background. In foreground the naked branches o f a tree are seen

ju ttin g up from below. As the riders approach, the cam era pans
dow n in an arc with them .
It passes behind the branches o f the tree in foreground and
fram es the riders stopping close by the building at the entrance to
the street.
To visually unite two or more story points
C rane m ovem ents are often used to describe visually complicated
sets, by starting from above showing, say, the whole group of
470

players a n d parap h ernalia involved in a cerem ony. The cam era

then descends from the general to the particular, o r vice versa,
going from one p oint o f interest to another.
C rane shots should be adapted to p attern s o f actio n and n o t the
other way ab o u t. T he action is first designed to suit the dram atic
purposes o f the scene. Once this has been decided the cam era
m ovem ent is designed to contribute w ith p atterns th a t achieve the
fullest visual effect. M isuse o f crane m otion is easyin particular
there is a tem p tatio n to swing the cam era. T his can ruin a film.
Crane m ovem ents should be used sparsely and only w hen they
contribute som ething o f value to the scene.

To inject m ovement into static situations

Crane m ovem ents com bined w ith tracking shots serve to describe
visually a static g ro up or situation. Sidney Lum et, in his film
The H ill, used the follow ing shots to describe a g roup o f soldiers
in form ation on their parade g round aw aiting the arrival o f the
com m anding officer.
It was a h o t day and the p o in t was to show th eir discipline,
while enduring physical discom fort. Fig. 23.2 gives a plan view o f
the set-up.
Shot i Full shot o f the lines o f m en. The m ast with their flag
is seen in the foreground. T he cam era gradually rises.

FIGURE 23.2 A stationary group is covered by four moving camera set ups, [wo of
which are crane shots.

471

S h o t 2 Side tracking shot. T he cam era is a t a three-quarter

angle to the m en an d a t shoulder height. I t tracks
across the lines o f men.
S hot 3 F ro m behind the group, the cam era descends. As it
com es dow n it picks o u t the side o f a building in the left
foreg ro und.
S hot 4 Side shot tracking to the left, the cam era very low,
parallel to the m en. Some m en arc seen kneeling and
cleaning o th er soldiers shoes. W hen the cam era stops
tracking it fram es (in the foreground) tw o hands
shining a p a ir o f shoes o f a m a n standing at attention.
S h o t 5 View from below w ith the cam era tilted up, close to the
m ast where the flag hangs lim ply in the still air.
S hot 6 C lose up o f a sw eating face. H e looks right.
S hot 7 Close up o f an o th er sweating face. Profiled right.
Shot 8 Close up o f a th ird sweating face. Profiled left. Two
flies on the soldiers cheek. T he cam era pulls back and
swings u p to the left to fram e the lines o f m en from
behind, facing the d o o r o f the fo rt, w here the com
m anding officer enters in a Jeep.
T he crane shots, effective as they were, served to highlight the
m o o d pervading the scenehum an beings under stress, m ental
and physical.
T h e only m ovem ents in the sequence were executed by the
cam era and n o t the actors. I f they h ad been pho to g rap h ed from
static cam cra positions, a series o f ju m p cuts w ould have resulted.
Static row s o f players an d static cam era set-ups hardly go
together. T he antithesis is visually stronger.

To single out a story point in a panoramic movement

A com bined dow n-pan up-crane m ovem ent is often used to cover
slow -m oving bucolic scenes o r to stress very fast action. Fig. 23.3
depicts the first possibility.
The cam era in a high position fram es a couple w alking towards
us. The cam era descends slowly, tilting u p gradually to keep the
players fram ed centrally. W hen b o th perform ers are nearby, the
cam era pans with them an d , at the same time, swings on the crane
arm . The actors are now seen from behind, and, as they walk
472

FIGURE 23.3 The crane movement in this example is used to stress a p o in t in the
scene, coming from the general to the p a rticu la r.

away, the cam era rises, gradually tilting dow n to keep them in shot,
with a pause if required while the cam era is level with them .
This gives the players time to m ake a story point before m oving on.
If the cam era rem ained level on the crane platform , it would begin
and conclude th e shot by only showing the distant view and the
actors would be revealed halfway through the vertical m ovem ent.
Faster subjects, such as a car com ing tow ards the cam era, can be
covered with a m ore rap id crane m ovem ent. In such a case the arm
o f the crane practically swings in an arc, com ing dow n and going
up while m oving in the direction o f the vehicle.
The key to this form ula is to m ove from the general to the
particular an d back to a majestic view o f the proceedings. In this
473

way, halfw ay through the shot a selected event is stressed and its
protagonists are then moved into the m ass m otion once more.

To provide strong m ovement fo r cutting on action

W hen covering a crow d from a height, it is difficult to cut to a
reverse shot if strong m ovem ent (such as people walking through
the crow d) is lacking in the scene. W e are now concerned with the
m otion o f a disorganized crowd m oving in conflicting directions.
As no clear cut pattern o f m otion is available on which to hinge
o u r cut, a crane m ovem ent will help (Fig. 23.4).

FIGURE 23.4 Disorganized patterns of action are made coherent for the camera by
introducing a crane movement.

474

Shot 1 L ong shot. C am era static, high on a p latform , tilted

dow n. W e see the colourful crow d m oving in the
m ark et place.
Shot 2 A fruit stand in close shot. T he cam era rises to reveal
the crow d from a reverse angle.
By cutting from a static Jong sh o t to a m oving close shot, the
problem o f cuttin g on action is solved, because the m ovem ent
shown in fro n t o f the cam era a t the beginning o f the second
shot is quite strong due to its closeness. F u rth erm o re, the rising
camera m ovem ent ailow s a sm ooth cut betw een shots. The
upward cam era m ovem ent can be com bined w ith a track. I f the
first sh o t is a track also (m oving in a n opposite direction) the
camera m ovem ent alone will give visual cohesion to the dis
organized m otions th a t it covers.
Zooming
The principal difference betw een tracking the cam era tow ards the
subject an d o p eratin g a zoom lens from wide angle to telephoto
settings is th at with tracking shots the perspective o f the scene
changes (foreground features grow in size m ore rapidly th a n those
in the b ack g ro u n d ) w hereas in an equivalent zoom shot, all p arts
o f the scene are m agnified equally.
W hen the zoom is o n the telephoto lens setting, it acquires the
characteristics o f this le n s : the planes o f depth in the picture are,
in effect, flattened a n d the b ackground appears to be pulled in
toward the subjects in foreground.
Like the cam era crane, the zoom has basic applications where
its capacity for m ovem ent is n o t used at all. T he crane has a p lat
form th at can be quickly set to any height. T he zoom , com bining
a wide variety o f focal lengths, provides a quick m eans o f selecting
a suitable one for the p articu lar scene.
Some zoom lenses have a greater range o f focal length than
others. T here are three basic ways in which a zoom is em ployed:
1 The lens zoom s to w ards o r aw ay fro m a static subject.
2 The zoom covers a m oving subject.
3 The cam era m oves while zoom ing.
The first two possibilities involve a static cam era. T he zoom effect
is the only m ovem ent visible. B ut the th ird possibility adds cam era
m ovem ent which m ight be a p an o r track o r the tw o com bined
with a zoom .
475

Zooming speeds
Slow zoom s usually have a constant rate o f visual advance or
recession. A fast zoom is used fo r shock effect. But a zoom can
sta rt slowly and gradually increase in speed. A sudden halt will be
obtained when it stops. A fast start and a slow conclusion will be
m ore pleasing to the eye b u t the sta rt will be quite sharp and
disturbing.
A slow -fast-slow com bination seems to be the idea! w hen using
a zoom th a t goes from one extrem e to the o th er o f the range
available. It is n o t essential to use the full range o f focal lengths
afforded by th e zoom lens. Z oom ing in sh o rt sections is generally
m ore effective. Z oom ing tow ards a static subject draw s attention
to the zoom itself. A fast zoom provides visual pu n ctu atio n th at
p in points the chosen subject, sharply excluding all surrounding
m atter. T hus it can stress a players reaction, such as a shout or
scream , o r an object partially hidden by his clothes, o r the barrel
o f a gun blazing tow ards the cam era, or a silent witness in the
back g ro u n d w hom the zoom pulls forw ard to stress.
A slow zoom , quietly creeping forw ard tow ards tear-filled eyes
can lend a n intim ate m o o d to a scene by suggesting participation.
T h e zoom is b etter m otivated an d thus better integrated with
the sh o t if the player in a zoom sh o t m oves with the optical change.
A zoom shot m ight be called fo r where a body is seen in m otion
(Fig. 23.5).

FIGURE 23.5 The movement o f the player motivates the zooming o f the camera Jens,
This may either magnify or dim inish the Image size.

476

W hen the shot begins, A is seen profiled left. He is obviously

looking for som ething. As he turns his head tow ards us, we zoom
back to reveal the object in the foreground.
A zoom shot can be suggested by a body m ovem ent:
A m an walks tow ards the cam era. The zoom lens on its tele
position fram es him in close shot. T he zoom gradually pulls back
with the advancing m an, keeping him in a close shot. This back
ward optical m ovem ent sim ulates a physical travelling bu t the
results are different.
A nother possibility is opposed directions o f m otionthe
camera zoom s in tow ards a player who walks straight tow ards us.
The zoom stops w ith the actor.

Zooming and panning combined

A zoom m ight be com bined w ith a pan o r tilt. F o r example, a
short part accom panying a player w ho walks tow ards another, may
start by fram ing a m edium shot o f the first player an d conclude on
a zoom close shot o f b o th perform ers.

477

In the exam ple in Fig. 23.6, the distance covered by the moving
actor was very short, and the zoom used only a p a rt o f the focal
range available.
A head tu rn in close shot can m otivate an exploratory panning
to which a zoom ing m otion is added.
In the situation in Fig. 23.7, player A is hidden behind a column
in a dimly lit oriental garden, fram ed in close shot. He is looking
left. Suddenly he reacts to a noise heard off screen and turns his

FIGURE 23.7 A turning or walking player motivates a panning and zooming camera
movement in which it leaves the firs t player to come to rest on the second.

478

head to the right. T he cam era begins to pan w ith the m ovem ent o f
his head an d continues panning to the right across the garden. As it
pans it slowly zoom s in, to stop fram ing a m edium shot o f player
B hidden behind a statue, w ith a w eapon in his hand.
The slow exploratory pan com bined w ith a zoom m otion gave
the illusion o f sm ooth travelling th ro u g h the garden betw een both
points o f interest, while the cam era ro tate d on its horizontal axis.
A half-circle p an com bined with a zoom forw ard o r backw ard
will provide a sweeping arc exploratory m ovem ent th at scans ?.
landscape, a building or the interior o f a house. The m ovem ent o f a
lone player who walks from one zone to an o th er can be covered
with this pan-zoom technique.
In the previous chapter an instance was given in w hich a com
bined p an and zoom follow a m eandering p a th (Fig. 22.16), as the
camera p an s alternately betw een tw o subjects. M ichelangelo
A ntonioni, in his film Blow Up, used this effect as the subjective
point o f view o f th e m ain player exam ining tw o photographs. T he
camera fram ed one o f the pictures for a m om ent, then panned to
one side to a second, zoom ed in and held a static view o f this
photograph. T h en it panned back to the previous picture and
zoomed in to o , stopping on a m uch closer view. W hen the cam era
once m ore panned to the second picture, the zoom was resum ed
and a n extrem e close up o f the second p h o to g rap h capped the
shot. M ario C am us, in a film m ade in A rgentina, Digan La Que
Digan, starrin g the Spanish crooner R aphael, used the sam e effect
to stage one o f the songs ( Cierro m is Ojos) zoom ing alternately
from the player to his reflections in five m irrors placed behind.
Tilt shots using zoom effects
A tilt a n d b ackw ard zoom o u t to wide angle is often used for
establishing shots. A close shot o f the rippling surface o f a river
shifts to a full sh o t o f a bridge spanning it com bined w ith an
upw ard tilt.
Camera tracks as it zooms
A cam era tracking in a straight line w ith the lens m oving across
the scene, can em ploy a com bination o f several p atterns o f m otion
provided by the cam era, the zoom lens and the perform ers. Such
is the case o f the exam ple in Fig. 23.8.
479

FIGURE 23,8 An advancing and receding zoom motion Is combined with a straight
tracking movement which covers an undulating actor movement. Three patterns of
motion are th u s combined.

T he scene covers a battlefieldundulating terrain, full of

n atu ra l crevices a n d b arb ed wire fences. T he soldiers advance
from right to left. G renades and shells explode am ong them and
casualties are heavy. The leader urges them on and the cam era
track s left a t a steady rate, always level. T he scene is fram ed in
long shot.
W hile tracking, the cam era zoom s in on the leader bringing
him to a close m edium shot. The cam era holds on him for a while
then zooms back to the previous long shot view o f the battlefield.
It keeps the long shot (wide angle extrem e o f the zoom range) for
a while longer and again zoom s in o n the leader, repeating this
process several times.
T he m en and the cam era have been m oving continuously to the
left, am id explosions, people running, falling an d crossing each
other. T hree definite p atterns o f m ovem ent m ay be seen here: a
straight, horizontal cam era tra c k ; a n undulating p a th for the
soldiers; a n ap p ro ach in g an d receding zoom p attern from a
m oving cam era.
T his com bination was successfully used by Stanley K ubrick
in his film Paths o f Glory,
480

A cam era th a t tracks an d pans while it zoom s gives the illusior

of m oving unham pered and w ithout physical barriers. Trackin
and panning m asks the zoom ing an d can render it alm ost in
perceptible if the zoom is slow enough.

ZOOM

|_
TRAV
.
----------------

FIGURE 3.9 Zoom ing w hile panning and tracking. Zooming forward as Ihe camera
tracks back. Optical distortion Is obtained. S ubject and camera travel in the same
direction, and the ?oom is effected diagonally.

481

A com bined track and zoom can provide a startling visual effect
if their m ovem ents are suitably opposed. If the cam era travels
backw ards and the zoom m oves forw ard, especially in a corridor,
there is a peculiar disto rtio n o f distances and object sizes.
A lfred H itchcock used the effect in his film Vertigo to convey
precisely that sensation when Jam es Stew art looks dow n the stair
case in the church bell tower. A nother type o f distortion, but not
as blunt, is also obtained when a cam era, angled three-quarters
to a group, moves backw ard in fro n t o f the ensemble, at full speed,
and then zoom s in obliquely tow ards the players. In Doctor
Zhivago, David Lean uses the effect in several cavalry charge
scenes where the cam era rides w ith the g roup o f soldiers over a
frozen river, Fig. 23,9 shows each o f the effects discussed.

Zoom ing through foreground obstacles

Objects o f irregular shape, such as the struts at the back o f a chair,
or a series o f rings, o r any other obstacle, m ight be fram ed in the
foreground o f a zoom shot. W hen the zoom lens is set on wide
angle, the foreground and background will be in focus b u t when
m oved to telephoto objects in the foreground will gradually pass
out o f focus until they are only a b lu r o f colour through which the
m ain action can be seen in sharp focus.
Interesting effects are obtained if the object o r objects in fore
ground have m ovem ent them selves, preferably a repetitive
m ovem ent. T he film The Ipcress File, directed by Sidney Furie,
explored the possibilities o f the zoom m otion used in the way just
described.

482

24
ACTION SCENES
W ithout action scenes film m aking w ould n o t have developed
into the m ajo r com m ercial activity th a t it is now. T he effectiveness
of such sequences is due to a basic prem ise o f film language, action
and reaction, an d parallel film editing is the key.
The actio n show n in such a sequence m u st be clcar a t all tim es
to the audiencen o t a series o f hap h azard ly built snatches o f
action b u t a solidly constructed story. F o r th at, there m u st be
clarity o f m otivation an d care w ith detail. T he story developm ent
depends on a series o f incidents usually o f fo u r types the chase,
the physical fight o r battle, the fight against a m echanism , and the
accident. A ny o f these becom e m ore d ram atic if they involve a
fight against time.
T he chase can assum e several form s. T he p ro tag o n ist is pursued
by the evildoer o r villains o f the story. T he m ain player m ay be
holding som ething th a t the o ther p arty w ants or he (she) is the
prize coveted by the opposition. T he situ atio n can be reversed and
the p ro tag o n ist chases the villains. T he forces th at each group
brings into play can be equalized o r a strong difference is present in
favour o f cither one.
W hen any o f the tw o groups falls into a seemingly inescapable
situation, they m ust be able to extricate them selves from it n o t by
a coincidence o r by an accident, b u t by their ow n strength or
ingenuity. They m ust solve the problem them selves in a logical way
and w ithin th eir possibilities, o r w ith the help o f a logically
acquired elem ent, either hum an o r m aterial, A chase can be co n
ducted on foot, riding an anim al (horse, cam el, elephant), on a land
or w ater vehicle or with an airb o rn e m achine, a n d all the com bina
tions th a t these four elem ents allow.
T here are several varieties o f physical fight. T he o p p onents may
light each o ther with bare hands o r w eapons, ancient o r m odern.
A hum an being m ay be fighting a beast o r m echanism . T he fight
483

can spread to a g roup an d becom e a brawl. A full b attle m ight be

staged w here large forces are in conflict.
A cardinal rule governs each o f the above categories: the fight
m ust be designed blow by blow . Every situation in the action
scene m ust be carefully planned beforehand. The plot should
never be given aw ay prem aturely o r interest is quickly destroyed.
A m echanism th a t is a b o u t to produce a catastro p h e if n o t put
o u t o f actio n , o r th a t m ay blow off by a m istake o r a w rongm ove,
h as been effectively presented o n the screen countless tim es. The
transference o f a dangerous elem ent from place to place, where
accidents can happen, is the second variety. M echanism s th a t will
trigger an alarm is the th ird variation. T he ad d itio n o f a tim e limit
increases the a p p a ren t danger and intensifies audience interest.
A ccidents on the screen can be real o r staged. T hey usually
involve high speed vehicles such as racing cars, m otorcycles or
planes. R eal crashes and nerve racking spills have been filmed by
cam eram en o n the spot w hen they actually happened and in
c o rp o rated into the action sequence o f m any films. These accidents
are usually recorded in a single shot since there is no pre-planning
o f any kind, and so they are the p ro d u c t o f chance.
Staged accidents are m ore cinem atic because they can be broken
into several shots, thus affording a m ultiple vision o f the event
w ith certain aspects stressed quite forcibly. Specialised stuntm en
can wreck vehicles spectacularly, b u t a sim ple cam era trick can
o v ertu rn any vehicle. A racing car, o r a m o to r b o at speeds on a
diagonal p ath tow ards the cam era, which pans to follow it. As it
fills the fram e o f the screen the cam era is suddenly turned over on
to its side. T he effect obtained is th a t the vehicle overturns. Two
factors m ust be tak en in acco u n t when carrying out this effect:
Firstly the h orizon line m ust no t be visible on the screen, or the
effect will be ruined. If the horizon line is m issing the audience will
accept the sudden swift m ovem ent as belonging to the vehicle and
n o t to the cam era. Secondly the cam era m ust be tilted in a direc
tio n co n trary to th at o f the m oving vehicle. This changes the
direction o f the vehicle to a sudden vertical m ovem ent up the
screen.
Standard fo rm u las
T he following rules, briefly enunciated, have proved successful in
action scenes over the years.
4S4

D ialogue im pedes action. A udiences m ust be shown, no t told

w hat is going on. B rief and terse com m ands uttered by the
com batants are the exception.
D ialogue can be used as a pause in the action to give audiences
a rest. C ontinuous action soon saturates em otion, and this m ust
be renewed by pauses where verbal explanations can be used to
clarify story points.
The pause in the action can be a physical one. It gives the
com batants tim e to regain their breath before the final show
dow n. A fter a tense fight the com batants separate to regain
strength and m easure the o p p o n en ts condition. Suddenly they
lunge and a brief exchange o f blows concludes the fight.
C om bat sequences can be built siowly and resolved quickly.
W hen a m echanism is defied, the obstacles m ust be first
established. T hen the identity o f those who are going to try to
conquer it is given. Some o f the artifacts to be used m ust be
presented visually b ut no explanation (or only partial ones) o f
how they will be em ployed are provided. Then the plan to over
com e th e m echanism is seen in action. Several interruptions take
place where the situation nears com plete disaster, but they are
averted by the participants. Finally success o r failure crowns
the efforts o f the defying party.
C redibility m ust n o t be strained except for hum orous p u r
poses.
T he outcom e o f a chase m ust not be predictable to the audience.
T he diversity o f obstacles faced by bo th pursuers and hunted
m ust keep the outcom e uncertain.
T he double chase is a further variant. The h u n ter pursues his
victim, and both are pursued by a third party interested in either
o f them . If the first two ignore the presence o f the third the
conclusion o f the chase depends on the behaviour o f this last
one.
If tw o groups o f pursuers chase the protagonist o f the story,
the peril doubles. In tricate buildings offer the best possibilities
for this variation. O pen ground nullifies it.
Some fight sequences use a gim m ick to cap the action. A
special w eapon concealed in a n outlandish place has been
repeatedly resorted to in spy films.
A ction sequences should not extend beyond their resolution
point for too long. A hum orous scene can be used to release
tension.
485

The subjective point o f view

Physical conflicts can be presented from m ultiple impersonal
points o f view o r from localized focal points. F o r an impersonal
p oint o f view the cam era exam ines each o f the players and each
o f the situations w ithout singling out an outstanding character
whose point o f view is im posed on the audience. All the facts are
presented from the outside. T he audience is k ept as a spectator
and n o t asked to participate em otionally.
O n the other hand, action can be presented through the view
points o f the central players o f a film. A series o f reaction shots
taken from the em phasized p layers position on the set accom
plishes the trick. T he technique tends to present in a frontal close
shot the images o f the central character, and in long shots the
views o f the action he is w atching. H is involvem ent in the action
can be passive o r active.
The attitu d e o f the player is taken to be passive when he merely
witnesses the event from afar, an d reacts to it w ithout going away.
Such is the case o f the role played by Jam es Stew art in Alfred
H itchcocks film Rear Window. The action across the inner court
yard o f the ap a rtm en t building is alw ays seen by the audiencc
from this players p o in t o f view.
T he situation where the player engages in the action itself, is, in
effect, active. In these scenes, as the action is being established, the
parallel editing o f the shots adheres to the lim itation o f em
phasizing in frontal close shots and close ups the figure o f the
central player, while showing d istan t views o f his opponent.
W hen bo th engage in physical com bat they are fram ed in full
shots th at cover both (im personal points o f view) going back to
the form er subjective point o f view as soon as they separate. Thus
visual em phasis is throw n b ack on the m ain player. This player is
seldom seen in the foreground o f the reaction shots, since these
represent his subjective point o f view and therefore exclude him.
The central character is never seen from his o p p o n en ts point of
view.
T he subjective ap p ro ach by firmly adhering to the point of
view o f the central character forces the audience to see the action
as this player sees it. Since we are treated to a series o f action and
reaction shots, we are not aw are th at we are being forced to ob
serve the events from a chosen and fixed point o f view. This tech
nique is no t only efficient in action scenes bu t is in its ow n right a
486

good ap p ro ach to heighten the em otion o f a dram atic scene where

dialogue is p redom inant. The m ain player speaks to an o th er while
concentrating on a different task th a t the subjective cam era
approach em phasizes visually. The director can also com m unicate
feelings th at are not im plied in the dialogue being spoken. Thus
the scene is enriched by cinem atic m eans.
An im p o rtan t detail for this technique is to preserve em otion if
the m ain player moves. In o u r previous discussion o f the sub
jective p oint o f view we had assum ed th at the m ain player through
whose eyes we saw the action was standing o r seated. If he m ust
move to an o th er p a rt o f the set, do not cut back to give him space
to move. This would destroy the m ood o f the scene. Use the sam e
static shot in which the player is fram ed to p an or travel with him
as he m oves to an o th er p a rt o f the set. Em otion is thus preserved.
Do not be tem pted to cut back to a full shot because there is room
to do so. If you do, y our view is no longer subjective, but objective
and the ap p ro ach changes.
The subjective p oint o f view is quite ad ap tab le and can be ap
plied to small groups th a t have different locations on the terrain
or movie set. H ere is an exam ple taken fro m D avid Leans film
The Bridge on the River Kwai. In the last reel o f the film, a group o f
imprisoned British soldiers cross the bridge leaving the detention
camp for a new destination. They are w atched from three different
locations by the group planning to blow up the bridge. Figure 24.1
gives the positions o f the players a n d the cam eras.
Shot 17 Low m edium shot o f W arden (Jack H aw kins) by a rock
looking off screen right. A young T hai girl beyond on
the right. W arden rises his binoculars an d looks through
them (92 frames).
Shot 18 The screen is darkened by a ro u n d m atte, representing
the view through the binoculars. We see the bridge
from above. T he prisoners are approaching the bridge.
(189 frames).
Shot 19 M edium shot o f Shears (W illiam H olden) an d Yay
(M B C h ak rab an d h u ) behind som e rocks. They have
sub-m achine guns an d are looking off scrcen right (57
fram es).
Shot 20 L ong shot o f the bridge as seen from the position of
these two men. The prisoners are reaching the first
su p p o rt o f the bridge (141 fram es).
487

WARDEN

JOYCE

FIGURE 24.1 The subjective point o f view can be applied to sm all groups with
different locations on the set. A n example from The Bridge on the River Kwai.

Shot 21 M edium shot o f Joyce (Geoffrey H orne). He is crouched

behind a rock and looks off screen left. He moves to the
rig h t and the cam era p an s with him (130 fram es).
Shot 22 F ro m his p oint o f view we see a long shot o f the bridge.
T he British soldiers reach the centre (164 fram es).
Shot 23 Close shot o f Shears and Yay. Some visual axis o f shot
19 (71 fram es).
Shot 24 T his shot is the co n tin u atio n o f shot 20. T he British
soldiers now cover the bridge (139 fram es).
Shot 25 M edium shot o f W ard en as in shot 17. H e has the
binoculars in his hand an d does n o t use them to look off
screen right. (96 fram es).
488

Shot 26 Full shot o f the bridge from above. Some trees in

foreground. T he British soldiers still crossing, whistling
Colonel Bogey (99 frames).
Shot 27 Full shot. Joyce in fo reg ro u n d with his back to us. The
dry river bed an d the bridge seen beyond. T he pris
oners still crossing (90 frames).
Shot 28 M edium shot o f Joyce as in shot 21. He rises an d moves
to the left. The cam era pans with him left (156 frames).
The technique used is simple. T he first site is presented in close
shot. Then follows a shot o f w hat the player located there sees.
This is a long shot o f the m ain event. T he second and third sites
are successively presented using the sam e technique. Thus the
central action is seen on the screen from varying angles.
There is a fu rth er variation. The central action that is being
observed from several em phasized points o f view suddenly
becomes dom inant. W e m ove closer to this m ain action an d relate
it to its ow n centre o f interest. This approach can be used as a
visual p attern in the sequence. H ere is an exam ple:
A m an with a gun is hiding in a forest. He is seen in close shot.
A leopard moves slowly along a trail seen in long shot. Closer
to th e foreground is a goat tied to a post.
A second m an w ith a rifle. He is hiding in the top o f a tree, and
is seen in close shot, from slightly below.
From his point o f view the leopard is seen dow n below com ing
forw ard in a long shot. The goat is in the lower right corner.
Close sh o t o f the leopard. The cam era is level w ith it as it comes
closer and stops, looking ahead.
From the leo p ard s p o in t o f view the goat is seen in long shot,
tied to a p o st in the centre o f the trail.
The first h u n ter seen in close shot, looking on.
F rom his p o in t o f view we see the leopard in long shot moving
again alo n g the trail tow ards the goat.
The second h u n ter seen in close shot. He looks dow n.
F rom his high point o f view the leopard com es along the trail
tow ards its prey.
M edium shot, level with its subject. The leopard com es to the
cam era an d stops.
F rom the leo p ard s p oint o f view the goat is seen in full shot.
The leopard suddenly runs forw ard out o f screen, right.
Reverse. The leopard enters left an d runs tow ards the goat in
the background.
489

View from above, from the second h u n ters p o in t o f view. The

leopard rushes tow ards the prey, steps over a p it hidden by
branches an d falls into it spectacularly.
Observe how the leopard, seen first from the point o f view o f the
tw o hunters, becam e interm ittently em phasized in the sequence to
relate it with its ow n centre o f interest, the goat. T he pattern was
repeated twice in tins sequence until the payoff in the action was
reached.
R an d o m shifting subjective points o f view are the next develop
m ent. Instead o f adhering to an ordered p attern th at is repeated
(the tw o previous exam ples) the focal view points follow toe
em otional line o f the event they record. T he sequence th at follows,
taken from D avid Leans film Doctor Zhivago, uses three sub
jective points o f view alternated through the sequence. Figure 24.2
gives a floor plan view o f the cam era positions used.
Shot 1 Line o f cavalrym en, their backs to us, looking towards
the long em pty street ahead o f them . M usic is heard
from round the corner at the end o f the street.
Shot 2 Close shot o f the com m anding officer, looking right.
Shot 3 T he em pty street from his point o f view. A m om ent later
the crow d begins to tu rn the corner.
S hot 2 Close shot o f the officer, im passive.
Shot 4 Zhivago appears on the balcony o f his house and comes
tow ards us. He stops, looking off screen left.
Shot 5 F rom his high p o in t o f view we see the crowd below
tu rn in g the corner and m oving aw ay tow ards the higher
side o f the street.
Shot 4 Close shot o f Zhivago.
S hot 5 F rom his high p oint o f view. T he crow d moves away
w ith the noise o f the ban d .
Shot 6 P asha com es tow ards us directing the m usicians.
S hot 2 M edium shot o f the officer. H e says, D raw sabers! Pan
left to the soldiers on horseback who unsheath their
sabres, present arm s and keep them at the ready.
Shot 6 Pasha a t the head o f the crow d advances an d stops in
close shot. H e looks up the street to the left.
S hot 7 L ong shot. The line o f cavalrym en is com ing forward
blocking the whole width o f the street.
Shot 6 Pasha in close shot. The m usic dies behind him and
people m ove nervously to one side.
490

FIGURE 24.2 W ith randomly shittlno subjective points o f view, Instead of adhering to
n ordered pattern that is repealed the tocai view points can follow the em otional line
of the event.

491

Shot 7 L ong shot o f the cavalrym en, they increase speed as

they ru n tow ards us.
Shot 6 Close sh o t o f Pasha. T he people behind him panic and
begin to disperse.
Shot 7 Long shot. T he line o f cavalrym en is approaching at
speed.
Shot 6 Close shot o f P asha. People run and he is shoved aside.
Shot 4 Close shot o f Zhivago. He is still astounded.
S h o t5 F ro m his high point o f view we see a full shot o f the
crow d scattering to all sides as the cavalrym en charge
them .
Shot 4 Close sh o t o f Zhivago.
S hot 5 T he im pending clash seen from above.
T hree key characters are used in the sequence to develop it and
gain o u r em otional com plicity. T he cavalry officer is first used to
show us, th ro ugh his eyes, the crow d entering the street before the
m assacre. N ext, Zhivago is presented occupying a reverse position.
T hro u g h his eyes a w ider perspective is acquired. T hen Pasha,
within the crow d (he is the only identifiable person there) allows
us to see th rough his eyes the b ru tal beginning o f the cavalry
charge. As hysteria grow s am ong the crowd, Zhivagos point of
view gives us again a larger perspective o f it.
Five ways o f enhancing visual action
The follow ing concepts have proved effective in increasing the
visual excitem ent o f an action scene.
1 A co m bination o f static a n d m oving cam era view points will
confer m ore visual im pact to a chase scene or to a group o f run
ning people. T he closer views o f the subjects are m ade with a moving
cam era, while the long shots are filmed from fixed cam era posi
tions. A static shot is followed by a tracking one, an d the formula
is constantly repeated w ith occasional pauses in the action. Heie
is an ex a m p le:
L ong shot o f a street from above. A fleeing couple runs in an
arc from the upper left to the low er left and so off screen.
M eidum sh o t o f the couple. T he cam era tracks back w ith them.
Long shot. The couple, sm all in the centre o f the street, run
tow ards us.
M edium shot o f the couple. W e track back in front o f them
again.
492

High full shot. The couple comes tow ards us an d stop in the
foreground. They look aro u n d and then separate, running in
different directions.
The m oving cam era shots m ay som etim es he jerky (hand-held
camera). They m ust be o f short duration (no m ore than 5 sec
perhaps) to avoid annoying the audience. This uneven m ovem ent
will often add excitem ent to a chase.
2 Planned cum ulative action within a static shot can be very
exciting. The m any planes o f depth in fro n t o f the cam era can be
used in patterns o f action th at recede from o r ap p ro ach the cam
era. A ction can be staged on them progressively or sim ultaneously.
Here is an example. A n A m erican In d ian h a lf kneeling in the
left foreground seen in full shot, shoots an arrow tow ards a
m ounted soldier who enters the screen from the right in the back
ground. T he soldier falls while his horse continues onw ards,
leaving the screen left. A second soldier on foot enters from the
right and runs his sword into the arch ers midriff. The Indian falls.
Between the soldier on fo o t and the cam era a second Indian enters
on horseback an d jab s a lance into the soldier. T he Indian exits
screen right as the second soldier collapses. In the foreground
right a third soldier a n d Indian roll in, in hand to hand com bat.
The In d ian m anages to roll o n to p and stabs the soldier repeatedly
with his knife. All these actions overlap swiftly so th at the rhythm
of the scene does n o t slacken as the action progresses from back
ground to foreground. T he scene quoted com es from R aoul
W alshs film They D ied W ith Their Boots On.
3 The violence o f a blow can be stressed o n the screen by divid
ing it into tw o shots. A bare fisted knock o r a leg kick can be split
into two takes to o btain a m ore violent presentation. The first part
of the m otion is recorded in a m edium shot and the concluding
swing in a close shot on th e same visual axis. W hen shooting such
a scene two com plete blow s are photographed and later edited as
described. In the second sh ot we can keep a static cam era position
(in th at case the perform er being hit stum bles o u t o f the screen)
or we m ay p an with the person who suffered the blow as he falls.
A vehicle sm ashing an obstacle can be treated in the same way:
A truck speeds along a ro ad tow ards the w ooden doors o f the
courtyard gate. The action is seen in long shot. The vehicle moves
left to right.
Full shot o f the doors. The truck enters screen left and crashes
into the d o o r which begins to give way.
493

Reverse full shot. F rom inside the courtyard we see the other
side o f the gate. T he truck crashes through an d exits screen right
a t full speed.
T hree cam eras running sim ultaneously are required to record that
situation, for obvious reasons.
4 A ction running betw een the cam era an d the fighting group will
provide interm itent glimpses o f the m ain event. This heightens
o ur interest as we strive to follow the action beyond. If the fighting
persons are p art o f a larger group engaged in a full scale battle, we
can introduce other com batants m oving in fro n t o f the central
g roup an d crossing the screen betw een them an d the cam era (if a
long focal lens is used the foreground co m batants can be thrown
ou t o f focus). These crossing parties can m ove on foot, o n horse
back o r on a vehicle. They m ust n o t stay long in foreground and
should exit to be replaced by o th er groups. M ovem ent need not
be in one direction only; the crossing can be from bo th lateral
sides.
If the quarrel is between tw o people only, witnesses can be
introduced who m ove before the cam era, crossing in fro n t o f the
com batants. A varian t to this is to present a g roup o f animals
instead o f people, m oving in fro n t o f the cam era between it and
the m ain action. Low cam era angles will visually stress these
continued interruptions. A m oving m achine in the foreground
(a huge rapidly turning wheel for instance) can be resorted to for
the foreground action in place o f persons o r anim als. Static
objects o f irregular shape can be placed in the foreground and
the cam era pan o r track with the fighting group beyond, so that
these static objects cross the screen as the cam era moves,
5 In a full scale battle, crow d scenes where the action runs wild
should be alternated w ith action scenes where the hero o r heroes
are engaged in personal com bat. It is an expanding-contracting
p attern applied to coverage o f the action, th a t keeps the audience
shifting from the general to the particu lar and vice versa. In that
way the m ain characters are integrated into the spectacle and their
relationship to the whole can be appreciated with a stronger sense
o f identification. These crowd scenes, as well as those where the
p rotagonists are singled out, should no t be loose ones where the
action lacks a central purpose.
M inor story sub-plots should be developed, so th at each o f these
sequences presents in itself well rounded sketches th at advance the
story.
494

Reaching a visual clim ax

All actions where a violent conclusion is im m inent, and the
audience is aw are o f this possibility, can be built with a succession
of short shots th at carry the action swiftly to its pay-off. They can
be organized in tw o ways; I, by a random shortening o f the shots
previous to the disaster, o r 2, by a progressive shortening o f the
shots capped by the clim ax itself.
The several n arrative lines involved should be edited in parallel
presenting the reactions previous to the disaster. A random
shortening will be shown in a fragm ent o f a sequence taken from
Robert A ldrichs Four fo r Texas.
Shot 102 M edium shot o f F ran k S inatra on the drivers seat
o f the stagecoach. H e faces the cam era, and pulls at
the reins w ith force. W ith his right foot he presses
th e b rak e lever (21 fram es).
Shot 103 Close u p o f his right fo o t pressing on the b rake lever
(22 fram es).
Shot 104 Close up o f the brak e pressing against the tu rn in g
wheel o f the stagecoach (32 fram es).
Shot 105 T he cam era tracks back in fro n t o f the vehicle,
fram ing in close shot the tw o fro n t horses o f the team .
Between them we see S inatra beyond on the drivers
seat (32 fram es).
Shot 106 M edium shot o f S inatras h ands pulling the reins back
w ith force (31 fram es).
Shot 107 Side sh o t o f the heads o f the first team o f horses.
T he cam era fram es them in m edium shot an d tracks
left w ith them (36 fram es).
Shot 108 L ow sh o t o f the horses legs kicking up som e d u st as
they run left. T he cam era tracks w ith them (46
fram es).
Shot 109 H igh shot. Fixed cam era site. T he stagecoach seen in
full sh o t approaches in a diagonal to the left (33
fram es).
Shot 110 M edium shot inside the stagecoach. D ean M artin on
the left side o f the screen tu rn s a n d grabs a handle
n ear the centre window. T he d ead fat m an is slum ped
on the right. (35 fram es).
Shot 111 Close sh ot o f the window , fro m the inside. The
p an o ram a flies p ast outside (10 fram es).

495

Shot 112 Close shot o f the dead fat m an (12 frames).

Shot 113 Close shot o f D ean M artin inside clutching the
handle o f the vehicle. T he coach begins to tilt to the
left. The screen is blackened as the floor rises into
view (14 frames).
S hot 114 F ro n t close shot o f Sinatra as in shot 102. The carriage
begins to tilt to the right, taking him to th a t side and
going o u t o f the screen. (10 frames).
S hot 115 F ull shot. T he stagecoach overturns in fro n t o f the
cam era. T he driver is throw n into the air an d lands
in fro n t o f the cam era. A cloud o f dust rolls towards
th e cam era obscuring the screen. As the dust settles
the first titles o f the credits appear. Very long shot.
T he construction o f the scene reveals a careful arrangem ent of
the shots. F irst, the driver is seen pulling the reins and stepping on
the brake. T heir effect is observed, there is no reduction o f speed
as the coach reaches a tu rn o f the road, where a full re-establishing
view o f the vehicle is intercut. T hen the reactions o f those inside
the stage are observed. Finally the vehicle begins to overturn (shots
113-114). The last take docum ents the catastrophe.
The shots are quite short, m any are less th a n one second long.
T heir lengths are also a rb itra ry : 29-22-32-32-21-36^46-33-3510-12-14-10 fram es. The last four shots arc the shorter ones and
accelerate the tem po o f the sequence before the clim ax is reached.
T he d u ratio n o f these fo u r shots is roughly h a lf th at o f the shots
preceding them .
A n exam ple from A lfred H itchcocks The Birds will illustrate
the o th er possibility: a progressively dim inishing length o f the
shots p rio r to the visual climax.
Shot 29 Full shot o f the parking lot from M elanies viewpoint.
A car in the foreground is burning fiercely. A second
car behind catches fire an d explodes. Som e m en in the
b ack ground rush in to fight the fire. A third car ex
plodes o n the right. Dense sm oke covers the scene. (73
film fram es).
Shot 30 Close shot o f M elanie at the window o f the cafe. She is
profiled left, looking dow n. Two m en behind her look
up to the right (20 frames).
Shot 31 Close shot o f the stream o f petrol leading back to the
filling station. Flam es advance from right to left on the
stream in the m iddle o f the street. (18 frames).
496

S hot 32 Close shot o f M elanie as in shot 30. She reacts (16

fram es).
S hot 33 Close sh o t o f the flames as in shot 31. C am era pans left
with the advancing flames (14 fram es).
Shot 34 Close sh o t o f M elanie as in shot 30. She is looking to
the right now, fear on her face (12 frames).
Shot 35 L ong sh o t o f the filling station. The stream o f fire on the
rig h t is advancing tow ards the gas tanks. A policem an,
the w ounded station a tte n d a n t an d M itch, run away to
the left (10 frames).
Shot 36 C lose shot o f M elanie as in shot 30, looking right (8
fram es).
Shot 37 L ong sh o t o f the station as in shot 35. The tank ex
plodes in a roaring inferno. Big tongues o f fire rise
higher th an the buildings. (34 frames).
By substracting tw o fram es progressively the editor, George
Tomasini, created a m ounting crescendo leading to the explosion.
The editor used only three shots th a t were intercut in parallel.
With seven fragm ents he quickencd the tem po o f the film. Each
shot lasts for less th a n a second: 2 0 -1 8 -1 6 -1 4 -1 2 -1 0 -8 frames.
The last shot is on the screen for only a th ird o f a second. Notice
also th a t the subjective p oint o f view principle is at work on the
sequence. M elanie is the key charactcr, an d it is th ro u g h her eyes
th at the catastro p h e is witnessed.
The acceleration o f the tem po prior to the climax creates a
brier tension in th e audience th a t finds its relief in the outburst
itself.
Breaking the climatic action into several shots
W hen there is no surprise in the clim atic action because the
audience is expecting it as a logical conclusion, a detailed account
of the catastro p h e can be shown from its inception to its afterm ath,
intercut with the reactions o f the players th at provoke the event,
and th o se w ho suffer the consequences. The m ost exciting shots,
where the violent action takes place, are divided into a t least two
Fragments. If the destruction is slow and m assive, the action can be
divided into several shots. The following exam ple belongs to
Michael M cC arth y s film Operation Am sterdam.
Shot 1 Seen in full shot, Peter Finch throw s a pack o f dynam ite.
Eva B artok stands behind him in the street.
497

Shot 2 The package slides under the truck blocking the street.
Close shot.
Shot 1 Eva B artok and Peter Finch turn to go inside the shop.
Full shot.
Shot 2 Close shot under the truck. A soldier crawls in and
extends his hand to grab the sticks o f dynam ite.
Shot 3 M edium shot. The couple enters the screcn by the right.
They are inside the shop.
Shot 4 Full shot. T he truck blows up fiercely.
Shot 5 Long shot. Same visual
axis as th at preceding. The
cloud o f dense sm oke clim bs to the sky.
Shot 3 The m an and the girl press themselves together.
S hot 5 R em ains o f the truck begin to fall.
Shot 3 The couple huddled together, the cam era tracks into
them and stops, fram ing them in close
shot.
T he director did n o t hesitate to divide an exciting event into
three shots the truck explosion, achieving a dynam ic result by
editing in parallel with the action o f the couple taking cover inside
the shop. Notice also the refinem ent in suspense: a soldier is
introduced p rio r to the explosion, trying to retrieve the dynamite
when the couple have already turned their backs on the situation.
An am ateur would perhaps hesitate in cutting w hat he considers
a valuable shot. By presenting the event in its entirety without
interruptions, he would be lessening its dram atic im pact and
lim iting the pleasure o f the audience.
An action broken in two is stretched in time, so th at the visual
pleasure o f witnessing a spectacular action is doubled for the
audience.
H ere is a case taken from David Leans The Bridge on the Rivet
Kv'aithe final scene where the bridge is blown u p as the train
crosses it.
S hot 133 F rom above. T he locom otive enters shot from the
right travels to the bridge seen beyond in the back
ground (2 seconds 11 frames).
S hot 134 Close shot o f N icholson (Alec G uinness) from below.
H e takes a few steps tow ards us. H e is mortally
w ounded. H e raises his head to the sky and falls
dow n, o u t o f shot (3 seconds 6 fram es).
Shot 135 M edium shot. N icholsons body enters, left and falls
across the lever o f the d eto n ato r, pressing it down
(26 frames).
498

S hot 136 Long shot. In the foreground lie the dead bodies o f
Shears, Saito, Joyce and N icholson. Beyond is the
bridge. T he train is seen m oving along the upper
right p a rt o f it. T he first pillar o f the bridge explodes
spectacularly and the centre p a rt o f the bridge
collapses. T he train continues until it reaches the
edge o f the gap (4 seconds 4 frames).
Shot 137 M edium shot o f W arden and his g roup o f T hai girls.
Some o f the girls arc standing. T hey all look dow n
to the right. They begin to rise (2 seconds 9 fram es).
Shot 138 L ong shot o f the bridge from the side o f the river
form erly occupied by Yay and Shears. T he loco
m otive and some w agons plunge into the river.
(5 seconds 11 fram es).
Shot 139 M edium shot o f W arden and his group. As in shot
137. P an up with W arden rising to his feet and lean
ing on his crutch. T hey look dow n, right. (1 second
11 fram es).
S hot 140 Long shot. F ro m the p oint o f view o f the preceding
group. Som e w agons from the train plum m et into the
river (3 seconds 5 fram es).
Shot 141 F rom below as in shot 138. T he tw o last w agons o f
the train fall into the river. T he second pillar exploded
com pleting the destruction o f the bridge (3 seconds
10 frames).
Shot 142 M edium shot o f N icholson lying beside the d eto n ato r
box. C om position as in shot 135 (4 seconds 7 fram es).
Shot 143 F ro m the sam e point o f view as shot 136. T he last
pieces o f the bridge collapse into the river (7 seconds
20 fram es).
Shot 144 M edium shot o f C lipton (Jam es D onald). H e is
looking off to the left. He walks to th at side an d the
cam era pans with him as he walks dow nhill. He stops
and says, M adness! (4 seconds 7 fram es).
S hot 145 High angle. Full sh o t o f the four dead bodies lying
on the sand bar, near the w ater: N icholson, Saito,
Joyce an d Shears. (3 seconds 1 fram e).
S hot 146 M edium shot o f W arden standing in front o f the
cam era. He looks off screen right, then turns to the
T h ai girls in the background an d says: I had to do
it! I had to! . . . 'They would have been taken alive!
499

JL

H e again tu rn s to us an d looks off right once more

(16 seconds 18 fram es).
S hot 147 F ro m th e same p o in t o f view as shot 140. The afterm ath o f the explosion as seen from above, from
W a rd e n s position (3 seconds 14 fram es).
Observe th a t the blow ing up o f the train was filmed fro m three
p o in ts o f view. E ach o f these shots was used only twice in the whole
sequence to cover th e ca tastro p h e from beginning to conclusion.
T he d estru ctio n o f the bridge itself takes 28 seconds o n the screen
to com plete (the length o f the six fragm ents em ployed) yet the
sequence from sh o t 136 to shot 147 runs fo r 60 seconds and 6
fram es o f film. T he length o f the event was stretched by including
the reaction shots o f W arden and his group o f T hai girls, an d the
lone m edic C lip to n up o n the opposite side o f the river. By present
ing the event in this way a richer version o f it was obtained.
H igh speed and slow m otion fo r action sequences
In the silent era o f the cinem a it was discovered th a t by undercranking the cam era a dynam ic effect was im parted to chase or
actio n sequences. T h at discovery is still valid today. T he normal
filming speed is 24 fram es per second, a n d a m oving subject is
p h o to g rap h ed at 16 fram es per second the resu ltan t film, pro
jected a t n o rm al speed, the ap p a re n t velocity o f the subject
p h o to g rap h ed will be increased.
M o to r b o ats, cars, riders on horseback, crow ds running on
foot, will all will a p p e ar m ore dram atic if this subterfuge is applied
during an actio n scene. C are m u st be taken no t to overdo this
effect, o r the m ovem ent will becom e so jerky th a t it will produce
laughter.
I f laughter is the effect you are after, be sure to w ork at speeds
close to 8 fram es per second. Subject m ovem ent will be trem en
dously increased.
Slow m o tio n is used to im part m ajesty to a m ovem ent. A diver
ju m p in g from a high p o in t dow n to the sea, an object falling away
from us to the g ro u n d below, acquire in slow m otion a grace o f
m ovem ent (even as they desintegrate o r splash) th a t norm al speed
w ould n o t reveal. Clim axes in which som ebody jum ps from a high
cliff, a vehicle plunges into the sea, o r a huge explosion destroys a
large p ro p , can be filmed a t slightly higher speeds to be projected
a t the norm al rate o f 24 fram es per second, obtaining an im posing
effect th a t enhances the scene.

D eath scenes have been filmed in slow m otion on the screen.

Akira K urosaw a with his Seven Sam urai started the fad, and some
yery interesting an d disturbing effects have been obtained on the
screen, such as Sam Peckinpah did in The W ild Bunch where in the
Middle o f a frantic shooting deaths took place in slow m otion.
Follow fo cu s technique
As a cam era tracks, pans or tilts, o r as actors m ove up to o r away
from the cam era, o r pass by a t different ranges, points o f interest
ia the view as seen by the cam era shift position. This m akes it
necessary to ad ju st focus to keep the subject sharply defined. This
can be done in tw o w ays: m anually o r autom atically. W ith the
first m ethod, a focus puller stands by the cam era and adjust the
Focus ring as required. But the ring can, alternatively, be controlled
remotely by either a m echanical o r rem ote control device.
There are fo u r basic situations requiring follow-focus control.
1. T he cam era m oves ab o u t the set a n d films either stationary
o r m oving subjects. T he cam era m ay track tow ards o r aw ay from
the subject o r it can m ove alongside, fram ing the m oving subject
from a fixed distance. 2. T he cam era rem ains stationary while the
subject m oves up to , o r aw ay from it during the shot. 3. The cam
era rem ains statio n ary b u t is panned o r tilted, o r both, during the
shot, switching fro m one subject to an o th er at different distances.
4. The stationary cam era films tw o o r m ore static subjects in the
scene, shifting focus from one to the other. Visible guides are
established on the floor o f the set to help the focus puller to set
to the correct distance o n the lens a t predeterm ined positionsthe
beginning and end points o f the tracking as well as particular
interm ediate distances. These m arks are either chalked lines or
scrips o f tap e on the ground. W hen there is some difficulty in
keeping one o r m ore players a t a fixed distance while the cam era
tracks backw ard, a w ooden T-shaped assem bly can be attached to
the front o f the cam era dolly. It is only necessary for the actors to
keep in line with this device to m aintain the correct distance and
stay in sharp focus.
In som e shots the focus m ay deliberately be switched to the
background and perhaps returned to the foreground again. M any
dram atic effects can be o btained by selective focus used in this way.

501

25
EDITING IN THE CAMERA
M odern film m akers have rescued the long m aster shot from the
oblivion th at followed the abandonm ent o f the old theatrical
front-only cam era set up and endow ed it with techniques develop
ed for editing in the cam era, o r in o th er words, w ithin the film frame!
This approach needs no visual cuts to achieve its effects but relies
o n cam era an d subject m ovem ent. E xperim entation with this
technique has been extensive and has even led to the extreme of
m aking a full length feature film using only ten shots edited in the
cam era A lfred H itchcocks film Rope.
Pre-planning is required
Shots suitable fo r editing in this way cannot be m ade haphazardly
o r w ith the inspiration o f the m om ent. They require careful pre
planning, with a studied integration o f player and cam era move
m ent, like a choreography th at m ust be precisely executed by the
acto rs and the cam era crew. W hen well executed, results are very
pleasing. T he scene flows sm oothly, the audience is no t aw are of
the technique and the actors have a better chance to drop into
their characters, since the scene is played continuously as in the
theatre.
M istakes when m aking this type o f shot can be quite expensive,
especially fo r lim ited budget productions. T he am ount o f film
expended in retakes is quite considerable. Thus, thorough re
hearsals are vital before attem pting a shot. But if a m istake is made,
a good director should be able to find a way o f partially using the
shot by resorting to a cut-aw ay at th a t p o in t and returning to the
m aster shot again afterw ards.
W ith a well trained cast an d cam era crew, the speed in shooting
surpasses by far the cum bersom e efforts needed to cover the same
scene using the fragm entation technique o f piecing it together in
502

several shots. Television serials, which have a lim ited num ber o f
pro d u ctio n days, have greatly profited from this technique. But
an integration o f b o th techniques, ordinary physical editing and
editing within the fram e, is the m ost sensible w ay o f benefiting
from the best o f b o th. In them selves, the tw o system s have
lim itations. A film m ak er who know s screen language thoroughly,
however, will su rm o u n t them by blending these techniques for his
expressive purposes.
T here are seven basic techniques governing shots edited w ithin
the film fram e:
1 A pause betw een m ovem ents;
2 A change o f zone;
3 A pproaching o r receding from the cam era;
4 Change o f body p o sitions;
5 S ubstitition by sectors;
6 Switching o f screen sec to rs;
7 N um erical con trast.
Several o f these techniques are usually com bined in any such shot,
rath er th an being used alone.
The pause between m ovem ents
The player or the cam era m oves from one zone to another,
rem ains there for a while, and then m oves to a third area and stops,
[f the m ovem ent is continuous (unbroken by pauses) it will
become ju st a follow ing shot because no m atter how m any pic
torial v ariations are involved along the shot, the audience simply
would n o t have tim e to appreciate them . Each new player or
camera position presented has to be held o n the screen an d so
established before m oving on to the next.
The change o f zone
The screen p o sition in a cinem a theatre is alw ays fixed. W e see
things on it as if we were looking through an opening. If th at
opening rem ains stationary (fixed cam era) the background we
glimpse will be always the sam e and seen from a co n stan t point
of view.
In shots to be edited in the cam era, this w ould constitute a
lim itation and, in practice, becom es annoying in a very short time.
The back g ro u n d m ust vary to give the im pression o f space wherein

th e actors m ove. T he change o f zone required to obviate this cac

be achieved 1, by a stationary cam era, 2, by a pan n in g cam era 01
3, by a tracking cam era.
Case 1
W ith a statio n ary cam era, the zones are arran g ed in d epth to
w ards the b ack ground (Fig. 25.1), i.e. a foreground zone, a middle
zone an d a b ackground one.

FIGURE

25.1

T hree

action zones can

be arranged

in d e p t h

In

front

ot

statio n ary

cam era.

Case 2
I f a p anning cam era is used, the relationship betw een the zones o f
actio n can vary, as show n in Fig. 25.2.
F o r pans o f less th a n h a lf a circle the Fig, 25.2 exam ples should
provide ad equate variety. In th e first case, the three zones are
deployed in an arc aro u n d the cam era, so th at m ovem ent from one
to th e o th er will keep the fram ing distance equal for the three zones.
T h e second, third a n d fo u rth exam ples suggest tw o zones equi
distan t from the cam era a n d the third either closer o r further away.

F IG U R E 25.2

W hen

the c a m e ra p a n s th e relatio n sh ip

b e tw e e n z o n e s of a ctio n can

vary.

The fifth an d sixth exam ples show the zones a t different distances
from the cam era.
If a com pletely circular cam era m ovem ent is involved, panning
505

from zone to zone will cover as m any o r as few zones as wished to

com plete the circle (Fig. 25.3).

Case 3
If the cam era tracks from zone to zone, these areas m ight be
along a straight path. O r an irregular arrangem ent can be chosen.
I f a horizontal path is used, three approaches are possible. (Fig.
25.4).
In the first case the cam era tracks backw ards or forw ards over
the three zones. In this exam ple all the zones are show n either at the
beginning or conclusion o f the take, depending w hether the camera
is advancing into o r receding from the scene.
In the second and third exam ples the zones are placed parallel
to the cam era path and equidistant from the cam era. A triangular
arrangem ent o f the zones in relation to the cam era path provides
further variants for internal visual coverage (Fig. 25.5).
506

F !< S U R E 2 S ,4
lel t o t h e m

A m o v in g c a m e r a c a n travel o v e r th e a c tio n z o n e s th e m s e lv e s , o r p a ra l

In a h o r i i o n t a l o r o b l i q u e l i n e .

A single player can be m oved in depth, using a static cam era

position, b u t th e variations to be encountered are quite lim ited.
As Fig. 25.6A shows, geom etric figures are best suited to this
technique: oval shapes, triangular, U figures.
T he acto rs in the scene will m ove in trian g u lar paths ap p ro ach
ing the cam era o r going aw ay from it. Should the cam era m ove
diagonally to a straig h t subject-path th ro u g h the zones the
distance will shift (Fig. 25.6).

FIG U RE 25.5 A c tio n zones co u ld be arran g e d in tria n g u la r fo rm fo r s c a n n in g by a

tra c k in g cam era w h ic h m oves as show n,

These zones o f action can be placed a t height too, covered by a

cam era th a t tilts up o r dow n o r from a crane, perhaps panning or
tracking also. A fu rth er possibility is to reverse the m ovem ent of
the cam era within the shot, thus, in effect, using one o r two zones
twice.
Approaching or receding fro m the camera
M o tio n in depth is the key to this sim ple technique. Variations
are achieved by m oving from foreground to background or vice
versa, and recording this m ovem ent by using:
1 a statio n ary cam era,
2 a p anning cam era, or
3 a tracking cam era (forw ard o r backw ards).
A ction zones m ight be in a line running straig h t to the background
or tangential to the cam era. But it is im p o rtan t th at only one
player at a tim e m oves from zone to zone no m atter if the group is
large o r small. The others rem ain in their places, thus ensuring
clear changes o f action zones which are easy to execute, simple to
understand and unobtrusive for the audience who will follow the
d o m in an t m o tion naturally.
508

F I G U R E 25.6
an

A c t i o n z o n e s a r e a r r a n g e d In a s t r a i g h t l in e , a n d t h e c a m e r a t r a c k s in

o b l i q u e lin e t h a t a p p r o a c h e s o r r e c e d e s f r o m t h e a c t i o n z o n e s ,

Case 4
Stationary cam era positions offer a wide variety o f approaches for
m ovem ent in depth. Several visual com binations are available.
Here are som e sim ple ones, with tw o players.
B oth players (A and B) in foreground. B m oves to the back
ground. A rem ains in foreground (Fig. 25.7).
B oth acto rs in foreground. B moves to the background and,
m om ents later, returns to the foreground (Fig. 25.8).
Both players in foreground. B m oves to the background. Then
A joins him (Fig. 25.9).
Both actors in foreground. B m oves to the background, rem ains
fo r a m om ent and then returns to foreground. Now A moves
to the background, while B rem ains in the foreground. Later,
A returns to the foreground (Fig. 25.10).
509

FIG U R E
co m in g

25 .6 A

sin g le

p layer

m oves

In

d ep th ,

g o in g

to

the

background

and

b a c k to w a rd s th e c a m e ra . S h e trav els a " U p ath .

F I G U R E 25.7
background.

M o v e m e n t In d e p t h : B o t h p l a y e r s a r e in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , B m o v e s t o t h e

510

F IG U R E

25.9

B o th

acto rs

in f o r e g r o u n d ,

O ne

m oves

to

the

b ackoround, th e

o ther

t h e n F ollow s.

F IG U R E 25.10
ground

and

B o th a c to rs

a r e in t h e f o r e g r o u n d . E a c h

in t u r n

m o v e s Into t h e b a c k

retu rn .

Case 5
A p anning cam era will easily unite tw o action zones placed on a
line th a t runs a t a tan g en t to its location. T he player closest to the
camera m oves to the background, followed by the panning
camera. T he m ovem ent can be reversed in the sam e shot, having the
actor retu rn to the foreground in w hich case the cam era pans in
the opposite direction (Fig, 25.11).
Case 6
A cam era tracking forw ard o r backw ards w ith a m oving player,
will increase the n um ber o f possible visual com binations. H ere are
some exam ples:
511

FIGURE 25.11 A panning camera unites two action zones on a line running tangenlially
to its location.

T he stationary player is placed betw een the cam era and the
o th er perform er in the background. T he background actor
com es forw ard to the static player in the m id-distance, while the
cam era tracks in tow ards him (Fig. 25.12).
T he m oving player is placed betw een the cam era and the
stationary person in the background. T he foreground player
and the cam era m ove together tow ards the background,
ap p ro ach in g the static player (Fig. 25.13).
The cam era need not be m oved during the whole shot, bu t only
for a section o f it to provide em phasis where desired (Fig. 25.14).
The shot begins with bo th players fram ed in m edium shot,
talking to each other. B then com es forw ard an d the composi
tion o f the screen becom es A B 2, when player B turns and goes
back to A, the cam era travels with him and stops fram ing a
close shot o f b o th (A B3). B then walks to the background and
the pictorial com position changes on the screen to A B4.
A lateral cam era m ovem ent tracking to either side will exclude
th e static player (Fig. 25.15).
512

FIGURE 25.12 A stationary actor stands between the camera and the other person,
in thebackgrci/nd. The background actor moves up to the other as the camera moves
in on them.
FIGURE 25.13 The moving person is placed between (he camera and the stationary
backeround figure* The camera follow s the foreground figure as he approaches the
other actor.

b2

L3
FIGURE 25.14

1
a

b4

The camera can move to emphasize only a part of the shot.

513

FIGURE 25.15 A lateral camera track follow ing the moving player w ill exclude the
stationary subject, in th is example* the car.

F u rth er possibilities are, o f course, possible with m ore than two

players. Instead o f following the player in action, the cam era may
be used selectively w ith a stationary group. T he tracking camera
will p in p o in t each m em ber by approaching or receding from him.
Changing the body position
As in the theatre, on a cinem a screen the body position of a
p erform er can be either d om inant o r subordinate (Fig. 25.16).
A frontal view o f the body, facing the cam era, is know n as an
open position. A side view is a neutral view. If the perform er has his
back to the cam era, this is a closed position.
O pen, frontal positions are the strongest, dram atically speak
ing. Closed o r rear views o f a player are the weakest. (This concept
514

FIGURE 25.16

The three basic body positions are covered by the camera.

is subordinate to the context o f the scene because, for instance, a

player introduced to the action showing only his b ack will becom e
the centre o f atten tio n by keeping his identity unknow n).
Changes in body attitu d e are m ore effective when com bined
with changes in position on the stage o r set. The change in body
position is m arked by integrating it with w alking. A feeling o f
naturalness is preserved and the audience is unaw are th a t their
centre o f interest is being consciously m anipulated by the film
maker.
Som etim es b oth players in a scene m ove in depth and so change
the p ictorial com position (Fig. 25.17). The d o m in an t player
moves first.
Instead o f resorting to a cut to obtain an external reverse
coverage o f b oth players, th at reversal com es ab o u t by their
movement in mid shot. A change o f body position m ight m ean a
change o f direction and levelhe can m ove from a lying to a
reclining, kneeling, sitting or standing position. These levels can be
successfully com bined with those o f his p artn e r (or partners) to
form visually pleasant com binations o f vertical m ovem ent (Fig.
25.18).

FIGURE 25.17 A stationary camera obtains a reversal of the actors positions by

having them move from foreground to background and vice versa.

The shot begins with both players (A and B). B rises an d the
cam era tilts up fram ing her alone. A now rises and enters the
screen from below. B oth players are now standing. B then kneels
dow n, going o u t o f shot. A rem ains in shot.

Substitution by sectors
This technique implies use o f a fixed cam era location. T he trick
is in substituting an acto r placed in a particular sector o f the
screen by an o ther, w ithout m oving the others also seen in the
shot.
516

FIGURE 25.18

V e rtic il movement of the players with n u m b e r contrast.

As we already know , the screen can be divided into tw o or

three vertical sectors and the m ovem ent can be in foreground o r
background planes. Substitution uses these factors for its effects.
Case 7
A an d B are seen in the foreground, profiled to each other. B turns
and exits right. C then enters from th a t side and occupies the
sector o f the screen vacated by B. A rem ains in the same sector o f
the screen (Fig. 25.19).
517

FJGURE 25,19 A slmpfe substitution by sectors, One player goes o u t o f shot and If
replaced by another.

Case 8
A substitution in dep th is the next variant, a n d sim ple to ac
com plish (Fig. 25.20).
A t the beginning o f the shot, A an d B are seen in the foreground
facing the cam era. W hen A exits shot left, he discloses C in the
background. C either rem ains in the background o r com es forward
to a close shot beside B.
518

FIGURE 25-20

Here the substitution by sectors is achieved In depth,

Case 9
A. com position in which the screen is divided into three sectors is
ideal to p o rtray situations where a leader gives com m ands to
subordinates.
The leader is fram ed centrally an d the players a t his either side
exit and enter, replacing each o th er (Fig. 25.21).
519

FIGURE 25.21 The actors on one side of the screen are substituted by others, while
one remains still throughout the shot.

the cen tre

Case 10
A ltern ate changes o f sector, using only tw o screen areas, is a more
elab o rate solution (Fig. 25.22).

FIGURE 25.22

In

this example all the players are substituted up to the last two.

A a n d B are on the screen at the beginning o f the shot. B leaves

and is substituted by C. T hen A leaves and is substituted by D.
Now, D leaves and is, in turn, substituted by E. E rem ains while
C is replaced by F.
Case 11
There are times w hen th e substitution by sectors is accom plished
using only tw o players. O ne rem ains in shot while the o th er enters
and exits. This is repeated and then inverted. A n o th er variant is to
have one player enter, right, stop in the centre o f the picture and
then exit right. The second player enters left, stops in the centre
and then leaves left. T he first player then re-enters right and the
whole form ula is repeated. T o obtain variation, the three depth
planes in to which a scene can be broken are used in com bination
with one an o th er. An exam ple will illustrate the technique. Fig.
25.23 shows the set in w hich the scene will take place.
T he whole action is shown in a single shot, with a static cam era
and the techniques used are explained below.

FIGURE 25.23 Three planes of depth In the scene are used in combination.

A t the beginning o f the shot the set appears as follows: in the

foreground is a desk with papers and other paraphernalia. Above,
in the foreground is a light, turned off at present; in the back
ground is a raised catw alk with a vertical stair on the left, descend
ing behind a block construction placed in the m iddle ground. In
the background on the right is a closed door.
T he action in the scene is as follows. The cam era is in a fixed
position.
1 T he light in the foreground is switched on.
2 Player A then enters from the right (foreground) and gets busy
sorting some papers on the table.
3 U nknow n to him , B enters the catw alk from the left in the
background and crouches to look dow n.
4 A exits shot right.
5 In the background B rises, goes to the stairs and descends,
disappearing behind the block construction.
6 A re-enters from the right w ith a small leather bag. He picks
u p some papers and puts them into the bag, and then exits right
o f picture.
7 N othing m oves for an instant, then the light in the foreground
goes off, obviously switched off by A o u t o f shot.
8 B appears from behind the block in the m iddle ground and
calm ly walks tow ards us, keeping to the left side o f the screen.
W hen he reaches a close shot position, his figure is silhouetted
against the background which is lit. He takes a pocket torch frorn
his coat, scans the papers on the table with a slender beam o f light.
9 Suddenly, in the right sector o f the screen in the background,
a door opens an d tw o arm ed guards appear.
10 B, in the left foreground, quickly switches off the torch and
kneels dow n, m oving out o f shot by the low er side.
11 On the right, in the background, the two arm ed guards shine
a strong lam p up to the catw alk at the left an d tu rn flashing the
light into the cam era lens and, switching it off, m ove to the right,
walking o u t o f shot in the background.
12 B rises and re-appears in the foreground, left. H e picks some
papers from the table and exits shot left.
N otice how the scene was played in depth using foreground and
background action.
N ote also th at A m oved only in the right sector o f the screen and
B on the left, at all times.
522

In this scene twelve different hits o f action to o k place by m eans

o f four elem ents:
1 The light; this was switched on at the beginning o f the take and
turned off m idw ay th ro ugh it.
2 Player A : he entered an d exited from the screen twice, each
time m oving in the foreground righthand sector.
3 Player B: he entered the background, descended fro m a height,
hid behind an obstacle, reappeared (still on the left side o f the
screen) advanced to the foreground, exited the screen by the lower
side, re-entered an d finally exited left.
4 The g uards: they m oved only in the background righthand
sector.
In the first h alf o f the shot the foreground actions o f A were
contrasted w ith the b ackground m ovem ent o f B. But when the
latter came to the foreground, the sam e technique was em ployed in
his relationship w ith the guards in the background. B oth areas
o f the screen, left and right, were used in depth in an alternating
way.
Switching the light on and off in foreground added a pictorial
variation th at reinforced the m ood o f the scene.

Switching screen sectors

Pictorial com positions can n o t rem ain constant for long unless
there is a special reason for it. V ariations within a group recorded
on a long m aster shot edited in the cam era, m ust be introduced if
m onotony is to be avoided. Fixed com positions allow a lim ited
num ber o f ways by which im p o rtan t m om ents, actions o r pieces
of dialogue are stressed.
B oth acto r an d cam era m ovem ent are essential if the expressive
possibilities are to be widened.
T he m ost sim ple variation is a switch o f sectors. The player on
the right m oves to th e left and the o th er vice versa. T his switch can
be obtained with the sim ultaneous m ovem ent o f bo th players or
by m oving only one o f them. The second case involves cam era
m ovem ent.
W hen b o th players m ove to exchange screen sectors,-they cross
over.
A s in the old theatrical convention, the d o m in an t player is
alm ost always placed slightly upstage o f the o th er (Fig. 25.24).
523

FIGURE 25.24 Players cross over and exchange screen sectors and the dominant
player upstases the other.

The player piaced upstage faces the audience* the o th er has his
back to it. S ubstitute a cam era for the audience an d you have the
sam e situation o n the screen. T he d o m in an t aspect can be modified
by opening o r closing the body position (Fig. 25.25).
T his w orks well on the screen, w ith a fixed cam era position, but
one o f the players could m ove o u t o f shot so th at the rem aining
one becom es the d o m in an t party. I f the cam era follows the actor
w ho leaves, th en he is em phasized. W hen the do m in an t player
crosses an o th er person o n the stage, he is m ore likely to pass in
fro n t o f the o ther than behind him unless he is sitting dow n. The
reason is easy to see. W hen the d o m in an t player passes behind the
o th er person, the eyes o f the audience, which have follow ed him
to this p oint, tend to rem ain with the stationary player.
W ith a close shot, however, the d om inant player can cross
behind the o th er person, who has a closed body position, w ithout
this happening (Fig. 25.26).
524

FIGURE 25.25 The 'upstage' actor faces the camera, the other has his back Jo it, the
dominant aspect is modffled by opening and closing the body positions.

A n o th er old stage convention is th e com pensatory m ovem ent

m ade by a perform er w ho has been crossed, to re-establish stage
balance. He m oves a short distance in the opposite direction
beginning a t the m om ent he is ca t across when he is hidden from
the audience by the m oving player.
W ith stationary cam era coverage this m ethod can be applied on
the screen (Fig. 25.27).
525

FIGURE 25,26
shot).

The moving player crosses beyond the static actor (seen in close

A couple stands in fro n t o f the W atergate Building. He is on the

left and she in the centre, fu rth er back. L ater he begins to move
across the screen tow ards the right. W hen his figure hides the
w om ans body, by passing in fro n t o f her, she begins to move to the
left in a com pensatory m otion. As the m an reaches the right sjde
o f the screen an d stops, she also stops in her new position on the
left side o f the film frame.
The cam era rem ained stationary, while a neat area transposition
was achieved by the players.
A n o th er old theatrical device applicable to screen movement
involves th at described above except th at audience attention in
526

FIGURE 25.27

A simple cross where both performers move.

stead o f being fixed o n the d om inant player, is shifted fro m the

dom inant to the o th er player a n d then b ack to the do m in an t
actor again (Fig, 25.28).
Player A begins to m ove upstage crossing behind B. A t th a t
m om ent B describes a half circle m ovem ent in the opposite
direction, carrying the eyes o f the audience with him. B stops (with
527

a partially closed body position) an d throw s atten tio n o n to the

other perform er by looking a t him . A then concludes by turning to
the audience opening his body position.
All m ovem ent m ust be m otivated, o r m ust be m ade to ap p ear so.
This is th e oldest axiom for stage presentation, either if viewed by
an audience in the th eatre o r a film cam era on a movie stage. The
m ost n atu ral reasons for m ovem ent are found in the dialogue
itself.
M ovem ent th a t is the result o f em otion is the m ost effective. If
there is no em otional reason for m oving, a practical one can be
found.
K now ledge o f the laws o f film language gives us technique, and
technique is one o f the fiim -m akers m ost precious assets. It serves
us constantly to sustain o u r w ork even when the m o st essential
elem ent, im agination, fails us. If we rely on technique and dispense
w ith im agination, we becom e m echanical. If we rely on im agina
tion alone and ignore technique, o u r w ork will be chaotic. We
m ust know o u r film m edium and respect craftm anship.
This is th e only way to m ake the transition from com petent
craftsm an to artist.
528

If the cam era is close to the players, the stationary perform er

need n o t m ove to re-establish screen balance. The cam era simply
pans with the m oving player and a sm ooth switch o f screen sectors
is obtained (Fig. 25.29).

T h e actors d o n o t need to b e close to the cam era to achieve this

switch. By m oving one person in depth, from background to
foreground an d vice versa, a simple panning m ovem ent will
achieve the sam e result (Fig. 25.30).
The sh o t begins by fram ing A in the foreground and B behind.
529

FIGURE 25.30

The main player moves in depth, thus chanoinfl jone.

As A m oves to her new position, the cam era pans to the right with
her fram ing B -A 2. She then returns to her form er position in the
foreground and the cam era m oves back to the left with her and the
first pictorial com position is repeated. A tracking cam era may be
used to obtain the sam e effect. In such a case there is also a change
o f zone (Fig. 25.31).

FIGURE 25.31 A tracking camera causes th e players to switch positions on Ihe

screen as they move with the camera.

The acto rs exchange screen sectors d u rin g the track, w ith static
screen co m p ositions a t both ends o f the track. T he follow ing
examples are applied to three people exchanging sectors during an
interm ittent p an and tracking m ovem ent.
Case 12
Three players exchanging screen sectors follow the same principle.
But it is easier an d m ore dynam ic if they also change zones. T he
cam era m ay p an as in Fig. 25.32.
T his sh o t involves an 180 degree pan. T he shot begins by
showing players A, B an d C talking in m edium shot, A then
moves to th e left. The cam era pans w ith her. She stops a t her new
position. B enters from the right a n d stops in his new position,
C enters from the right, behind them , an d crosses to the left an d
moves o u t o f shot by th at side. The cam era rem ains fram ing the
others. N ow A m oves to the left to the o ther side o f B, T he cam era
pans again w ith her to the new com position. B starts to m ove to the
left and as he crosses A, she too begins to m ove in the sam e
direction. T he cam era pans left with them , picking u p C in the
background. W hen the cam era stops we see the three players
m oving aw ay from us as shown. D uring the shot the actors exchange
screen sectors from zone to zone.

LLl
D

---------

1i .

r a g s

f ;W ?
IPS1

JM^r
b2

a2

-Zfu
A

4
1/7, Af / f

a3

FIGURE 25.32

ill)
b2

A simple case o f editing In the camera using three action zones.

532

-i ,

Case 13
A tracking sh o t with three people can be planned w ith a large
num ber o f variants.
In the following sim ple exam ple there is a change o f screen
sector and action zones (Fig. 25.33).
W hen the shot begins, A an d B are seen talking to each other.
They start to w alk and th e cam era moves with them . A moves
first, crossing behind B so th at during the track the com positions
is B -A .
W hen they stop, C enters right. They talk. T he com position
is B2- A 2-C . B exits shot, right. T he cam era having stopped with
the players, p an s right to fram e A 2-C alone. Both players start to
walk and the cam era tracks w ith them once m ore in an A -C
com position. W hen they stop, com position o n the screen becomes
C 2- A 3.
A lthough there were only three stationary cam era positions
(the two extrem es and a pause in th e m iddle o f the track) there were
five pictorial variations.
C hanging screen sectors is a useful device for shots edited in the
camera. It is n o t em ployed alone, bu t integrated with o th er tech
niques, so th a t the result is richer, and m ore expressive and serves
the scene better.

Numerical contrast
The co n fro n tatio n o f one person by a group, o r a small group by a
large one, has dram atic significance in itself. Such num erical
contrast em phasizes by isolation. These results can be applied to
m aster shots w hich are designed to be edited within the film
frame.
T here are three basic ways o f achieving num erical contrast for
such shots.
One o f the perform ers exits shot leaving his com panion alone
in it. Later, he re-entersa 2 -1 -2 contrast (Fig. 25.34).
W hen a perform er moves, the cam era pans o r tracks w ith him.
I f he moves to a zone where he rem ains alone before returning
to his com panion, the p atterns o f co n trast are simple2 -1 -2
o r 3-1 -3 .
I f he m oves to a zone where o th er players are present, the
num ber com binations possible increase (Fig. 25.35).
533

FIGURE 25.33 Editing in the camera using three stationary camera positions and
five pictorial com positions to put the scene across.

534

I i

FIGURE 25.34 One a cto r exits s h o t w h ile th e o th e r re m a in s; the fir s t then re -e n te rs

a n u m b e r co ntra st.

FIGURE 25.35 T h e cam era fo llo w s th e d e p a rtin g p e rfo rm e r w ho se m ovem ent alters
1li^ n um b e r c o n tra s t,

535

I f the cam era tracks into o r back from a group, the num ber
o f piayers covered can be decreased o r increased, according to
dram atic needs (Fig. 25.36).

FIGURE 25.36 The camera (racks towards or away fro m the group, which may be
covered as a whole or In part.

Fig. 25.37 shows num erical co n tra st in com bination w ith other
techniques.
A an d B are seen in m edium shot. B exits a n d the camera
rem ains, fram ing A alone. A fterw ards she m oves fro m zone 1 to
zone 2. The cam era pans w ith her. She stops in zone 3 facing B.
T h en B m oves to zone 3. T he cam era pans w ith him . H e rem ains
fo r some seconds an d is then jo in ed by A.
N otice the different techniques em ployed in this sim ple shot:
1 N u m b er co n trast was used in a repetitive p a tte rn : 2 -1 -2 -1 -2 .
2 The three zones o f actio n were in a h a lf circle aro u n d the
cam era, b u t at different distances, so th a t as the cam era panned,
the players were seen in a tighter com position progressing from
m edium shot to close shot a n d to close up.
3 T he players in each zone altered their body positions. First they
interchanged u p stage a n d dow nstage, then m oved into the same
plane.
536

FIGURE 25.37 Several form ulas fo r edltlno In camera are used in this example.
Player A Is always on the left of the screen, while B remains on the right.

4 T here were only two cam era pans. The first followed A, the
second B.
This exam ple shows the im portance o f using the seven techniques
in com bination, to o b tain a sm ooth construction o f m aster shots.
By com bining player and cam era m ovem ents this technique
dispenses with the need for physical cuts. But editorial emphasis
o r changes in the scene are achieved with com plete naturalness.
Editing within the film fram e
F rench film m akers call it le plan sequence, in Spanish it is
identified as m ontaje en el c u a d ro , the A m ericans call it a fluid
cam era style. All these identify the sam e form o f film language
the long m aster shot th at flows sm oothly, covering a scene
com pletely or a large po rtio n o f it. M ost film m akers use it and yet
there is a m arked preference am ong E uropean directors to avail
them selves o f this recourse in a m ore intensive way. Some o f their
films are constructed with num erous m aster shots. They seem to
prefer the slower rhythm and m ore fluent execution afforded by
this technique.
In A m erica the technique appears to be used m ore sparingly.
C onventional editing by cuts is m uch in evidence. But there are
notable exceptions. Sidney Lum et and O tto Prem inger, for
exam ple, often edit in the cam era.
P erhaps the difference lies in the w orking m ethods employed
o n different sides o f the A tlantic. In general, in A m erica the film
director covers a suitable scene with m ultiple m aster shots from,
say, the three points o f a triangle with interior reverse shots, cut
aways and some o th er protective shots in case som e extra material
will be needed later.
An experienced film editor sees the m aterial an d , using an
an n o tated script as a guide, edits the film in sequence. He is the
one responsible for the selection o f the final shots, he decides when
to stress a scene by cutting into a close shot o r m oving back to a
long shot. The jo b o f the director is to provide him with a wide
pictorial coverage th a t allows the editor an am ple scope for selec
tion. O n occasions, a film editor will assemble tw o o r three versions
o f a sequence. L ater the director and the producer see the sequences
as edited by him and suggest changes, or decide th a t som e sup
plem entary shots are needed.
The editing o f the film is a separate operation taking place while
538

the director is on th e set shooting fu rth er scenes. The am o u n t o f

Film consum ed in this way is quite high an average o f one fo o t o f
film m ight be used ou t o f ten feet shot.
Very few risks are taken with th at type o f pro d u ctio n organiza
tion. Individuality, greatly prized by E u ro p ean film m akers, has
very little chance to flower within a system th a t dem ands only
com petent artisans. This is n o t a criticism o f th a t p ro d u ctio n
m ethod. In an industry th at m ust show a high o u tp u t o f filmed
m aterial, a quick, com petent w orker is to be preferred to an
individual artist who requires a longer period o f tim e to obtain his
results. Pressure is enorm ous in the film industry due to tim e/cost
factors am ong others.
In d ep en d en t film m akers, particu larly those in E urope, can
afford the longer shooting schedules in w hich they can feel a t ease,
because their organization is different. They generally w ork with
lighter equipm ent, often do no t shoot lip-sync (only a guide
m agnetic tap e m ay be recorded to help in the d ubbing operations
carried o u t later), and they tak e m ore chances. But they are not
wild risks.
M oreover this type o f film m aker is m ore likely to take an
active p a rt in the editing o f the film. So he shoots a low er p ro
portion o f retakes.
He m ay plan th e different approaches to a scene in advance and
then m ake a choice o f the one he is going to shoot. This is no t a
rigid choice. He keeps his m ind open to any im provem ents th at the
actual w ork on location o r stage m ight suggest. Alfred H itchcocks
dictum.: G o o d films are m ade o n a desk no t on a sound stage is
very good advice.
E diting in the cam era is exercising a choice. The scene is shot
only in th a t version an d there are no alternative cover shots to
change the ap p ro ach though there m ay be som e cutaw ays to stress
story p o in ts th at could no t be integrated w ithin the m aster shot.
Paradoxically, this system allow s a faster shooting rate than
m ultiple coverage for conventional editing purposes. T he m ain risk
is th a t there is less ro o m for error. Sim ple dialogue, w here the
actors m ove in a lim ited stage space, can be covered in m edium
o r close shot set-ups.
A television series m ay m ake an extensive use o f this technique
as the episodic n atu re o f the series is well suited to it. Several film
units m ay be w orking a t the sam e tim e an d finished film can be
turned o u t a t a high rate.
539

M ovem ents w ith definite geom etrical p attern s are used ex

tensively particularly circular and trian g u lar patterns. C ircular
pattern s m ight be a ro u n d a static player, a piece o f furniture,
vehicle o r p ro p on the set.
In Fig. 25.38 a player m oves in a full circle aro u n d piece of
fu rn itu re and an o th er perform er who rem ains statio n ary during
th e shot.

FIGURE 25,38 Circular pattern of movement around a piece o f furniture and

stationary player.

T he player in m o tio n stops successively in the three positions

aro u n d statio n ary ac to r A. T he cam era pans w ith B a n d he moves
fro m p o sitio n to position.
T he static player can stan d in the centre o f a circle o r close to the
rim , o r p erh ap s o n the outside. Fig. 25.39 shows som e exam ples of
circular p ath s for this type o f shot.
T rian g u lar p atterns are also widely em ployed. Fig. 25.40 shows
a sim ple instance.
540

FIGURE 25.39 D ifferent circular patterns of movement. The stationary player t

either outside the circle, In the centre or close to inner rim of It.

FIGURE 25.40

A triangular pattern of movement tor a player.

T riangular p ath s m ay becom e m ore elaborate, w ith the players

m oving alternately in the triangle and in fro n t o f a panning or
tracking cam era.

541

26
MOVING FROM ZONE TO ZONE
In discussing approaches to groups o f people in dialogue scenes it
has been assum ed th at the group rem ained m ore o r less in the
same area o f the set and variation and visual em phasis was achieved
by physical editing patterns based on properties o f the triangle
principle. But m oving the players from area to area also helps lend
a feeling o f reality to a scene though the perform ers are stationary
in each area bu t their relationship is qualified by variation in
body posture, distance between actors, placem ent in the fram e, etc.
C hanges o f zone n o t only give variety to the backgrounds
glimpsed behind the players b u t also allow the film m aker to
change his physical editing pattern. T he audience should be un
aw are o f the form ulas used to present the scene on the screen.
These m ay be used over and over again bu t the fact th at they are
applied to different perform ers in different situations helps to mask
their sim ilarity. T hus, one o f the m ost dreadful filmic problem s,
handling static dialogue scenes, is covered in a natural and
pleasant way. A ction scenes, parallel events, lend them selves more
easily to film presentation. But static dialogue, although necessary
for some expositive scenes tends to bog dow n the cinem atic p ro
perties o f film. Physical editing plus changes o f zone solve the
problem .
General principles
W ith changes o f zone the group can m ove from zone to zone,
expand to several zones o r co n tract from several to only one zone.
T here is no lim it to the num ber o f areas th at can be em ployed but
three to five is generally enough since each area can be used
several times if the developm ent o f the story so requires.
M ovem ent m ust be (or seem) m otivated by som ething. T he most
natural reasons for m ovem ent are found in the dialogue o f the
542

screen play itself. The m ost effective m ovem ent is th at which results
from em otion. I f there is no em otional reason for m oving, a
practical one m ust be found. The exam ples here involve only tw o
people. Larger groups obey the sam e rules, with the difference only
that the increased num ber allows fu rth er com binations on the
screen.
A group moving fro m zone to zone
Z one change is prim arily a technique used to o b tain pictorial
variation.. Its second property is th at it allow s the scene to progress
to different levels o f em otion and m ood. As the zone is changed so
also the m ood o f the play alters, becom ingm ore in tim ate , tense,
etc.
A change o f zone should take place during the re-establishing
sh o t used to bridge tw o different editing patterns. (Fig. 26.1).
Only tw o areas are used in this exam ple. T he editing order o f the
sequence is as follow s:
123 23 1 4 5 4 5
The whole locale, w ith bo th players in it, is established a t the
beginning o f the sequence. T he first p a rt o f the scene, with both
players standing, is then covered by intercutting m aster shots 2
ar.d 3 in parallel, which are external reverse sites aro u n d the
players.
W hen the first p art o f the sequence is finished, we retu rn to shot
I. N ow we use this cam era site as a re-establishing position fo r the
audience. Here we see the players m ove together into the b ac k
ground tow ards the second zone. T w o additional variations are
accom plished: the players exchange screen areas and their body
level is low ered as they sit dow n. M aster shots 4 and 5 resort
again to external reverse coverage o f the couple. The pictorial
com position on the screen varies although the editing pattern
used previously is repeated, because the actors have exchanged
their screen positions.
T he m ood o f the scene also changes. T he perform ers now occupy
m ore com fortable positions, lending the scene an air o f increased
intim acy in th eir relationships.
T he form ula is sim p le: a n editing p attern is used in the first zone
and repeated in the second. These editing pattern s can be different
in each zone, and they can m ake use o f several com binations o f
m aster shots according to the five variants o f the triangle principle
543

FIGURE 26.1 A simpJe case in w hich a group o f p eople move from one zone 1o
another during a conversation. Body level and position change add variety.

544

for cam era placem ent. The concept that m ust be retained is that
the group o f players can be m oved from one area o f the set to
another w hatever the distance. In this way different backgrounds
for the static m aster shots are obtained.
If a large group is involved, the central characters alone can be
moved to the next area.
Two, three, four or five areas o n the set can be chosen as zones
where sections o f the sequence will be staged. M any types o f visual
variation are available in each. N o t only different editing patterns,
bu t attitudes, body positions, distances, etc., are consciously
planned to achieve the illusion o f spontaneity.
The group expands
M oving the whole group (as ju st discussed) is a lim ited approach
th a t can be im proved by introducing group expansion, or to use a
theatrical term , by using broad inter-area m otions.
E xpansion is achieved either by selective editing o r by moving
som e o f the figures from the central group to an o th er area.
Selective editing can em phasize a silent player on the rim o f the
group o r achieve pictorial variation simply by changing the
editing p attern. (Fig. 26.2).
T he editing order o f th e sequence would be as follows:
Shot I Full shot o f th e group in the room form ing a circle
aro u n d the two central players engaged in a discussion.
The passive group is seated o r reclining against diverse
pieces o f furniture. Only the central players stand erect,
com m anding o u r attention.

FIGURE 2fi.2 Group expansion by the use o f selective editing, using two different
zones on the set (the girl and fha central group) during the second half of the
sequence.

545

r
Shot 2; Each covers close external reverse views o f the central
Shot 3 perform ers engaged in the discussion o f a topic o f
interest for the whole group. Each is a m aster shot and
b oth are edited in parallel, covering the first part o f the
scene.

546

Shot 4 The w hole group is re-established from a different

position in the room . In the foreground a t the left, with
her back to the cam cra, is the seated figure o f a w om an
looking tow ards the central players in the background.
547

She is placed on the rira o f the circle surrounding the

d o m in an t perform ers.
Shot 5 A reverse shot o f the girl seen close to the cam era. She
is lo o kin g o ffsc re e n , rig h t T his is a silent m aster shot
in which the girl offers a neu tral expressionno reac
tions are seen in h er face as she listens.
Shot 6 F ull sh o t o f the tw o central players a n d p a rt o f the
g ro u p a ro u n d them . T he d o m in an t perform ers continue
th eir discussion. This cam era position has the same
visual axis as shot 4, and is an advance on the axis.
In fact, w hat is fram ed in this sh o t represents the
g irls p o in t o f view. This is also a m aster shot, perio
dically in terru p ted by inter-cutting shot 5 where the
girl w atches silently as the discussion continues on the
sound track. T he silent shots o f the girl are very brief
tw o seconds each perhaps, while the segm ents o f shot 6
a re longer.
Shot 7 The scene is re-established from a new p o in t o f view
an d then ends. A good pretext is to have one o f the
central players (engaged in the discussion) start to
m ove aw ay fro m his com panion as seen a t the conclusion
o f sh o t 6, a n d cu t on the action to shot 7.
In this shot the w hole group is set in m otion and all
exit fro m the ro o m to an o th er p a rt o f the house.
As can be seen in the exam ple quoted, the w hole group, including
the central characters, occupied stationary positions o n the set
d u rin g the sequence, a n d only m oved at the conclusion. M aster
shots 2 a n d 3 heightened a concentrated centre o f interest in one
zone o f the stage. T he relationship betw een m aster shots 5 and 6
in troduced a visual expansion o f the group by relating persons
occupying different areas o f the set. P ictorial v ariation was ob
tained w ith o u t m oving an y o f the players.
Two fu rth er variants
I f a player m oves from one zone to a second while his com panion
rem ains in the first, there is, in effect, an expansion o f the group.
(Fig. 26.3),
In editing the first p a rt o f the sequence tw o external reverse
m aster shots are intercut in parallel. W hen the w hole scene is
re-established the players m ovem ent is from one zone to another.
548

FIGURE 28.3
In the first.

Only one player moves lo another zone, while his companion remain*

549

The editing pattern in the second p a rt o f the sequence m akes use

o f tw o internal reverse cam era sites, one for each zone, to relate
the players visually before closing the sequence with a re-establish
ing shot. T he editing order for this exam ple runs as follows:
1-2 -3 -2 -3 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -5 -6 ~ 5 -6 -7
T he expansion o f a group can be com bined with zone changes for
the w hole g roup to add variety to a long sequence. In such an
event the sequence begins with both players in the first zone and
an editing pattern o f external reverse shots is applied to that area.
T hen bo th players m ove to the second zone and exchange screcn
areas in the process.
A right angle external cam era coverage could, perhaps, be
chosen to cover the players in this zone. A fterw ards, one of the
perform ers moves to a third zone an d bo th areas (2 an d 3) are
related by the use o f internal reverse cam era positions. Re
establishing cam era sites are em ployed to record each zone change.
Fig. 26.4 details the m ovem ents and cam era placem ents just
discussed.

FIGURE 26,4 Two previous techniques are blended here. The group moves from
zone to zone, and then expands, whife one of the players moves to 0 third zone
Meanwhile his companion remains in the second.

550

A player moves, the other remains still

In this variatio n a p erfo rm er m oves aw ay from the zone com m on
to the couple to a zone (or zones) in the background. The key
variant is th at he keeps m oving until he returns to his p artn e r who
has replied to his spoken lines, w ithout m oving from his original
position. The form ula is sim ple:
Shot 1 M edium sh o t o f both perform ers. T he cam era then pans
to one side with the m oving player as he w alks away.
S h o t 2 In tern al reverse shot o f the player w ho rem ains in one
place th ro u g h the entire sequence.
S hot 3 M aster panning shot in which the m oving ac to r w anders
on to the set. He m oves by segm ents, m aking successive
stops. This m aster shot is in tercu t w ith tw o sm aller
m aster shot o f the stationary player. These two small
m aster shots have a com m on visual axis and are from
internal reverse positions.
S hot 4 T he sequence concludes show ing how the w andering
a c to r returns to his form er place besides the statio n ary
player.
Fig. 26.5 illustrates the sequence th a t follows, using the technique
ju st described, w ith dialogue.

FfGURE 26.5 Floor plan of 1he sequence shown in the next figure. In this case one
player moves from zone to zone, while the other remains in a fixed position,

551

S hot 1 M edium shot. A and B talk. B turns, w alks to the light.

T he cam era pans w ith him . B stops a n d turns to face
A off-screen.
S hot 3 M edium shot o f A facing the cam era. H e replies.
Shot 2 Close shot o f B facing the cam era. H e tu rn s a n d walks
to the background to position B3 w here he stops in
m edium sh o t facing the cam era. T he cam era pans with
him to the left. H e talks.
Shot 3 M edium shot o f A. H e listens.
S hot 2 M edium shot o f B. He m oves again, w alking to the left
to position B4 in close shot. The cam era pans with him
to th a t side. H e talks.
S hot 4 Close shot o f A facing the cam era. He listens.
Shot 2 C lose shot o f B. H e m oves to the right to position B 5
in close shot. T he cam era pans with him to the right. He
talks.
S hot 4 Close shot o f A. H e replies.
Shot 1 M edium shot o f B. H e w alks to the left and joins A.
The cam era pans w ith him to show b o th actors in
m edium shot. T hey talk. T he sequence ends.
I t is n o t neccssary th a t b o th perform ers stand up th ro u g h the
whole sequence. The static actor, fo r instance, could be sitting
4.own. T he m oving player does bits o f business o n his m ovem ents,
like lighting a cigarette, o r m oving a vase o f flowers from one
tab le to an o th er little things th a t justify his m ovem ents from
zone to zone.
Fig. 26.6 illustrates the screen com positions reached and held for
each fragm ent o f the four m aster shots th a t were com bined for the
sequence.
In a long sequence the m oving actor m ight sit dow n halfway
th ro u g h and stand up again m om ents later to sta rt m oving. The
cam era can n o t only pan with the m oving acto r b u t trac k forw ard
o r backw ards w ith th at player as he m oves alone from zone to
zone.
I f the sequence is extra long, we ca n reunite the players m id
way th ro u g h by having the m oving player re-join the other one,
stay fo r a m o m ent a n d then cross to the o th er side where the mov
ing player repeats the whole p attern in full once m ore (Fig. 26.7).
The essential thing is th a t one player stays put while the other
moves from area to area.
552

FIGURE 26.6 A simple case in whrch one player moves from zone to zone while the
other stays put during the whole sequence.

553

FIGURF 36.? Diagram for a more comple* sequence in which one player moves
while the other remains In a fixed position during the whole sequence.

The group contracts

T he g roup contracts in the exam ple ju s t discussed players who
are scattered in different zones are reunited in a single area. This
recourse is very useful for concluding a sequence. Tw o players have
been show n together m oving from zone to zone. The group,
having been expanded, is now contracted, bringing the perform ers
together once m ore to conclude the scene. A p attern o f m ovem ent
th a t expands and contracts periodically during the sequence
should be at the service o f the story an d no t arbitrarily imposed
o n a scene. R ather, the m ost adequate editing solution should be
selected.
Devices fo r zone change
We have stated elsewhere th a t changes o f zone should be effected
during the introduction o f a re-establishing shot to show clearly
the two zones involved and underline the geography o f the situa
tion. T here are several form ulas for m aking changes o f zone
em ploying various editing arrangem ents.
554

FI GURE 26.8 The players are firs t covered Individually. One then walks to the other
$0 that they now occupy a single area. A pair of external reverse shots provide
coverage.

Case 1
Players A a n d B are seen on internal reverse shots. The m aster
shots are edited in parallel. T hen A exits his m aster shot. She then
enters m aster shot 2 (which now fram es b o th players, Fig. 26.8).
The co n tractio n o f the group was achieved sim ply by m oving
a player from his zone to his partners. M aster shot 2 can now
continue with b o th players, o r a p air o f external reverse shots can
be introduced to cover the couple by parallel editing. By reversing
the form ula expansion o f the g roup can be obtained.
Case 2
A pan m ovem ent can be used to reunite the players in a single
zone. M aster shots 1 an d 2, covering each player separately in
internal reverse shots are edited in parallel. W hen A m oves in
m aster sh o t 1, the cam era pans w ith h er show ing how she ap
proaches B a n d stays w ith him . (Fig. 26.9).
555

FIGURE 26.9 This Is sim ilar to the preceding case, the only difference being In the
panning shot used for the change o l zone. T h is pan accompanies the moving player
to the other zone, where her companion waits.

556

T he result is sim ilar to the case examined previously (Case 1)

an d the sequel o f shots equal those em ployed in that example.
Case 3
Two players, occupying different zones are often brought together
by a short track, b o th players having been show n individually in
internal reverse shots. T he sequence is as follows:
S hot 1 Close sh o t o f A.
Shot 2 Close shot o f B.
Shot 1 Close shot o f A.
Shot 2 Close sh o t o f B.
S hot 1 A advances to the cam era. The cam era tracks back
passing beside B a n d stops when it fram es him from
behind on one side o f the screen. A stops in fro n t o f B.
S hot 3 Reverse external shot o f B -A .
S hot 1 E xternal reverse shot o f B -A .
S hot 3 B an d A seen together.
S hot 1 B and A in a tw o shot.
The solution is sim ilar to th a t in the previous tw o cases, where the
editing p attern was changed from internal to external coverage as
the two actors were b ro u g ht to a com m on zone stage (Fig. 26.10).
T h e illustration offers a second alternative for the last p a rt of
the sequence. In the scene ju st described she stops in fro n t o f him,
the girl o n th e left a n d the m an on the right o f the screen, as seen
from th e last position o f the cam era in shot 1. T he alternative is to
have her m ove to the o th er side o f him , so th a t from the last
cam era position o f shot 1, he is seen placed on
the left o f the
screen, with his back to us, and she faces us in the
right sector of
the film fram e. T he site fo r shot 3 w ould now be on the other side
o f the line o f m o tio n , providing us w ith a perfectly licit external
reverse angle. T he line o f interest flowing between the players at the
beginning o f the scene is shifted to a new direction at the conclusion
o f the tracking cam era m otion th at reunites both players on a
com m on area.
Case 4
W hen tw o players move from one zone to an o th er one ac to r might
m ove first rath er th an th e tw o together (Fig. 26.11).
S hot 1 A a n d B talking. A exits left, leaving B.
S hot 2 A enters from the right an d turns to face B o ff screen.
557

FIGURE 26.10 A tracking shot accompanies the moving player when he moves from
one zone to another where the other person is waiting.

Shot 1 B, alone, delivers one o r two lines, then exits left.

Shot 2 B enters from right joining A.
In the exam ple given, both players are seen in profile in both
zones. But two cam eras placed a t right angles will introduce a
pictorial variation on the same form ula (Fig. 26,12).
Shot 1 B and A are talking. A ctor B exits left leaving A alone
in the centre o f the picture. A then exits left.
Shot 2 B is facing the cam era and on the left side o f the screen.
A enters, right, into- shot and stops on th at side, with
his back to us.
This is a sim plication o f the approach detailed in the previous case.
558

FIGURE26.t1 Both players move alternately from the firs t to th e second. Two master
th o ts are edited in parallel to record the effect.

FIGURE 26.12 A right angle camera arrangement Is used here fo r a change o f zone
in which the players move alternately.

Case 5
T w o successive pans from the sam e cam era site, can be used to
show tw o players m oving from zone to zone one after the other
(Fig. 26.13).
Shot I B an d A in m edium shot. A s B m oves to the left, the
cam era pans with her to th at side till she joins C.
S hot 2 A , still in the first position a n d seen in m edium shot,
w alks to the left. T he cam era pans with him to that
side w here he jo in s C and B.
T h e three players are now in the second zone and can be covered
by the trian g u lar principle to em phasize the group as a whole or
560

FIGURE 26.13 Two players move from one area to another coveted by a panning
camera. Both pans are made from the same camera position, firs t with one player
and then w ith the other as they move to the new 2one where a third player awaits them.

its m em bers individually. The second pan (shot 2) can move be

yond B and C, accom panying A to the third zone (Fig. 26.14).
If the p an shots o f the perform ers are long shots, static objccts
o r p ro p s in the foreground would add depth to the panning
m ovem ent. The second m ay also be from a position closer to the
subjects and on the same visual axis as the previous cam era site.
561

FIGURE 26.14 Two panning Shots have a common visual axis, and cover the two
moving players individually as they change from zone to zone.

Case 6
The second players change o f zone can be delayed by introducing
an interplay o f m aster shots in parallel (Fig. 26.15).
The sequence w ould be edited in the following way:
Shot 1 Close shot o f players A an d B.
Shot 2 Reverse close shot o f both.
Shot 1
,
s
S hot 2 (A s a b ovc)
Shot 1 A fter a m om ent B m oves to the right. The cam era pans
w ith her to fram e the girl alone in close shot.
Shot 3 Close shot o f A.
Shot 1 Close shot o f B.
Shot 3 Close shot o f A. He walks tow ards us. C am era tracks
back with him until it fram es B from behind o n one side
o f the screen. A stops, facing her.
This delayed approach to zone change looks less artificial and can

FIGURE 26.15 A pan and track combined in this example achieve the change o f zone
for both players as they move one after the other, w ith a pause between.

be introduced w henever the situation w arrants it to m ove the

players sm oothly from zone to zone.
T here are, o f course, m ore solutions to the problem s o f zone
changes where two, three o r four persons are involved. Several o f
the rules an d exam ples are outlined earlier (page 503).

563

27
COMBINED TECHNIQUES

T hose w ho m ake fiction films wiil soon find th at the larger p a rt o f

his w ork concerns dialogue sequences. D ialogues serve to give
in fo rm atio n to the audience, define the co nduct o f the characters,
give am using relief, contribute to the developm ent o f the dram a
o r com m unicate feelings, etc.
D ocum entary film m akers also often encounter scenes that
require dialogued presentation (either in a visual perform ance
alone o r with lip sync speech) to p u t a story p o in t in their them e
across m o re effectively.
In surveying the cinem atic m eans o f handling dialogue scenes
we m ust include the com bination o f physical editing techniques
w ith those edited in the cam era. T hese com binations w iden the
scope o f resources available by providing solutions w hich are very
a d ap tab le to very different circum stances. But it is the concept
behind them th a t really m atters since, o f course, the range of
possible solutions is alm ost num berless.
S h o t by shot editing
W ith this type o f ap p ro ach the scene is taken in as m any shots, long
o r sh o rt, as is felt necessary. The long shots m ay be static or
'ed ited in the cam era shots.
D ialogue scenes present some difficulty in planning because
there is only one way to edit the sequence there is ju s t one shot
fo r each phrase o r g roup o f lines spoken by the players.
Scenes o f pure action w here the perform ers m ove w ithout
depending on dialogue are easier to handle w ith the- shot by shot
editing technique. The arsenal o f film rules involving cutting on
action, the triangle principle fo r cam era deploym ent aro u n d the
player, actio n and reaction, etc. apply in full with this ap p ro ach to
564

film cutting. The F rench film director, Serge B ourginon, is a

m aster in the use o f this technique and one o f the very few who
has consistently applied shot by shot editing to whole films. His
films Sundays and Cybele, The Rew ard a n d 15 Days in September
offer striking examples o f the results th at can be obtained. H e has
used each sh o t only once (with the exception o f one o r two
occasions p er film, in which he was forced to cut a sh o t in half
an d intercut an insert o r cut-away). This approach to film m aking
requires a solid knowledge o f film technique, since a n accum ulation
o f errors while sh o oting the film will offer less opportunity for
correction on the m oviola when the sequences are assem bled.
P artial use o f this technique fo r different sections o f a fiction full
length film is em ployed by alm ost all film m akers, particularly in
sequences th at depict pure action. But docum entary film m akers
consistently reso rt to this technique.

Case 1
T here is a sh o rt fragm ent o f a sequence which gives an idea o f
w hat the technique looks like when applied to a scene with
dialogue.
Shot 308 M edium shot o f a couple sitting in tall grass near a
tree trunk. The cam era tracks in slowly tow ards them
and gradually stops.
H e : It is so nice, here far from the village. It makes
m e feel alive, full o f jo y .
The young m an lies back to rest on the ground. C ut
on the action.
Shot 309 Side shot o f the couple. T he young m an in the fore
ground com pletes his reclining m ovem ent and puts
his hands under his head. T he girl, beyond, turns to
him an d laughs.
She: Y ou are acting like a boy, Billy.
He smiles back a n d then rises. The cam era pans
slightly to the right w ith him , fram ing both, sitting
side by side in the grass, profiled right.
H t', Som etim es -we ou g h t to . I t \s good Tot Yhe
system .
He begins to tu rn his head tow ards the girl. C ut on
the action.
565

Shot 310 B oth are seen from behind. H e fu rth er turning

tow ards her. H e raises his rig h t hand a n d gently takes
her chin.
H e: T hose beautiful, innocent wide eyes . . .
H e pulls her face closer to his to kiss her lips. C ut on
the action.
Shot 311 Reverse close up o f both. T he young m an has his
head in the shadow o f the tree. H is features are o u t
lined against the well lit surface o f the girls face. She
bends her head forw ard to m eet him . They kiss. The
cam era tracks to the right behind their heads panning
to the left to fram e the o th er side o f their faces, as the
windsw ept branches o f the tree cast a m oving shadow
over th eir faces. They end kissing an d she pulls back
her head to look at him , a sm ile o n her face. They
stare at each other. Suddenly a horse neighs nearby,
breaking the spell. B oth tu rn to look off screen.
Shot 312 Reverse. T he couple in foreground, their backs to us,
fram ed in m edium shot. Beyond, in the background, a
m an o n horseback is w atching silently.
Shot 313 Close shot o f the rider. Sam e visual axis as the
preceding shot. H e smiles broadly.
R ider: A m I interrupting som ething?
Each shot in the exam ple given covers a fragm ent o f the scene.
N o cam era site is used twice. N one o f the shots is spliced in paral
lel w ith any o f the others. T h e exam ple in itself is small a n d rather
simple.
Case 2
Shots edited w ithin the film fram e can be used in accordance with
the sam e principles. A series o f m edium length takes (one o r two
minutes each) can be cut in, one behind the other, covering a
whole o r p a rt o f a sequence. The exam ple th a t follows adheres to
such an approach. Fig. 27.1 is a floor plan o f the sequence.
Shot 426 T he cam era tracks from right to left with player A
(a w om an) who joins perform er B (a m an), joining B
and A in close shot in the second zone. A fter a mo
m ent o f conversation player A w alks to the right and
the cam era tracks with her. W hen she reaches th
566

FIGURE 27.1 Floor plan of a sequence covered w ith shot by shot editing. Each shot
Is used only once, but some use the principle of editing in camera w hich gives the
*&quance pictorial variety.

first zone again she stops an d tu rn s to the left, co n

tinuing to speak. T hen she m oves again to the left
to w ard s the second zone. The cam era tracks w ith
her an d stops profiling B -A in close shot. Bitter
w ords are exchanged betw een the players. B crosses
to th e right, follow ed by the cam era a n d reaches the
first zone where he stops. M om ents later, B returns to
the second zone and the com position com bines A -B
in close shot. H e hurls his last b itter insult. A crosses
to the right exiting shot. Only B rem ains, w ith his
head dow ncast.
S hot 427 A enters the shot from the left. She w alks aw ay from
cam era an d stops w ith her b ack to it, fram ed in a
m edium shot. She turns to the left to m outh a bitter
fine o f reproach and then tu rn s h er head aw ay from
us again. C u t on the action.
S hot 428 Reverse m edium shot. B on the left o f the screen in
the back ground w ith his b ack to us. A in foreground
walks right, to an o th er room . T he cam era tracks with
her. She stops inside close to the entrance on the left
567

side o f the screen. B profiled in the b ackground tu rn s

to w ard the cam era a n d approaches player A.
Shot 429 Reverse. A o n the left in the second room . B enters
right and stops with his b ack to the cam era. H e
speaks.
S hot 430 Reverse. Close shot o f A a n d B. This is an advance
on the visual axis o f shot 428. B concludes his speech.
A, left, reacts by turning h er b ack o n him a n d faces
the cam era. She replies w ith b itter w ords. B tu rn s and
walks to the background exiting by a d o o r there,
A rem ains alone o n the screen.
F ad e out.
T he dialogue o f the scene w as om itted from the description o f the
shots to m ake the exam ple m ore graphic an d to concentrate on the
physical action itself. Thus we can clearly observe how each shot
which is edited in cam era is linked w ith the preceding one for
continuity o f action. T he technique em ployed ad o p ts the shot-by
sh o t editing principle described earlier.
Case 3
It is easier to edit single shots o f parallel action, than the one
related by a co n tinuous m otion, such as in the preceding examples.
W ith parallel editing the tim ing o f the sequence can be adjusted at
will by trim m ing dow n the shots o r using longer versions o f them.
W ith con tin u o us shot-by-shot editing the film m aker, once his
m aterial is sh o t an d p rinted, has less control in introducing any
m odifications. By using inserts o r cut-aw ays, filmed as protection,
he can delete p arts o f the m aster shots. B ut it is a repair jo b full o f
difficulties.
O n the o th er hand, shot-by-shot editing th a t alternates two or
m ore lines o f n arratio n in parallel is easier to assem ble, change or
delete. H ere is an exam ple o f an action th a t adheres to the latter
possibility. The fragm ent offered is the conclusion o f a fight scene.
Shot 456 L ong shot. A girl standing in the ro a d close to a cliff.
She w atches the villain (foreground) flip the hero to the
ground. B oth fall. The villain gets u p an d runs to the
left ou t o f shot. T he hero rises a n d runs to the left
after the villain. The cam era pans to the left with the
hero excluding the girl from the shot. A gain we see
the villain running to the edge o f the cliff. The hero
catches up w ith him , a n d tackles him .
568

Shot 457 Close shot o f the girl looking off-screen, left.

Shot 458 Long shot. The hero an d the villain fighting. The hero
falls u n d er a blow from the villain. T he villain reaches
for a rock.
S hot 459 M edium shot. T he girl comes forw ard and picks up
the gun from the road. T he cam era pans dow n and up
with her m ovem ent.
S hot 460 Long shot. A car, driven by the h ero s friend speeds
tow ards us along the road.
Shot 461 Long shot. T he villain, holding the rock high over
his head, m oves tow ards the hero.
Shot 462 Close up. T he girl fires the gun tow ards the camera,
p ointing it ofT screen left.
S hot 463 Full shot. The hero on the ground recovering slowly.
T he villain with the rock high over his head is hit by
th e shot a n d falls back o u t o f shot.
S hot 464 Long shot from above the cliff. T he body o f the villain
plunges into the sea with an audible splash.
Shot 465 The hero rises into the screen fram ed from below in a
m edium shot. H e looks dow n.
Shot 466 Full shot. T he h ero s friend steps o u t o f the car and
runs along the ro a d to the right. The cam era pans
w ith him to th a t side.
Shot 467 Close shot o f the hero exiting shot, right.
Shot 468 Close sh ot o f the girl. She lowers the gun o u t o f the
screen, and then com es forw ard tow ards the camera,
passing o u t o f shot, left.
Shot 469 Full shot. The hero walks to the right tow ards the road
T he cam era pans with him.
Shot 470 M edium shot. The friend com es forw ard on the road
a n d stops. T he girl enters right, the hero, left. Both
have their backs to us. Suddenly all tu rn tow ards the
cam era a n d look up to the upper right corner as they
hear a n explosion ofT screen.
Shot 471 Long shot. T he lone bus on top o f the hill blows up
in a fierce explosion.
Each shot in this sequence portrays a different p a rt o f the event.
T here are three m ain lines o f action alternating on the screen.
Since each action is visually independent o f the others, it is
possible to adjust the d u ratio n o f shots to the length desired. This
569

is an im p o rtan t factor th at allows the film m aker to increase or

slacken the tem po o f his film.
Case 4
On m any occasions, single shots are used to present one fact at a
time to the audience. Each shot has the value o f a phrase o r of a
short statem ent. These shots are som etim es linked with dissolves
th at serve to indicate the passage o f time. W e offer a n example
taken from D elm er D aves film Cowboy.
Dissolve
Long Shot o f the country. T he sun rises slowly over the horizon,
Dissolve
Close Shot o f a coffee p o t over a cam p fire. A hand enters the
screen and takes off the lid. The w ater is seen-boiling inside.
Dissolve
Full shot. The cow boys wake up to the sound o f a frying pan being
beaten off screen. O ne o f the m en rises close to the w agon and
walks to the left. The cam era pans with him, showing the others
in the group an d stops in the foreground on the sleepy face o f
Jack Lem m on.
Dissolve
Close shot o f an iron grid over the coals o f the cam p fire. It is full
o f juicy steaks slowly cooking. A hand with a fork enters and picks
up one o f the steaks. T he cam era pans u p and we see a cowboy
d istributing the steaks to his m ates.
Dissolve
Close shot o f the cam p fire. Som ebody pours the contents o f the
coffee pot over the hot em bers, dousing the fire.
Dissolve
The wagon train passes in front o f the cam cra from left to right in
full shot.
Long shot, On the left in the background we see the cow boys
570

caravan com ing to us. A group o f pacific Indians on horseback

enter shot from the right.
T hey ride into the background.
Cow boys and In d ians cross each other in fro n t o f the cam era.
The cam era pans to the right with Jack L em m on (the tenderfoot o f
the story) who looks at the Indians.
Dissolve
T he caravan follows a lazy Z p ath from left to right in front o f the
cam era. G len n F o rd and his M exican forem an ride a t the head o f
the colum n. Jack L em m on com es along behind, h a lf asleep o n the
saddle.
Dissolve
A t sunset. G lenn F o rd at the head o f the carav an stops his horse
a n d raises his arm to signal the others to stop.
Dissolve
A ro u n d the cam pfire at night a new sequence begins, covering the
events o f a day in the m arch o f the caravan. E ach shot is the
equivalent o f a w ritten phrase.
N o spoken w ords are necessary fo r the sequence, which relies on
its im ages to p u t its ideas across.
M erging the techniques
T o the parallel editing o f m aster shots a n d the editing o f a scene
in the cam era w ith o u t visual cuts, one should a d d a fu rth e r
resource based o n the com bined use o f these two. T he key com
bin atio n s th a t can be obtained a re:
] A series o f consecutive shots edited in the cam era follow ed by
tw o (or m ore) m aster shots edited in parallel.
2 T w o (or m ore) shots edited in the cam era intercut in parallel.
Case 5
These techniques m ay be applied in a repetitive way. Because there
are only two possible variations the presen tatio n m ay be repetitive
571

in nature, conform ing to an altern atin g pattern. Nevertheless it

affords a very wide m argin for v ariation since each individual
technique has, in itself, a w hole arsenal o f com binations th at will
disguise the n atu re o f the general pattern. A practical exam ple
gives an idea o f w hat this com bination o f technique looks like
(Fig. 27.2).
S hot 1 A enters by the d o o r a t the left an d walks to his A 2
position. T he cam era pans w ith him. W e see player B
on the far right, sitting. A blows o u t a candle and then
walks to his A 3 position, now seen in the com position
B -A 3. T hen B rises and com es tow ards the cam era.
She stops in the foreground, com posing B 2-A.3. A fter
a few m om ents, a n d w hen several lines o f dialogue have
been exchanged, A com es forw ard to his A 4 position,
form ing a B2- A 4 com position on the screen. Both
perform ers are now profiled to each other, fram ed in
m edium shot.
S hot 2 E xternal close shot o f B an d A, favouring A. M ore
dialogue is exchanged.
S h o t 3 Reverse external close shot o f B and A, favouring B.
T he conversation continues.
S hot 2 The players in close shot, A featured over his partner.
Shot 3 B oth players in close shot, B visually em phasized over
his partner.
S hot 1 B an d A fram ed in m edium shot again, profiled to each
other. T he pictorial com position is sim ilar to that used
a t the conclusion o f the first fragm ent o f this take. A
m oves to the background a n d sits dow n. T he com posi
tio n becom es B2- A 5. B then joins A in the background.
She sits dow n beside him. C om position is now B--A *.
Shot 4 Insert. Close shot o f B a n d A seated. T he shot em
phasizes a phrase being exchanged betw een them . This
sh o t has the sam e visual axis as shot 1.
Shot I Again, the com position on the screen becom es B -3A 5.
Player A rises an d com es to the foreground again. T he
cam era pans with him to the left. H e stops and turns to
the background com posing A s- B 3.
Shot 5 Insert. Close shot o f A, seen from an internal reverse
cam era position. H e listens.
572

TRAV
FIGURE 27.2 T his floor plan view shows the several camera arrangements used to
cover a dialogued sequence. Shot l l s a long master shot covering the whole sequence.
Other shots are Intercut either as Inserts or edited lr parallel w ith the main master
shot. Thus, several editing techniques are merged to cover the sequence.

S hot 1 W e retu rn again to the com position A 6- B 3. This is a

m edium shot. B rises in the background and walks to A,
(foreground). As she walks to A the cam era tracks in
tow ards the players to fram e a close shot o f them,
com posing A 6 B4. T hey talk.
Shot 6 Reverse external close shot o f A 6- B 4. This com position
favours player A.

Shot 1 Close shot o f A 6- B 4. T he com position favours B.

Shot 6 Reverse external shot o f A -B , favouring A.
S hot 1 Close shot o f A -B . A then exits shot left. B turns her
head to the left follow ing his m ovem ent off screen.
Shot 7 Full shot o f a d o o r in the background. A at the begin
ning o f the shot enters from the right and walks to the
door, stops there and looks back. H e speaks.
Shot 1 Close shot o f B profiled left. She listens in silence.
Shot 7 Player A in full shot close to the door, opens it an d exits.
Shot I Close shot o f B. She lowers her head, then turns her back
to the cam era and walks to the background. T he cam era
pans to the right with her. She sits on the bench, worried.
The sequence ju st described, although som ew hat com plex a t first,
is structured in a sim ple m anner, as the analysis th a t follows will
disclose. T he sequence is built using the following elements.
Shot 1 A long m aster take covering the scene from beginning
to end. It uses the technique o f editing w ithin the film
fram e by panning and tracking during the shot as the
players m ove in three zones on the set. In to this shot
are intercut the shots th a t follow, which were designed
to cover points o f view different from the m aster shot,
and replace sections o f the m aster take itself.
Shots 2 A p air o f external reverse shot. Shot 1 acts as the top
and 3 o f the triangle in the delta cam era form ation. Shots 2 and
3 are placed o n the base o f this arrangem ent.
Shot 4 This is a n insert th a t stresses a piece o f dialogue. It
m om entarily gives a closer view o f the players, and is
placed on the sam e visual axis as shot 1 a t th a t mom ent
in the sequence.
Shot 5 Silent reaction shot, covering an internal reverse posi
tion, th at gives the audience a chance to observe the
reaction o f the player with his back to the cam era in
m aster shot 1.
Shot 6 This shot is edited in parallel with m aster shot 1 and
covers a reverse external position on the o ther side o f the
couple involved in the scene.
Shot 7 This shot, also edited in parallel with m aster shot 1,
differs from shot 6, which covered the players on the
same zone o f the set, by the fact th at shot 7 juxtaposes
the first zone on the set w ith the second seen in the last
p a rt o f the m aster shot 1.
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The sequence can be divided in four p arts th a t use different

com binations o f the basic approaches already explained.
1 As can be observed, m aster shot 1 is first used alone within
the technique o f editing in the fram e. T he players are seen using
three zones on the set: one close to the cam era and the others
placed at right angles.
2 S hot 1 is in terrupted to give place to a couple o f shots edited
in parallel th a t stress a p a rt o f the dialogue.
3 T he scene m oves back to shot 1 which is again em ployed with
the technique o f editing within the fram e. Two inserts, one with
live sound a n d the o th er a silent reaction, cover the next section
o f the scene.
4 T hen, in the fo u rth p a rt o f the sequence, shots 6 and 7 are
intercut in parallel w ith the m aster shot itself. S hot 6 provides a
reverse view o f the couple standing in the second zone. W hen bo th
players are in different zones, shot 7 presents the p o in t o f view o f
the perform er -who rem ains in the second zone, thus affording
parallel editing o f b o th zones.
T hree techniques are used in this sequence. F irst, a com bination
o f cam era editing m aster shot an d fixed cam era sites are intercut
in parallel. T h en tw o inserts are edited into the m ain m aster shot.
Thirdly, two fixed cam era lesser m aster shots are edited in parallel
w ith the principal m aster shot.
T he second technique outlined is an im p o rtan t one. Silent o r
live so u n d reaction shots should be intercut w henever necessary
into a fram e edited m aster. T hey serve to com m ent on events or
perform ers n o t a t th a t m om ent included o n the m aster shot. These
reactio n shots are o f tw o n atu res: cut-aw ays o r inserts. T he latter
stress a n actio n o r a line o f dialogue o r a n elem ent o r person
p resent in th e central m aster shot in to which they are intercut.

Case 6
T w o m aster shots edited w ithin the fram e can be intercut in
parallel. T he ap p ro ach is quite simple. T he last p a rt o f the first
m aster is intercut w ith the fir s t part o f the second m aster. T he
exam ple th a t follows features such an occurrence. Fig. 27.3 gives
a floor p lan view o f m otions o f the players in the scene.
Shot 1 Close sh ot o f a couple. She is standing in foreground
w ith her back to us. H e is seen beyond on the right,
575

Shot 2

Shot 1

S hot 3

Shot 4

facing the w om an. She then walks to the right. The

cam era tracks w ith her. She stops in the second zone
a n d tu rn s to face her co m panion w ho is now off screen.
The cam era stops, fram ing her in close shot. A fterw ards
she retu rn s to the first zone on the left. T he cam era
tracks w ith her again an d then stops, facing the m an,
as the girl crosses in fro n t o f him an d exits shot, left. The
cam era holds o n a close shot o f the m an looking off
screen left.
M edium close shot o f the girl. She tu rn s in the centre of
the screen and faces us looking off-screen right. The
cam era holds o n her as she speaks.
Close shot o f the m an. He walks to the left to the third
zone. T he cam era tracks w ith him and stops as he
joins her, fram ing a close shot o f girl an d m an. They
talk, then he exits right, leaving the girl alone o n the
screen. W e stay w ith her fo r a m om ent.
Close m edium shot o f the m an walking to a railing in
the background. T he cam era track s behind him an d
stops when he reaches the railing an d sits down.
Close shot o f the girl. She talks.
576

Shot 3 M edium shot o f the m an sitting at the foot o f the

railing. H e replies.
S hot 4 Close sh o t o f the girl. She speaks.
S hot 3 M edium sh ot o f the m an, seated. He speaks.
Shot 4 Close sh o t o f the girl. She speaks and then walks to the
right to the fourth zone where the m an is. The camera
pan s and tracks with her to th at side, fram ing both
together at the end o f the tracking m ovem ent. She is in
the foreground, left, w ith her back to the cam era. He is
seated o n the right, facing her. They speak.
Shot 5 C lose sh o t o f her. This is an internal reverse shot
featuring the girl.
Shot 4 M edium sh ot o f b oth. The cam era angle favours him.
S h o t 5 Close sh o t o f her.
S hot 4 M edium shot o f both. H e replies. The girl then walks
to th e right, going o u t o f shot. W e stay with him for
a n instant.
Shot 6 Full long shot. F ro m up high th ro u g h an arch in
foreground, we see the girl in the centre o f the screen
m oving aw ay into the background. A t the beginning of
the sh o t she m oved from behind one o f the colum ns into
the picture.
In the exam ple given the m aster shot th a t illustrates the point is
sh o t 4. S hot 3 is in tercut in parallel with the beginning o f shot 4
in the static cam era sections o f the shots. T hen the cam era moves
in sh o t 4 from th e third to the fourth zone, where it again becomes
stationary. T his last p a rt o f shot 4 is edited in parallel with an
internal reverse sh o t o f the girl (shot 5). In this example the
m axim um possibilities are obtained from a simple shot like shot 4
by relating the first an d th ird zones initially and by providing
reverse angle coverage on the fourth later.
Sum m ing up
T h e exam ples given to show how the different editing techniques
can be m erged are in them selves simple ones. M ore complex
editing patterns can be achieved depending o n the context o f the
scene to which these techniques are applied. N o m atter how
intricate the solution arrived at, tw o m otivations m ust be constantly

observed-.
T h at the technique applied serves the scene and not vice versa.
577

'i

T h at the visual results obtained seem natural and lifelike as

they are projected on the screen.
Technique w ould defeat its purpose if it fails to convey the inten
tions o f the film m aker and the subtleties o f the acting perform ed
in front o f the cam era.

578
I

28
FILM PUNCTUATION

Film p u n ctu atio n separations betw een sequences, pauses in

n arratio n , stress o f a passage is achieved by editing, cam era
m ovem ent o r subject m ovem ent, either alone o r used in com bina
tion. The best know n devices are now described.

Transitions from scene to scene: fade outfade in

This tim e tran sitio n device (where the screen image gradually
darkens an d is replaced w ith an o th er image which either fades in
o r begins ab ru p tly ) is norm ally carried o u t in the laboratory. If
insufficient film footage is available, the scene can be frozen and
then faded either in o r out.

White-outs and colour fades

A n alternative to o rdinary fades is a fade o u t to a white screen.
Fades can also em ploy dom inant colours. T he im age to be faded
ou t is suddenly tinted by a colour that grow s denser till it o b
literates the image com pletely and a flatly coloured screen remains.
T his colour then grows lighter an d the new scene is revealed. Two
different colours can be used, one to fade o u t and the o th er to
fade in to the the new scene. Agnes V arda, in her film Le Bonheur,
used this m ethod repeatedly, em ploying single colours (red, blue)
or com binations (blue-red; green-violet) so helping to suggest the
m ood relationship o f the sequences connected by the colour fades.

Dissolve
A dissolve is a co m b ination o f a fade ou t and a fade in, super
im posed on the same strip o f film. It is believed th at dissolves were
first used by G eorges Melics in 1902 for his film A Trip To The
519

M ood. A rap id dissolve gives a fairly sharp transition from one

scene to an o th er. Slow dissolves ca n relate the m ood o f tw o scenes
to one an o th er. I f the overlapping p o rtio n is extended the dissolve
is prolonged, p erh ap s to stress an intense nostalgic o r poetic
m ood.
T he co m b in ation o f a fade o u t a n d fade in is used to obtain
ap p aritio n s o n th e screen. T he em pty set is first photographed,
the cam era sto pped, the player m oved into the shot a n d the
cam era restarted. L ater, in the laboratory, w hen the tw o shots are
dissolved, the player appears to m aterialize from now here an d
becom e solid.
T he statio n ary p arts o f the scene retain even intensity th ro u g h
out. T he cam era ca n n o t be m oved.
W ipe
A wipe is a lab o rato ry effect in which a new scene is introduced
o n the screen as the first one is pushed o r wiped to a side. T here
are tw o types o f wipe. In the first the new scene enters from one
side or above and pushes the other o u t o f the screen. In the second,
a th in line travels across erasing the old scene a n d revealing the
new.
T he second type o f wipe, the travelling line, is the m ost often
used for tim e transitions on the screen. The travelling line can
m ove horizontally, vertically o r diagonally, either from right to
left o r vice versa.
M ore com plicated p attern s, such as the spiralling wipe, o r
m ultiple squares, have been designed a n d used to achieve time
tran sitio n s b u t their startling effects have been reserved for film
trailers.
Iris
T he iris effect has undergone some transform ations over the years.
A t first it appeared as a dim inishing circle th at centred attention on
an isolated subject o r detail. A bandoned a sa tim e tra n sitio n m e th o d
th rough being overw orked, it was relegated to a closing effect for
anim ated cartoons. It has been revived and updated from tim e to
time. F o r exam ple, in an A m erican television series, B atm an, a
stylized figure o f a bat grow s from the ccntre o f the screen tow ards
the cam era till it covers the im age com pletely and then recedes
again to a d o t, revealing a new image.
580

Use o f dark areas

F o r an o th er form o f tim e transition, the cam era can p an o r track
behind a d ark area o r shape th at fills the screen and then cut to a
sim ilar opening device in the next scene. If the cam era m oves in the
sam e direction in b o th shots, the transition will be sm oother than
w ith opposed directions. A lternatively, the actor him self can move
tow ards an d away from the cam era. W ith only one personthe effect
is som ew hat artificial, b u t becom es m ore subtle w ith tw o per
form ers, w ho ap p ro ach the cam era draw ing closer together as they
reach the foreground, and separate as they m ove aw ay in the next
sh o t in a new place and a different time.
Titles
T he use o f titles to separate sequences is a rem nant o f the silent
film epoch. B ut today titles can identify places, the exact time of
the day, o r the year in which the action is supposed to take place
an d m ight a p p e ar over a typical picture o f the place o r over a
plain background.
Some docum entary films use sub-titles to designate new
sequences.

Props
Tim e p ro p s arc still used to denote the passage o f time. The idea is
to depict the ravage o f tim e o n an article th at requires small spanses
o f time to show m arked changes in its appearance. T he com plete
pro p is first show n an d then dissolves to the final stage in which
the p ro p has been destroyed, consum ed or w orn out. Such props,
though now m ost are cliches, include lighted candles, cigarettes,
fireplaces, campfires, clocks, calendars an d dated newspaper
headlines.

L ight change
Changes from m orning to evening light can suggest a tim e transi
tion. The cam era fram es a m otionless set, and the studio lights
are altered to denote the change. The audience sees the light
change, shifting shadow s as a gradual effect, then the cam era or
players move into the scene to begin the new sequence.
581

Question and answer

This m ethod relies o n an idea to effect the tim e transition. F or
exampie, a character in the story asks, D o you think th at Pam ela
is really b eau tifu l? Yes, she is, replies an o th er player in a
different place at a different tim e an d to an o th er person standing
beside him . T he questioner an d the person answ ering are n o t
related by the direction o f their looks. Only the ra p p o rt between
the w ords spoken effects the transition.
A movement in the same direction
The player sits in the cockpit o f a racing car. H e is in fro n t o f his
country house, surrounded by friends. H e starts the ca r and moves
out o f shot, right. In the following shot the car enters a race track
from the left and speeds away. T he sam e vehicle is used, the m ove
m ent is in the same direction from left to right, b u t the place, the
time and the m ood are different.
Substitution o f an object
Som ebody holds a glass o f cham pagne. H e is irritated by the event
that has taken place and reacts by throw ing the glass aw ay o u t o f
shot. The next shot, introduced by a sudden cut, shows a pane o f
glass being broken by a stone. Behind this broken pane a face
appears, looking dow n. T he students o f a university are stoning
the w indows o f the facultys quarters. The link between such
sequences is provided by a sim ilar sound o r effect.
Word repetition
A character closes a sequence by speaking a w ord in close shot.
The next opens with a new player repeating th at w ord in a dif
ferent place, at a different time. He m ight repeat the word w ith the
same em phasis, or perhaps change it into a question. The new
scene develops from there.
A deceptive visual match
In scene transitions that rely on an elem ent a t the end o f one shot
and the beginning o f the next, th at elem ent m ay play a different
582

role in each. The viewer is led to believe th at the new scene is p art
o f the sequence he has been seeing but suddenly becom es aw are
th at this is a new sequence bridged by a period o f time.
The two basic devices em ployed to achieve this effect are: 1, the
reaction shot and 2, m ovem ent continuity. The first recourse
conditions us to expect a reaction shot after a given action but
this reaction is linked to w hat follows in a different way. F or
example, in D avid L eans film The Bridge on the River Kwai, we
see a scene in w hich C lipton (the m edic) looks up a t the sky
com plaining o f the fierce heat. T he follow ing sh o t shows the sun
beating down. It is the subjective view o f the medic. Instead o f
cutting back to C lipton the shot continues on the sun when
suddenly from below rises the figure o f Shears (the escaped
A m erican) who blocks ou t the sun and stands backlit an d fram ed
from below. Shears is unkem pt, clothes in rags, h air dishevelled, a
step away from m adness. W hen he m oves on and the sequence
continues, we are in a different place a t a different tim e.
A subject th at at first cannot be properly identified until a
hum an reference is introduced, can also be em ployed fo r such a
tran sitio n .
M ichelangelo A ntonioni in his film L a N otte, uses such a
recourse. T he m ain ch aracter in the story, a w riter, is in his flat
waiting for his wife. He lies dow n on a sofa in his library an d looks
off screen. T he next sh o t shows an ab stra ct pattern. It seems to be
a section o f the wall o f his ro o m u ntil the sm all figure o f a w om an
enters the low er left co rn er o f the picture an d the image acquires
meaning. T he ab stra ct p attern is revealed as the side wall o f a large
building. A new sequence has begun.
Visual shock can be increased for a flashy scene transition. In
F ran k T ashlins film Caprice, D oris D ay an d R ay W alston m eet
for a secret rendezvous on a lonely m o u n tain in the Alps, R ichard
H arris w atches from a fa r an d trains a hidden film cam era o n the
talking couple. A tw o shot o f D oris D ay and R ay W alston is
suddenly presented. It looks as a n atu ral p a rt o f the scene, a
co n tinuation o f it, b u t w ithout w arning the figure o f Jack K ruschcn
rises from below the screen an d blocks the im age, w hich is now
projected on him . The im age disappears and a w hite screen
rem ains and the new scene develops inside the office where the
film has been projected on a screen.
A m ovem ent th at continues from one shot to the next shot can
be used as a scene transition even though the subject has been
583

substituted by an o th er. A cam era m ovem ent by itself can serve for
transitions from scene to scene relying o n a m om entary distraction
supplied by a close shot o r close up fram ing at the beginning o f the
second shot before the cam era m o tio n reveals the true relationship
o f things in the new shot. H ere is a n exam ple from The Sleeping
Car Murders directed by C osta G avras (Fig. 28.1).

C2

I
[

F I G U R E 28 -1

T im e tra n sitio n o b ta in e d by a d e c e p tiv e v isu al m a tc h .

to co n tin u e fro m sh o t to sh ot* b u t

a tim e g a p

Is

The scene seems

revealed.

A descends a flight o f steps in a stadium . H e a n d the cam era stop

in the foreground. He is fram ed with his back to us. Beyond, tw o
fighters slug it o u t in a boxing ring. W e cut to a m edium shot o f the
boxers seen in the centre o f the screen, exchanging blows. A
584

m om ent later the cam era tracks to the right to show A advancing
through the crow d and then sitting in foreground.
The second shot seems to be a n advance on a com m on visual
axis with respect to the first shot. This would be the norm al case
b u t the surprise com es when the cam era moves and discloses o u r
m ain character already in the fro n t row o f the crowd. The time
lapse in which he descended tow ards the ring was om itted by the
device described. A close shot, w here the surroundings cannot be
identified, is used to o btain a tim e transition within a scene. In his
film Blow Up, M ichelangelo A ntonioni uses cam era m ovem ent to
get the sam e effect. Fig. 28.2 shows b o th cam era positions.
The shots are as follow s:
Shot 1 The young photographer is kneeling in the p ark beside
the place occupied the night before by the dead body o f
a m an. T he cam era picks him up from behind as he
looks tow ards the branches o f the tree.
S hot 2 Close shot from below o f the branches. It is apparently
his p oint o f view showing what he sees. M om ents later
th e cam era pans dow n to reveal the young m an standing
up near th e bushes.
The disclosure com es as a surprise because the young m an
occupies a position th a t is no t com patible w ith the subjective point
o f view im plied by its ra p p o rt with the preceding shot. C utting
aro u n d a central ch aracter is an o th er variant. A close up o f a
p erson serves as a bridge between tw o sequences in which he is
seen. T he cam era pulls back to reveal the new location. The change
is m asked by using neutral backgrounds in bo th shots. The close up
seems to b e p a rt o f the first sequence b u t in reality belongs to both
scenes.
F o r exam ple:
S hot 1 A boy in the bed seen over his fath ers left shoulder.
T he boy speaks.
Shot 2 In ternal reverse, the father seen in close shot. He
replies, trying to calm his son.
Shot 1 Boy an d father as before. The boy continues to speak.
Shot 3 In ternal reverse. The father in close shot reacts pain
fully to his sons w ords an d turns his head to the right.
T he cam era tracks back to show him seated a t a table
in a public dining room . T he sound o f the noisy crowd
erupts o n the soundtrack.
585

^
|

1
,
1

FIGURE 28.2 A noth er time transition employing a deceptive vl&ual match u ie d by

Michelangelo A ntonioni In his film Blow Up,

This sequence, show n in Fig. 28.3, was used by director Guy

G reen in The Angry Silence.
A sim ilar deception is played by em ploying dialogue to trigger
an em otion th a t results in an idea opposite to the one expressed.
A m an, in close up, m enacingly says to a girl, If you d o n t co
operate I will kill your sister. T he next scene is a close up o f th at
sister opening her m outh to cry as she falls back. T he cam era pans
with her an d we see th at she is in a bathing suit and is jum ping back
into a swimm ing pool, where she gaily plays with her com panions.
5B6

3
FIGURE 28.3 The second shot in this sequence is the ambiguous one. It belongs to
(tie scene that concludes and to the one tha t begins after it. The background Is
i>utral In th is second shot, to Integrate It sm oothly w ithin both sequences,

Cutting around a prop

A n extension o f the previous exam ple, using a p ro p , is dem on
strated as follow s:
A m an , talking to an o th er, asks to be introduced to a third. H e
presents his card, which is taken by the first m an. T he card is seen
in close up. Close sh o t o f the third and the second m an. T he third
m an is holding the card. But the place, tim e a n d one o f the
characters have changed. (Fig. 28.4).
T he com position o f shots aro u n d the close up are sim ilar, bu t
587

the situation is not. A tim e gap was quickly bridged by a purely

cinem atic recourse.
A sudden close up
T he close up used as a visual bridge need not relate to the shot th at
follows. It could be a simple cut to an object or person in close up
a n d then seen in the follow ing shot in its p ro p e r context. F or
instance:
A sequence concludes with a scene inside a room . The shot that
follows is a close up o f a lam p post w ith four light bulbs. The third
sh o t is a full shot in which the lam p post is show n as p a rt o f the
general scenery in a p ark , The new characters are located in the
foreground.
T he close up in the first shot was related to the whole ensem ble
in th at which follows.
Transition by parallel editing
B rian H u tto n in his film Where Eagles Dare, used parallel editing
to introduce a flashback near the beginning o f the film, R ichard
B urton as head o f a com m ando g roup is in the plane th a t is taking
th em to th eir d estin a tio n :
Shot I R ichard B urton, seen in close shot, becomes aw are o f
the green light th a t begins to blink on the plane (we do
n o t see the light, only its reflection on B urtons body).
S hot 2 Close up o f a green light bulb in the ceiling, blinking on
and off.
Shot 1 Close shot o f B urton, as before, bathed by the green
light, looking.
Shot 2 Close up o f the green light in the ceiling. T he cam era
pan s dow n revealing th at the light was no t located in
th e plane b u t in the underground conference room o f a
m ilitary outpost.
T he parallel editing o f these shots introduced a retu rn to the past
in a visually fluent m anner. R oger C orm an in his film The Trip
used th e sam e recourse to introduce a tran sitio n into the future.
O n these two occasions the cutting tem po w as unhurried. But when
D ennis H o p p e r used this effect in East Rider (D ennis H o p p er and
P eter F o n d a h ad bo th w orked w ith R oger C o rm an o n The Trip)
th e tran sitio n betw een one scene and the next was achieved by
quickly cutting b ack an d fo rth a couple o f tim es between the two
scenes.
588

FIGURE 2fl.4 A close shot of an object Is employed here to obtain a time transition
from scene to scene.

Used in th at way the effect looks ra th e r selfconscious. O nly time

will tell if it could become a substitute for the dissolve.
Scene openers
If all scenes began abruptly, undue em phasis w ould usually be
throw n o n them a n d unw ittingly conspire against the nature o f the
scene itself. It is better to begin neutrally and then m ove o n to the
m ain event o r character. T here are two waysby m oving the actor
o r the cam era.
589

The actor
His body blocks the cam era lens. H e starts to m ove aw ay, dis
closing the scene.
Something in foreground (in sharp focus) is rem oved by a player.
The cam era shifts focus to fram e the player m oving aw ay an d then
stopping to use the object he picked up in the foreground.
Somebody opens a window (cam era outside) or slides aw ay a
closed d o o r (cam era inside) revealing him self and the scene
beyond. Some o f the m ost com m on props used on opening scenes
are: doors, V enetian blinds, w indow shades, curtains an d room
lights (turned on one by one to illum inate the scene gradually).

The camera
T he scene begins with som ething being picked up and carried
away. The cam era pans or tracks to fram e a new place where the
central action begins. This disclosure m otion can be executed by
the m ain player him self o r by a secondary person who exits view
as soon as he discloses the central characters.
The cam era fram es an object in silhouette th at blackens the
screen com pletely, o r alm ost, and tracks to one side to reveal the
new scene behind.
The cam era tracks back from an extrem e close up o f an object
revealing the place where th at object is located. T h at p ro p can be
either som ething w orn by a person such as a piece o f jewellery
o ra w rist-watch o r m ay be located on a piece o f furniture, o r even
on the floor. The prop used m ust in some way be related to the
content o f the scene. The scene begins with the cam era fram ing an
empty section o f the set, and the cam era tracks or pans o r cranes
down to the sector where the players are.
The scene begins with a close shot o f a person. T he cam era
dollies back an d we becom e aw are th at it was shooting through an
opening in a screen th at is now revealed in the foreground between
the cam era and o u r m ain subject. The subject then m oves from
behind the screen an d m oves into a n o th er section o f the set.
A painted picture, an em broidered scene, a still picture in a
newspaper, are used to begin the scene. They fade into a p h o to
graph (in the first two cases) th at suddenly acquires m ovem ent. T he
frozen image is given life. T he procedure is reversed to close a
scene: the im age freezes on the screen, the cam era pulls back so
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th a t it is now p art o f a new spaper story, w ith caption and h ea d

lines.
A bsolute stillness is an o th er way o f introducing a new scene.
A fter a sequence concludes by a sim ple cut the new shot begins,
b u t n o th in g m oves in it for a few seconds. T hen the players enter
from any one o f the sides, o r th ro u g h a d o o r in the background,
and the action begins. Stanley K ubrick in his film Clockwork
Orange em ployed this device several times.
T he scene openers described do n o t denote the passage o f tim e
betw een scenes. T hey arc conventional ways o f introducing an
event with varying degrees o f em phasis.
Introducing points o f view
T he subjective p o in t o f view o f a character on the screen is co n
veyed by first show ing him in close shot and follow ing with a shot
taken from his position an d excluding him . This p o in t o f view can
be stressed by subject m ovem ent and letting people featured in it
lo o k straight into the cam era lens. H ere is an exam ple (Fig. 28.5).
A young m an w alks into an office. The cam era pans along with
him left to right. N ow , for a shot tak en from the m a n s position,
the cam era track s from right to left beside a desk, a n d the girl
behind it looks up a t the cam era and follows it with her gaze. W e
cu t to a static-cam era shot o f the m an and girl. T he m an (left)
walks into the b ackground, the girl looking at him.
The subjective shot, where the cam era represents the view o f the
m ain player, stresses the situation. T he cam era m ovem ent (pan
and track com bined) represents the body m ovem ent.
A n o th er possibility is to introduce a static shot w ithin a tracking
shot to show th e character whose subjective view point we have
ju st seen (Fig. 28.6).
S hot 1 T he cam era tracks forw ard. Player A (right) pulls B
o u t o f the way. C u t to
S hot 2 A and B standing in the foreground, right. A car
enters fro m the left, crosses the screen a n d exits right.
C u t to
S hot 1 T he cam era continues tracking tow ards the wall in the
background. T hen we cut to
Shot 3 F ro m one sidethe car enters, left, crashes into the wall.
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1
I

FIGURE 28.5 Emphasizing the point of view o f a character by using a subjective

camera shot.

S hot 3 is only a coda to the whole event. T he m ain shot is the first,
the subjective view point o f the occupants o f the vehicle while
hurtling tow ards the wall. Shot 2 introduced a t a critical m om ent,
re-establishes th e vehicle in m otion an d , w ith its sudden lack o f
cam era action, stresses by co n tra st the view from inside.
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FIGURE 28.6
tion.

A subjective point of view is broken to stress its im pact In the narra

Som etim es a subjective view point is introduced w ithout first

identifying the observer. C ertain m arks are 'immediately recog
nised as representing this such as binocular shapes o r gunsights,
the spectator or g unm an appearing in the subsequent shot.
A d o m in an t co lo u r in the image can represent a subjective point
o f view. R o b ert A ldrich in his film The D irty Dozen, during the
final raid o n the G erm an castle, suddenly introduces a scene
photo g rap h ed through a red filter, an d follows it by the image o f a
sniper pulling th e trigger o f his w eapon. In the next shot a man
from th e attacking p arty falls dead. The second time the director
uses a red coloured im age we im m ediately identify it as the sub
jective view point o f an o th er sniper bu t this tim e we only hear the
w eapon being fired and the follow ing scene (with norm al colours)
show s a bullet ricocheting close to a n attacking soldier.
T here is yet an o th er way o f introducing a subjective viewpoint
w ithout identifying the person a m ovem ent in the foreground
w ith the accom panim ent o f hushed voices. F o r example, a tree
bran ch in the foreground m ay be pulled aside by a hand, off screen,
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revealing a d istan t colum n o f soldiers m oving across the forest.
We hear sotto-voce com m ents from different people off screen
planning how to take the enem y by surprise. As the foreground
branch is released o b scuring the view, the im pression is given that
the hidden attack ers are m oving away.

Abrupt jum p cuts used as punctuation

Jum p cuts, as the term implies, are very visible as cuts on the screen
bccause the change from shot to shot is ab ru p t. T hey are usually
done with a m ore o r less static subject on the screen with each shot
o f the series placed on a com m on visual axis.

En Tlw Birds, A lfred H itchcock has a scene in which he uses ju m p

cuts to stress a gruesom e discovery. W hen M itchs m other dis
covers (he farm ers body lying beside his bed with his eyes pecked
out by the birds, three sh o rt shots advance tow ards the face o f the
m an. The farm er is a static subject and these three shots placed on
a com m on visual axis serve to stress the im pact o f the discovery
(Fig. 28.8).
The efTcct can also introduce a new elem ent visually. M ichel
angelo A n to n io n i in his film 11 Dcscrto Rosso begins a sequence
showing a m etallic island th at rises from the sea a t some distance
from the coast. T hree successive ju m p cut shots, draw ing closer,
show us the su perstructure o f the m an-m ade island.
D ocum entary films som etim es use jum p cuts to introduce new
subjects with em phasis. Bert H aanstra in his film The Sea Was N o
M ore em ploys the device several times, bu t limits the effect to two
shots. One is an extrem e long shot and the other a full shot on the
same visual axisaccom panied on the sound track by percussion
m usic th at stresses the jum p cut.
On o th er occasions the effect can be em ployed as a pause before
an unexpected revelation. In the final sequence o f Lewis G ilb erts
Jam es Bond film You Only Live Twice, a plane has jettisoned
rubber rafts th at fall on the surface o f the ocean. The survivors
from the catastro p h e on the island swim tow ards the rafts. Jam es
Bond and a young girl clim b ab o ard one o f the rafts and prepare
to enjoy them selves d uring the long wait. T hree shots follow o f the
raft bobbing on the sea, each closer th an the o ther, but using
relatively lengthy shots. Then com es a close shot in which B onds
595

FIGURE 28.6 Rapid succession of static shots used to punctuate a situation. This
example belongs to A lfre d H itchcock's film The Birds.

ra ft rises into the screen. A subm arine has surfaced under the ra ft
an d lifted it o u t o f the w ater. D ialogue scenes can be treated this
way. In Farenheit 451, F rancois T ruffaut uses it w hen som eone
speaking on the phone receives a warning.
T his effect can be obtained directly in the lab o rato ry by en
larging a single fram e. The S p y in the Green H a t, a film o f the
N ap o leo n Solo spy series, uses this variant in som e o f the shots
em ployed for the credits.
Jo h n F rankenheim er in his film Seconds, reverses the technique.
M r. H am ilto n is w aiting for a vital phone call in his studio. The
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1
scene begins with an extrem e close up o f the eyes o f the player
an d by a series o f ju m p cuts recedes to a full shot o f the room with
the player looking small seated behind his desk. The phone rings
an d the director cuts to a tight close up o f M r. H am ilton picking
it up off-screen and raising it into view to speak.
D irector G erard J. R aucam p used a series o f shots o n an axis line
deflected to the left to cover a progression o f static advancing
shots tow ards an oil refinery in his docum entary film Holland
Today.

Jump cuts as time transitions

A noth er pro p erty o f ju m p cuts is th at on som e occasions they can
be used as tim e transitions from scene to scene o r within the same
scene. Sound judgem ent m ust be em ployed w hen selecting this
m ode for such a specific purpose. N o t every situation lends itself
to it.
R o b ert Enrico in Les Aventuriers has a car chase through the
streets o f Paris. T he cam era is shooting from the front seat o f the
chasing car. T he o th er car is always fram ed in the centre o f the
screen b u t w ith each cut, the surroundings change. Several tracking
shots have been spliced together and the idea o f a long chase is
conveyed.
Ju m p cuts can elim inate uninteresting segm ents o f time as in
the film Blow Up, where D avid H em m ings is photographing a
m odel and from the same cam era position we see a succession o f
jum p cut shots o f the m odel in various body postures representing
his pictures o f her.

Selected peaks o f action

As m entioned earlier, the story can continue sm oothly with large
pieces o f uninteresting action deleted even within a sequence.
In Blow Up th e pho to g rapher leaves the antique shop and gets into
his car. H e opens a glove com partm ent and takes ou t his camera.
H e closes the com partm ent. W e cut to a reverse shot. He is stand
ing in the street beyond his car with his cam era, looking for a good
angle to p h o to g rap h from .
T he tran sitio n is sm ooth because a m ovem ent is concluded in the
first shot and an o th er begins in the second. Also the fact th at the
597

cam era angle is changed, a reverse in this case, helps to m ake a

sm ooth cut. The same principle is used in Les Aventuriers. Alain
D elon is testing a biplane passing through some obstacles erected
by Lino V entura on an airfield. The tests com pleted, V entura
rides hom e in a truck, an d is playfully followed by the plane. Here
is a section o f th at sequence:

FIGURE 28.9

Fragment of a sequence from Robert Enrico's Him le s Aventuriers.

T he cam era m oves with the truck on the airfield. Lino V entura
is seen on the left looking into a rear view m irro r and beckoning
the biplane which approaches from the background, right, and
th en flies out off shot, right. C u t t o :
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View from inside the truck, V entura in the foreground, left, his
b ack to us. The plane, right, flies tow ards us a t low altitude as
we advance along the runw ay an d then rises an d flies o u t o f
view top left. C ut to : P anning shot, right to left. The truck
runs to the left, closely follow ed by the plane. T he plane then
veers aw ay to the background.
Observe how, w ith o u t sacrificing sm oothness o f transition from
shot to shot (the cut com es after the plane exits from each shot)
the tu rn ro u n d m ovem ents o f the plane are om itted. This concept is
also applied to a tran sitio n where in the first sequence two persons,
talking, are viewed separately. N e ar the conclusion one m akes a
statem ent b u t instead o f splicing to a reaction shot o f the o th er
(before concluding the sequence) this last shot is deleted, and a
direct cu t is m ade to the next sequence.
Inaction as punctuation
If the screen im age is rendered devoid o f m otion a t the beginning
o r conclusion o f a shot, it affords an easy transition betw een the
preceding o r follow ing shot, and the shot in question i.e. the easy
tran sitio n is betw een the tw o shots separated b y the static view.
T here are tw o ways o f using i t :
1 A t the conclusion o f a shot.
2 A t th e beginning o f a shot.
T he static scene m ay take the form o f a sh o t held on the general
scene after a ch aracter m oves ou t o f it. T he scene m ight be a
landscape, a b lan k wall, an em pty building o r ju st a long shot o f a
beautiful seascape.
Single shots as pauses in narration
T here are occasions where the conclusion o f a sequence w ould be
ruined by a n ab ru p t change, especially if the one th a t follows has
a m ood totally opposed to it. A visual pause is needed as a bridge,
either by a black leader inserted between the sequences, by p ro
longing the last sh o t o f the sequence beyond its dram atic peak o r by
using a different related o r unrelated shot betw een. W ith the first
recoursea black screen the audience will be b ro u g h t to a
com plete em otional standstill. The effect m u st n o t be overdone,
which w ould be irritating. T he next scene follow s, faded in or
599

ab ruptly. M ichelangelo A ntonioni in his film L e Am iche used this

effect. A girl quarrels with her lover in the street and the scene
fades to darkness which is held for a m om ent. T he new scene begins
ab ru p tly an d the body o f the girl is being recovered from the river
by the police. She has com m itted suicide.
Som etim es the period o f darkness is accom panied by a cu rta in
o f background m usic which increases in v o lu m e an d then dim inishes
as the new sequence fades in.
The device o f prolonging the last shot beyond its dram atic
clim ax, often used by John F ord, corresponds to a slackening o f
our em otional pitch, an d conveys a m ood o f m elancholy. The next
sequence norm ally starts with a full o r a long shot. T h at cam era
fram ing dilutes o u r concentration and relaxes o u r attention.
The third recourse m entioned above is the m ost frequently
em ployed a single shot is used as a pause betw een the sequences
an d this shot is either related to the sequence th a t concludes o r it
has no story relation, only an em otional effect.
Let us take an exam ple fo r the first case. Peter Y ates in his film
Bullitt has a sequence in which the hero an d his girl p ark o n the side
o f the highw ay an d discuss their personal relationship after a
particularly violent sequence in which a w om an is strangled. This
sequence begins w ith a long shot o f the heavy traffic on the road.
A fter a m om ent the girls white sports car em erges from it and
com es tow ards the cam era. She parks and gets ou t o f the car,
walking to the edge o f the river. M om ents later Bullitt joins her.
T he dialogue begins. She reproaches him with his way o f life
his total indifference to violent death. T he scene is revealing an d
painful to the characters. As they reach a tentative agreem ent an d
rem ain silent, there is a cut to the traffic. T hen a new sequence
begins. The last shot o f the cars is, in effect, the pause. The director
uses the sam e effect again. A m urderer has m et a grim end in an
airp o rt term inal an d the shot th at follows is a view o f an em pty
street in San F rancisco. In the shot following, B ullitt arrives at his
house on the m orning o f the next day. O nce m ore a single shot,
this time related to the new sequence, was em ployed as a pause
betw een sequences.
On o th er occasions the shot intercut as a visual pause between
tw o different scenes bears no relation a t all to either o f the se
quences it bridges an d is used solely for the em otional content of
the shot itself.
In The Girl On The M otorcycle such a recourse bridges two

scenes th at take place on the same set between the same perform ers,
b u t with different m oods. T he central couple in the film, Alain
D elon and M arianne Faithful!, are in bed in an hotel. He is
telling her o f his experiences as a m o to r cycle rider. The m ood is
ebullient, full o f joy. As this sequence com es to an end, we see a
tran satlan tic ship in a h arb o u r, at dusk, with all its lights abiaze,
silhouetted against the setting sun, as a sm aller vessel passes in the
foreground. The m ood o f this scene is bucolic, suggesting quiet
ness and fulfilment. The sequence then continues with the lovers
in the hotel, still in bed. But the m ood has changed and they are
taking stock o f them selves and o f their feelings and attitudes to
w ards each other. The bridging shot provides no identification o f
a new place, is n o t rem iniscent o f a previous point in the story.
It only has value in its visual content an ainotional catalyst that
prepares us fo r a different m ood.
A n entire sequence used as a narrative pause
O ften, a single sh o t is n o t enough pause between two sequences o f
differing m oods. W hen two story points m ust not com pete with
each o ther they should be placed well apart.
In Peter Y ates film Bullitt, a gangster is given protection by the
hero who is a policem an. He assigns a guard to the m an and leaves
to m eet his girl, whom he takes to dinner in a bistro laden with
beat atm osphere an d later bo th go to bed. N ow the killers arrive
to elim inate the gangster under custody.
As can be seen, the actions o f Bullitt are irrelevant to the ad
vancem ent o f the m ain plot. W hat counts is th at an inform er is
given p rotection and th at his form er colleagues succeed in killing
him. Both are strong scenes in the structure o f the story. But if they
were p u t together we w ould w atch them at a n em otional saturation
point where we w ould not care w hat happened. It is all too pat.
So, to m ake each sequence stand out on its own, an irrelevant
sequence is inserted between. This particular sequence acts as a
pause in the n arratio n and resorts to a subject to justify its in
clusion and to disguise its true rolethe heros personal life is
revealed. But atten tio n is not focused o n his particular relationship
w ith the girl. T he whole thing is stated casually with m ore attention
given to the b eat orchestra in the bistro than to the central couple.
This diversionary tactic is quite useful to build u p suspense as
A lfred H itchcock has am ply dem onstrated. In Rear Window,
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G race Kelly has entered the ap a rtm en t o f the suspected killer.

She is seen from Jam es S tew art's p o in t o f view across the inner
patio, m oving through the flat, exam ining things. Suddenly his
atten tio n is distracted by the actions o f a spinster w om an, pre
viously established in the story, who seems on the verge o f com
m itting suicide. W e are sidetracked into this new plot. W e m o
m entarily lose sight o f G race Kelly an d her erran d , so it co m esas
a shock w hen then we see the suspected killer com ing to his flat.
T here is no way to w arn the girl inside o f the danger. If we had
no t been diverted into the secondary subplot, we would have been
w aiting for the killer to ap p e ar at an y m om ent and w hen he did
o u r expectations w ould be fulfilled and we would lose interest.
In this o ther way, the arrival o f the killer gains an em otional im pact
d ue to its suddenness. T he strong scenes in the plot were isolated by
an inbetween sequence used as a pause.
O ut o f fo cu s images as punctuation
T his effect is m ore often seen on live television th a n in films. The
technique is simple. T he concluding scene in a sequence is defocusscd until it becom es an unrecognizable blur. W e then cut to
the new sequence which begins w ith the im age com pletely ou t
o f focus, an d then gradually grows sharp. This new im age is in
ano th er place and at an o th er time.
M ichelangelo A ntinioni has used an o th er variant. A sm o u ld er
ing fire is seen ou t o f focus at the beginning o f a sequence. It is an
intriguing p attern o f colour and undefined shapes. A few seconds
later a pair o f bare fem ale feet enter the foreground in sharp focus.
T he sccne acquires m eaning. Sequences can be concluded using
the same recourse. A person in the foreground, in focus, leaves the
screen and the o u t o f focus background rem ains for a m om ent.
(Incidentally, there is now a tendency to use ou t o f focus im ages as
background for the credit titles o f a film.) O ut o f focus actions are
often used o n purpose to stress a point. F o r exam ple, in Sidney
F u ries film The Ipcress File the hero gets ou t o f bed in one image
(in focus) and enters in the next as a vague blurred im age in the
b ack ground, to open the w indow shutters. In the foreground and
in sharp focus, is a n alarm w atch m arking the tim e.
A nother technique is to have one player sharp in the foreground
w ho rem ains still d u rin g the take, while a n o th e r m oves in the
b ackground com pletely o u t o f focus a n d com es forw ard into focus

602

to jo in th e o ther. Jo h n H u sto n in his film M oulin Rouge uses such

a n effect. T oulouse L autrec has quarrelled w ith his girl friend and
she d ep arts, slam m ing the d o o r on her way out. T he next shot
show s a dejcctcd L autrec in the foreground, facing the cam era.
A fter a m om ent the d o o r in the background (com pletely ou t o f
focus) opens and the girl com es in again an d slowly w alks to the
fo reg ro u n d until she is in focus beside the painter.
T he sh arp focus can be in the back g ro u n d . T w o lovers seen in
focus begin to kiss an d m ove slowly forw ard ou t o f focus an d tu rn
in to undefined m oving shapes.
W hen they w an t to suggest th a t a m an is losing consciousness
and is ab o u t to faint, som e film m akers use p o in t o f view shots
th a t gradually defocus. T he reverse effect is em ployed w hen the
c o n tra ry situ atio n is desired: a person com ing to his senses.
T o suggest th a t a person has trouble w ith his eyesight, the point
o f view shot o f w h at the m an sees goes from sharp to blurred an d
to sh arp again. As m entioned elsew here w hen discussing the use
o f split focus in a 'cene, there is a tendency to d ay to have a subject
sh arp in the fo reg round an d , as he tu rn s his head to the b ack
ground to shift focus there so th at the fo reg ro u n d p layer becom es
blurred. M ik e N ichols used this in The Graduate. In th a t scene
Ben im plies to E laine th a t it was w ith h er m o th er th a t he had an
affair. T he rev elatio n com es w hen she is close to the h a lf open d o o r
o f her b ed ro o m . W e see her in the foreground. B eyond, h er m other
appears. Elaine tu rn s to look b ack a n d the cam era shifts focus to
her m o ther. She is w et fro m the rain, as Ben is. T he m o th e r goes
aw ay after a m om ent and E laine tu rn s h er head to us. But she
rem ains o u t o f focus for a m om ent, then slowly the im age becom es
clear a n d sh arp as she realizes w hat has hap p en ed a n d reacts
angrily. H er m ental process o f un d erstan d in g the situ atio n fully
is m ade clear to th e audience by the delayed focus w hich p o rtray s
it visually.
D a rk screen used as punctuation
A d a rk screen can be effectively em ployed to separate shots or
scenes. T he effect o f isolation is to tal an d each scene hits the viewer
unexpectedly an d w ith the fullest em otional im pact. T he audience
waits fo r a n im age to ap p e a r o n the screen b u t is never certain fo r
how long it will be. T his confers a certain type o f suspense on the
sequence, an d each sh o t o r g roup o f shots will sink hom e w ith
603

great force. L ook at an exam ple from a n A rgentinian film entitled

L a H ora De L os Hornos (The Tim e o f the Ovens) m ade by F e r
n an d o Solanas a n d O ctavio G etino in 1968:
D ark screen. A d ru m is heard on the so u n d track.
Suddenly a h an d carrying a torch a p p e ars on the screen. S h o rt
p an right follow ing the m otion o f the arm o f the running m an.
D ark screen ag ain. T he d ru m beats continue.
A g ro u p o f policem en w ith m achine guns ap p e a r running o n the
centre o f a street a t night. S hort pan to the rig h t with the m en.
D ark screen again.
A civilian throw s a M olotov cocktail against the display w indow
o f a store a n d it b ursts into furious flames.
D ark screen again.
A civilian runs along the street, right to left; the cam era p an s to
follow. A policem an clubs him in the back an d the m an falls to
his knees, a second policem an enters fro m the left a n d kicks
the m an in th e kidneys. As the civilian doubles in pain, still on
his knees, a th ird policem an enters, left, a n d savagely kicks the
m an in the face w ith his bo o t, sending him rolling backw ards.
D a rk screen again.
T he shots em ployed for this sequence were all tak en from new sreel
coverage o f d istu rbances in B uenos A ires a n d the film is an
indictm ent, b itte r a n d gripping, on the political situation o f th a t
tim e in th a t co u n try as seen b y the tw o film m akers. W h at m akes
th a t op en in g sequence o f th e film so stu n n in g is precisely the use
o f d ark strips o f film edited in parallel w ith th e individual shots
selected fo r th e sequence.
T he co n tin u o u s so und a percussion m o tif in this instance
brings u nity to the sequence a n d helps to heighten the visual
im pact. Som etim es a d a rk screen is used to begin a n d a so u n d is
heard an d suddenly a n im age is revealed th a t places the so und in
its p ro p e r context. B ert H a an stra in his d o cu m en ta ry film The
R ival W orld begins w ith a d a rk screen an d only the buzzing o f a fly.
Suddenly an im age a p p ears on the screena close-up o f a m an who
o p en s his eyes a n d realizes th a t a fly is standing on the tip o f his
nose. It is a striking w ay to open a film.
P unctuation by camera m otion
A n ad vancing or receding cam era can stress o r isolate a c h a rac te r
o r a situ atio n o n the screen.
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Case 1
A s we po in ted o u t elsewhere, a cam era m ovem ent th at precedes a
line spoken by a player stresses th a t line, b u t if the m ovem ent
com es after th e phrase has been uttered it stresses the reaction o f
the player. I f th e cam era advances during a long speech by the m ain
c h aracter a feeling o f intim acy is gained. I f it recedes the player
is de-em phasized and his surroundings o r lack o f them becom e
im p o rtan t.
Case 2
A p lay ers m ovem ent can be com bined with the punctuating
m otio n o f th e cam era to give the scene ad ded visual im pact. F o r
exam ple, som ebody is challenged a n d in the shot th a t follows the
cam era advances tow ards a g roup o f persons. A s we ap p ro ach
one turns aside disclosing behind the challenged person. T he
cam era stops, fram ing this character in close shot.
A delayed cam era m otion can be used too. F o r instance, a
ch a rac te r fram ed in close sh o t stays in the foreground fo r several
seconds and th en w alks to the background into a full shot. H e
stops, begins to tu rn and the cam era tracks swiftly in, fram ing him
again in close shot.
Case 3
U sually, when these cam era p u n ctu atio n s are em ployed, the
sh o t begins w ith th e cam era in a fixed spot and as the scene
develops th e cam era moves b u t th e sh o t concludes w ith the cam era
static once m ore.
A v arian t o f this is ob tained by starting the shot w ith m ovem ent
in it and, as th a t ends, cutting again to a static com position sim ilar
to th at a t the beginning o f the preceding m oving shot. F o r example,
a scene begins with a close shot o f a m an sitting at the head o f a
long table. T he cam era is tracking b ack over the table revealing
the tw o row s o f guests. It stops a t the end an d then we c u t to a
close sh o t o f the m an as seen a t the beginning o f the preceding
shot. M usical films avail them selves o f this solution w here, for
instance, a full sh o t o f the couple o f dancers begins the shot with
the cam era tracking b ack an d boom ing upw ards. T he cam era then
descends vertically (fram ing the whole scene in long shot) to the
605

dancers height an d stops. A cut follows to a full shot on the same

visual axis and the whole m ovem ent is repeated once m ore.

Case 4
A n ap p ro aching o r receding m ovem ent can 'r c repeated tw o, three
o r m ore tim es consecutively. W ith a single subject th e effect is
disturbing a n d draw s atten tio n to itself.
In the Italian film Agostino, directed by M auro B olognini, the
central ch aracter, a boy w hose nam e is the title o f the film, wit
nesses a sexual act perform ed off cam era by iwo o th er boys. This
revelation com es as a shock to him. Visually, ihe scene is presented
by a series o f forw ard cam era tracks th a t repeat six o r seven times.
T he cam era m oves from m edium shot to cl* >e up and suddenly
cuts b ack to a m edium shot on the sam e vi ual axis, tracking in
slowly once m ore.
A sim ilar use o f repetitive forw ard cam era m ovem ent was em
ployed by A lain R esnais in L 'A nnee Dernidre a M arienbad bu t the
effect o f im age overexposure was added in the laboratory. T he girl
in the film runs from a room o u t on to a wide terrace an d stops,
opening h er arm s in jo y . T he cam era tracks tow ards her several
tim es consecutively from the sam e direction adding a static pause
before each cam era m ovem ent.
In an o th er exam ple from Laurence O liviers film version o f
H am let, the K ing and O phelias b ro th e r are plotting against
H am let. T he scene opens w ith a m edium shot n f both players. T he
cam era tracks back an d upw ards until they are seen in sm all scale
dow n below. T here is a cut to an o th er poim in the triangular
cam era deploym ent a ro u n d the two players and they are seen in
m edium shot. T he cam era again m oves back and upw ards. A cut
follows to a reverse m edium shot o f bo th player v The cam era holds
it fo r a m om ent an d again begins to track back and up. T he m ood
o f conspiracy is thus em phasized.
Case 5
Repetitive cam era m ovem ent tow ards o r aw ay fro m a single
player can be intercut in parallel with scenes rem em bered by th at
ch aracter a n d representing a subconscious return to the past.
H ere is a fragm ent o f such a sequence:
C am era tracks forw ard to a young m an sitting with his b ack to
606

the railing on a deck of a transatlantic liner. The cam era

advances from a full to a medium shot. There is a cut to:
A woman opening a door and facing the camera. She says
something.
It is a scene previously seen in the film, during an earlier sequence.
The camera tracks from medium to close shot of the seated man.
There is a cut on the track to:
The young man in full shot walking in a park beside the girl.
They are both talking.
The young man, in a room, with his back to the camera in the
foreground, left.
On the right another man advances towards him and stops to
utter some harsh words.
The young man. The camera tracks from medium to close shot
on the ship.
The young girl turns away from us and walks to the background.
We are in a room now. She turns to us again and speaks a few
lines.
The young man on the ships deck. The camera tracks from close
shot to a big close up and stops, holding a frontal image of the
young man to register a tear running down the young mans
cheek.
AH the shots spliced in parallel with the repetitive forward tracking
correspond to images already used in previous sequences and
represent a return to the past.
The cuts come while the camera is still moving except at the
very end. The camera is allowed to slow down and stop tracking.
The method described is also useful to stress one of two simultan
eous actions. For example:
A man seated in the foreground, with his back to us. He is read
ing a book. A girl in the background, facing him, turns away and
moves into the background.
Reverse shot. The man is reading the book. The camera tracks
towards him from a full to a close shot. The scene is cut while
the camera is still moving.
The girl enters shot, stops, turns and looks off screen, then she
turns to the background and exits through a door.
The camera tracks forward from a medium to a close shot of the
man still engrossed in his book.
The repeated tracking shots towards the man emphasizes that He
is unaware of the girls wish to speak to him.
607

Case 6

Forward tracking movements from two opposite reverse camera

positions can be edited in parallel (Fig. 28.10).

FIGURE 23.10
situation.

Opposed camera movement* edited In parallel used to

A man walks towards a car where a girl is waiting. The first

camera position is behind the walking man and the camera tracks
behind him as he walks to the car. The second camera position is
located behind the car and we advance to it as the man in the
background walks towards us. These two shots conclude with close
shot compositions of both players and can be edited in parallel
either when moving towards the static goal (the girl in the car) or
when both camera sites become static themselves. Parallel editing
of these opposed camera movements aids the scene with dynamic
presentation.
608

Case 7

Forward tracking movements intercut in parallel can be applied

to two separate individuals who are looking at each other or
talking to each other. Speeds in the tracking motion can be varied
and they will change the emotional effect of the sequence. The idea
is not to make a single track towards each player and then intercut
those two shots in parallel, but to make several tracks towards
each character, each one closer at its end to the waiting actor. The
paths of the tracking movements overlap slightly so that the area
that concludes a shot is again used at the beginning of the next
(Fig. 28.11).

FIGURE 28.11 Overlapped earner* movement* for each player, laler edited in parallel
to pinpoint attention on the players.

The two last shots of the series (one for each player) conclude
the track by coming to a stop in front of the player and holding
on him.
Case 8

A further variant to two camera movements edited in parallel

(where each camera covers a single player) can be achieved by
introducing a reversal of direction at the end of the sequence.
Here is an example:
Shot 1 Camera tracks in swiftly to player A, slowing down as
it approaches, cut to
609

Shot 2 C am era tracks in a t the sam e speed as before tow ards

subject B, slowing dow n.
Shot 3 Close shot o f A. T he cam era pulls back swiftly and
slows dow n to a com plete stop in full shot.
T h is sudden change in direction o f the cam era m ovem ent provides
a fu rth er exam ple o f pu n ctu atio n with m oving cam era shots.
Case 9
T w o shots, in which the cam era m oves in opposed directions,
tow ards one player an d aw ay fro m a n o th e r,c a n be edited in p aral
lel. By this device one o f the players is de-em phasized while the
o th er is visually stressed. In this and all the previous cases, the
subjects rem ain static while the cam era does all the m oving.
Case 10
C am era m ovem ents com bined w ith m ovem ent w ithin the picture
can be used to stress a sudden unexpected accident o r disaster.
H ere is a n exam ple w here the visual pu n ctu atio n precedes the
catastrophe.
C am era tracks in, fast, tow ards a subject who looks surprised.
A second person w alks into shot, right.
C am era track s in, fast, tow ards a th ird person.
C am era track s back quickly from a group.
C am era track s quickly into a person. As the cam era nears him ,
he ducks under.
Several successive explosions sh atter the place.
Observe the co n trastin g direction o f m ovem ent from sh o t to shot.
These m otions are sh o rt and fast, while the pay off, the explosions
them selves, are longer.
The second exam ple concerns the reactions o f several players
to a sudden catastrophe.
A n explosion seen in long shot.
Close up o f a w o m a n ; she tu rn s h er head to the left.
Close up o f a m a n ; he tu rn s his head to the right.
Close up o f a m an ; he is rising into the screen, looking right.
Close u p o f a m an ; he approaches diagonally from rig h t to left.
The afterm ath o f the explosion seen in long shot.
H ere the p u n ctu atin g m ovem ents are perform ed by the players,
n o t by th e cam era. Sudden tu rn s are am o n g the m ost frequently
610

used hum an m ovem ents fo r visual p u n ctu atio n o f a situation.

Several successive close-up head tu rn s can stress the arrival o f a
ch aracter. These m ovem ents precede the arrival o f the m ain
ch aracter. T hey can b e overlapped o r repetitive. Fig. 28.12 shows
the tw o possibilities.
t
All the m ovem ents are slow ones. W ith overlapped turns, the
three subjects tu rn a th ird o f a circle m atched fro m sh o t to shot
fo r sm ooth tran sitio n as the characters change.
T he second possibility confines itself to a repetition o f m ovem ent
in the sam e screen area an d direction. Slow, co n trastin g tracks or
pans th a t cover static subjects can be used to o b tain an intim ate,
tense m ood, o r to enhance the prelim inaries o f a task being p re
p ared by th e p ro tagonists. Several film m akers have refined this
ap p ro ach , n o tab ly am ong them the British film m ak er J. Lee
T h o m p so n , who in Kings o f the Sun, R eturn fr o m the Ashes and
The E ye o f the Devil offers excellent exam ples o f the use o f this
technique.

Vertical punctuation
T here are situ atio n s in which the m ain action m oves in horizontal
p ath s and th erefo re a sudden developm ent will n o t have a clear
visual stress, unless a helping vertical m otion is introduced to
accentuate th a t sudden event. An exam ple taken from David
L ean s film The Bridge on the River Kwai clarifies this point. In the
b attle previous to the blow ing up o f the bridge, tw o central
charactcrs in the story arc killed: Joyce an d Shears. H ere are the
fragm ents.
S hot 105 FS o f N icholson and Joyce struggling beside the
cable th a t leads to the d e to n a to r.
Joyce: Y ou d o n t u n d e rsta n d !
T hey craw l tow ards the background. (2 seconds 20
fram es).
S h o t 106 M S o f Y ay an d Shears behind the fallen tree trurik.
Shears rises a n d shouts to the right oft' screen.
Shears: Kill him ! Kill h im !
H e holds a knife in his right hand. (3 seconds 22
fram es).
S h o t 107 T he sam e as shot 105. Joyce struggles tow ards the
d e to n a to r in the b ac k g ro u n d a n d is prevented from
611

I
REPETITIVE

FIGURE 28.12 Puntuatlon by pla ye ri movement that p receda i the introduction o f an

im portant action on th * screen.

612

reaching it by Nicholson, who clings to Joyces legs.

(47 frames).
Shot 108 FS of Shears standing on the right, Yay crouched on
the left. Shears makes a decision and jumps forward
over the tree trunk and falls down to the left. (2
seconds 3 frames).
Shot 109 FS. The bridge in the background. In the left fore
ground Shears falls and starts to run to the right. The
camera pans with him and he wades into the river.
He exits right. In the background, four Japanese
soldiers descend on the opposite bank of the river,
close to the bridge. (4 seconds 7 frames).
Shot 110 MS of Shears swimming across the screen to the
right. The camera pans with him. He is shouting.
Shears: Kill him!*
(3 seconds 23 frames).
Shot 111 MS of Nicholson and Joyce in foreground. They
crawl, struggling towards the right. In the back
ground two groups of Japanese soldiers areadvancing.
They fire. Joyce is hit and falls on his back rolling
towards the camera. (3 seconds 1 frame).
Shot 112 Close shot. A beautiful, young Thai girl descends,
looking to the right. (39 frames).
Shot 113 As in shot 111. Nicholson turns Joyce face up on the
ground and sees blood on the lads chest. Nicholson
turns his head to the background to look at the
Japanese soldier. (8 seconds 12 frames).
Observe how the crawling of Nicholson and Joyce and the running
and swimming of Shears are horizontal movements. The death of
Joyce would go unstressed except for that sudden shot (112) in
which a girl supposedly on the ridge that overlooks the river,
descends. This adds nothing to the story, except a strong vertical
movement after the sudden, unexpected event. Her action pin
points attention on Joyces death. This recourse is used again
when Shears is hit. Here is the fragment of the scene.
Shot 116 FS. Nicholson standing beside the fallen body of
Joyce. The Japanese soldiers in the background are
looking towards the centre of the river. They open
fire. Nicholson turns to the left to look at the river.
The camera pans to show Shears in LS swimming
towards us. (3 seconds 12 frames).
613

Shot 117 As in shot 110. MS of Shears swimming to the right.

(3 seconds 10 frames).
Shot 118 MS of Nicholson taken from a low angle. He looks
incredulous towards the left. Ho advances towards
the camera and stops in a close shot. (3 seconds 9
frames).
Shot 119 FS of Shears in the river. He stands and wades
towards us. Suddenly he is hit and falls. (4 seconds 4
frames).
Shot 120 Close shot. Another beautiful Tl;ii girl rises into the
screen and looks off screen right. (33 frames).
The vertical motion (upwards in this case) is brought into play
to direct attention on the action that preceded it. The recourse
described is simple, unobtrusive and effective when punctuation
is desired on a predominant horizontal action.
These examples use movement inside the screen but a strong
vertical camera motion can serve the same purpose. In the film just
quoted there are several such examples. When jungle birds are
startled into sudden flight by gun shots, they are shown crossing
the screen in flocks that move horizontally. But midway there is a
vertical camera pan showing the shadows of the birds crossing the
jungle foliage.
Frozen frame

With the frozen frame technique, time ceases to move physically

on the screen. Many films conclude with a sudden freeze of the
image on the screen, thus interrupting the flow of motion. Other
film makers use the effect to terminate a sequence: the image is
stopped and after a moment it fades out. In the middle of a se
quence, sometimes the end of a shot is frozen to centre attention
on a fact or a character. Zoom shots that move forwards have
been frozen at the end with remarkable effect.
A single shot can be momentarily frozen on any frameone or
more times. Bob Fosse in Sweet Charity momentarily stops the
flow of motion to emphasize the reaction of a character, or uses it
several times during a musical number to break the exuberant
rhythm.
He also uses colour changes on the frozen film frame. The normal
or natural colour is changed by using coloured filters during
printing.
614

An antecedent to this technique can be traced in Stanley

Donens film Funny Face, where during a musical number the image
of Audrey Hepburn modelling different dresses was frozen on the
screen and its colour altered several times before passing on to the
next shot.
Careful judgement must be exercised in determining just how
much time a frame is kept frozen on the screen.
Sound can be interrupted, slowed down or increased during
these motion stops to work in contrast or in harmony with the
mood of the scene.
In conclusion

The many aspects of film language discussed in the preceding

chapters do not, of course, in any sense exhaust the expressive
possibilities of film. But, beside the purely aesthetic aspects they
include an attempt to provide some sort of basic physical structure
to the interpretation of ideas and emotions in the cinema.
As with most art forms, so with the film, the best way to develop
and expand your technique is to study the masters of the medium.
The most obvious way would be to see as many of their films as
possible. But a most profitable way to examine a film is to run
through a copy on a viewer, analyzing the scenes that excite ypu,
and noting how they were put together. It is surely then that the
films or scenes that excite you will reveal their secrets and inspire
your future film making.

615

INDEX
A ction
accidcnls 484
action and reactions 483
chase 483
clear actions 483
establishing obstacles 485
fight'against a mechanism 484

humour to release tension 485

on dialogues 485
overturning a vehicle 484
pauses, physical 485
verba! 485
physical fights 483-4
plausible plotting 483
resolution 485
subjective viewpoint 486-91
time limit intensifies suspense 484
visual climaxes 495-501
Action and reaction 7-13
A gfacoior 73
A gostino 606
A lbicocco, J. C. 43
Aldrich, R o b ert 403, 495, 593
American Film Institute 4
Andress, Ursula 6-7
Andrews, Harry 403
A ngry Silence, The 586
A nim ated cartoons 12
A nim ated puppets 12
A nko ku g a i no Taiketsu 73
A ntonioni, M ichelangelo 401, 479,
583, 585-6, 595, 600, 602
A paloosa, The 42
Apparitions on the screen 580
Arbiter o f attention 2 2 -3 , 76, 80,
8 4 -5 , 126
Argentina 479

Back projection 58, 384

Ballad o f a Soldier 409-10
Bartok, Eva 497-98
Batman 580
Bergman, Ingmar 4
Birds, The 124, 146, 496, 595-6
Blow-U p 479, 585-6, 597
Blue backing 58, 384
Body positions
closed 36-7
from prone to standing 26
half-open 37
linear formations 26-7
open 36
rapports 26, 28
right angle rapport 26-7
triangular deployment 75
Bogdanovich, Peter 4
Bolognini, Mauro 606
Bond, James 242, 595
Bourginon, Serge 565
Bridge on the River K wai, The 487-

88, 498, 583, 611

Brooks, Richard 155, 404
Buenos Aires 604
Bullitt 600-1
Burton, Richard 588
Camera m otion

616

camera as player 381

character's view point 381
cutting repetitive action 382-83
framing in the same sector 383
implied motion of a static subject
384
moving shot in three parts 382
personal or impersonal role 381

precise motion execution 383

restoring pictorial balance 383
secondary subject motivates the
motion 382
significant action is a must 382
simple paths 383
start/endwith pictorial balance 383
subject movement isdominant 383
suggested vehicle motion 384
timing camera motion 383
to cap a situation 381-2
to keep composition constant 384
tracking and panning combined
382
used selectively 383
Camus, Mario 479
Caprice 584
Carol, Martine 143
Centres of attention
applied to crowds 24-5
controlled background motion 25
for a single person 46-7, 48-9
for a single static group 23
for several static groups 23-4
for three persons 76
four or more persons 1tO-6
full circle 76
importance of the eyes 32
linear emphasis 91-3
player faces an audience 127-8
prone body positions 31 -2
shift to crosswise direction 85-103
Chakrabandhu, M. B. 487
Cierro los OJos 479
Cinema veriti 13
Circular motion
around a group 364-3
implied behind the camera motion
368-9
inside/outside the circle 362-3
sites inside the circle 361-2
tangential to camera sites 360-1
two subjects covered 363-4
using external reverses 365-6
using right angle sites 367-8
C lockw ork Orange 591
Colonel B ogey 489
Corman, Roger 588
Costa Gavras, Constantin 584

C ow boy 570
crane motion 469
close objects stress height 469,475
Cronaca d i un Amore 401
Crossing the line of movement
contrasting motions 164
cut-aways 164
neutral direction 164
performer indicates change 165
vertical motion 169
Cutting
easing the cut 176
feeling the zone 188
length distribution on the cut 177,
188
matching by zones 176-7
matching speeds 188-9
required conditions 175
where to cut 175
Cut away, use of
as a flash back 147
length on screen 148
on a same subject 144-5
on different subjects 144
several on a forward axis 146
used for effect 150
with camera motion 147
Cutting heights 16

Daniels, Melanie 124, 146-7, 496-7

D ark Passage 381
Daves. Delmer 381, 570
Day, Doris 583
D eath is called llngelchen 381
Delon, Alain 598, 601
Departures from a static subject
common visual axis 302
contrasting directions for a single
motion 313-4
disclosing static subject 316-7
external reverse sites 303, 308
importance of facial reactions 312
master shots edited in parallel
309-10
movement flows into movement
309-11
out of focus departures 316
passing behind static subject 315-6
right angle deployment 303-5

617

Departures from a static subject

(C on t,)
several shots used 306-7
side to centre, centre to opposite
side 315
suggested departure 314
time compression 318-21
Dialogues, patterns for static
crossing the line of interest 152-4
cut-aways 144-6
editing patterns 144-56
isolation of peak moments 156
movements previous to static edit
ing 137
theatrical tradition 139
the classic method 149-50
time acceleration 159
to and fro patterns 136
visual pauses 152-6
Digan lo que Digan 479
D irty Dozen, The 593
Distance contrast 61-2, 150-1
D octor Zhivago 154, 159, 351, 404,
481,490
Documentary film form 8, 12-3, 581
Donald, James 499
Donen, Stanley 615
Dynamic stops
high/low camera axis 379
level common axis 37-8
E asy Rider 588

Editing with combined techniques

conditions to be observed 577
its advantages 584
masters in parallel with fluid shots
572-7
using single shots 565-69
Editing with moving and motionless
subjects
both players move 348-9
centre-to-side motion in second
shot 343-5
hiding movement subject with
another motion 349
moving subject is hidden in the
cut 345-7
non-human motion used 357-9
relating two static subjects 347-8

static subject is hidden in the cut

340-3
Editing with oMir-abundant motion
foreground ;notion used 351-5
parting cun m effect 358-9
redirecting .I'.icntion 354-7
Elaine 603
E l Senor del I ' le 283
Enrico, Robcr! 597-8
E ye o f the D eril, The 611
Faithfull, Marianne 601
Farenheit 451 596
Fellini, Federico 4
in Septem ber 565
Finch, Peter 4'>7-8
Flaherty, Robert 4
Fluid shot, technique of
body position change 514-7
changing the background 504-10
towards and away from thecamera
502-14
compared with fragmentation
techniques 502
follow focus 501
geometrical patterns of motion
540-1
how to repair errors 502
moving the camera 529-34
number contnist 533-7
substitution by areas 517-22
switching a r e a s 523-28
Fonda, Peter 5KH
Ford, Glenn 571
Ford, John 380. 600
Forman, Milos 158
Fosse, Bob 614
Four fo r Texas 495
Frankenheimer, John 596
Front projection 384
Funny Face 615
Furie, Sidney J 42, 482, 602

Fifteen D ays

Getino, Octavio 604

Gilbert, Lewis 595
G irl on the M otorcycle, The 600
Coidfinger 242
Graduate, The 603

Huston, John 407, 603

Hutton, Brian 588

Grammatical tools
camera distances 15-6, 46, 61
cut-away 17
cut-in 17
cutting heights 16
moving camera 13
optical motion 15
optica) punctuation 19
sequences 18
shot length 15
shots, master 17-8
static camera 15
straight cut punctuation 18
Grant, Cary 320-1, 346
G reat Hunt 6-7
Greene, Guy 586
Groups, handling of
a player opposes the group 117-8
changing patterns 122
close knit groups 131
geometrical shapes 122
lone player in the centre 126, 129
multiple subdivision 121-2
pivoting group 130-1
the group is split in two 117-20,
123
Guillermin, John 381
Guinness, Alec 155, 352, 498

Ikiru 158
II Deserto Rosso 595
In C old B lood 404

India 4
Inserts, use of
as pivot between two masters 142
length on screen 148
on a common axis 139-40
u
on a reverse angle 139, 141
synonymous with close shot 143
to save a mistake 144
j
two inserts into a master 140-1
used for effect 150
Internal thoughts 46
Internal voioe 48, 159
Jpcress Fite, The 42, 482, 602
Italy 4
I W as M on ty's Double 381
1
Japan 4
Joyce 488-9, 499, 611-13
Kadar and Klos 381
Kahlenberg, Richard S. 4
Kelly, Grace 602
Kings o f the Sun 611
Komarovsky 404
Kruschen, Jack 583
Kubrick, Stanley 425, 480, 591
Kurosawa, Akira 4, 147, 158, 389,
398, 501

Haanstra, Bert, 595, 604

H am let 466, 606

Harris, Richard 583

Harvey, Anthony 5
Hawkins, Jack 487
Hemmings, David 597
Hepburn, Audrey 615
Hidden Fortress , The 389
H ilt, The 403, 471
H iroshima, M on Am our 148, 157
Hitchcock, Alfred 124, 146, 320-1,
346-7, 481, 486, 496, 502, 539,
595-6, 601
Holden, William 487
H olland Today 597
Hopper, Dennis 588
Horatio 467-8
Home, Geoffrey 488
Hudson, Roger 5
Hunt, Peter 241

L a H ora de los H o m o s 604

L'A nee D ern iire & M arienbad 606

Lancaster, Burt 403

L a N o tte 583

Lara 404
L ast Gunfight. The 73

Lautrec, Toulouse 603

L e Amiche 600

Lean, David 154, 159, 351, 404, 481,

487, 490, 498, 583
L e Bonheur 579
Lemmon, Jack 570-1
L e R a t d'A m triqu e 43
L es Aventuriers 597-8
L e t's G et a L ittle Sentim ental 158 .

619

Limb motion as link 240-1

Line of interest 27
crossing on action scenes 289, 290,
292,311
crossing it in static dialogue scene
152, 154
Lola M o n tei 146
Long motions
destination beyond static subject
2556
fast motion 259-40
half-way re-establishingshot 253-4
options for the centre camera site
251
repetitive motion 249
right angle - common axis 257-8
sector repetition 252-3
suggesting a long distance 257-9
time contraction 258-9
time saving 249
using a common axis 254-5
using parallel positions 250-3
L ord o f the E ast 283
Lumet, Sidney 403 481, 538
Martin, Dean 495-6
Marvin, Lee 155
Masoch Club 7, 138
Master shots, to cover motions
across the screen 278
a second insert caps the action
279-80
in a neutral direction 276-7
several motions in parallel 283-4
using a pause in the middle 276-7
using one insert 276-9
using two inserts 279-81
Matching the look 175
Matching the movement 175
Matching the position 175
McCarthy, Michael 497
Milits, Georges 579
Mifune, Toshiro 73, 147, 389-99
Mirror, use of
on an edited in the camera shot
452-3
repetitive motion in the same shot
272-3
to include the excluded player 74

to obtain opposed motions of a

single player 261
to record a player moving behind
the camera 368
to record a vertical motion 374
to show a receding motion 301
M ission Im possible 422
Montgomery, Robert 381
Motion, control of
by projected background 160
change in direction 163
crossing the line of movement
160-9
human and camera motion 160
implied motion 160
recomposed motion 160
the line of motion respe<*ed 161
triangle principle applied 162
Motion, inegular coverage
on a narrow area 293-5
use of a pause 289-91
use of sector repetition 292
using opposed halves of screen
295-99
Motion, types of
across die screen 233-40
common visual axis 214-20
right angles 224-33
rising 198-229
side to centre - centre to opposite
side 223
sitting and reclining 201-7
the three basic variations 246-8
through a door 241-6
turning 189-96
walking and running 208-14
Moulin R ouge 603
Moving to a final destination
going beyond a staticsubject 274-5
using a common visual axis 268-73
using parallel sites 268-9
using reverse angles 266-9
using right angles 263-7
Moving together
both move in the same direction
322-4
intermittent motion 339
moving towards each other 325-36
they move apart 336-9

620

N a k ed Runner, The 42
Nelson, Ralph 381
new?reel 12-3
New York 6-8
Nichols, Mike 603
Nicholson 498, 611-4
N orth b y N orthw est 320-1, 346-7
Number contrast
four players 116, 152-3
three players 80, 98, 103, 108
two players 51-2, 58

action in single shots 10-1

a story line itkept constant 11

oomparatlv* behaviour t
conditioned response I

cross-cutting patterns 10
delayed interaction 8
distance contrast 61
immediate interaction 8
interaction close together 8
interaction far apart 8
interest, alternated centres 6
its limitations 10
master shots 149-50
Okamoto, Kihachi 73
only audience has all the facts 11
Olivier,SirLaurence 60,465,468,606
only charactershave allthe facts 11
Operation A m sterdam 497
reconstructed reality 14
Ophuls, Max 146
selection of peak moments 10
several story lines support each
Panning
other 11
a pause used to bridge opposite
two basic story line components
directions 405
8-9
camera moves ahead of the action,
two different situations alternated
then halts 386
7
changing pictorial balance during
two related situations alternated
the action 405-6
7-8
circular motion 401-3
use of the techniques avoided 6
conditions for a scanning pan 385
written languages, its origins 10
constant screen sector 387
Pasha 490-2
cutting on a foreground obstruc Paths o f Glory 425,480
tion 388
Peckinpah, Sam 501
discontinuous tilt motion 407-8
Petri, Elio 6
intermittent motion 400
Pivoting players
interrupted movement 419
background position 87-8
motion edited in parallel 387
foreground position 87-9, 133,
motivation and reaction in the
151,153
same shot 385-6
one in a group of three 87
opposite directions 417-20
on the centre of a crowd 131-2
panning and static shots for a
on the rim of a crowd 131, 133
chase 389, 398-9
manipulated for time and space
panning and static shots, their
134
editing 411-4
passive attitude 90,131,133
repetitive pans 386-7
same screen area 87-9, 151-3
side tilts409,411
shifting screen area 89, 131, 134
swish pans 404-5
two in a group of four or more
tilts406-7
131,133, 151, 153
unusual camera motion 421-23
Polar shift 152,154
Papitlon 359
Preminger, Otto 538
Parallel film editing
Pre-planning fluid shots 502
action in master shots 11
Professionals, The 155

621

Punctuation
by camera motion 605-11
by inaction 599
by jump cuts 595-8
by parallel editing 588
colour fades 579
dark areas 531
dark screen 603-6
deceptive visual match 582-6
dissolve 579-80
fade in 579
fade out 579
frozen frame 614-5
identifying points of view 591-5
iris 590
light change 591
object substitution 582
pauses 599-601
question and answer 582
related motions 582
stressing out of focus 602-3
stressing props 581
titles 581
to start scenes 591
using a close up 587-8
verbal repetition 582
vertical 611-4
white outs 579
wipe 580
Queen Gertrude 467-8

Raphael 479
Rashomon 147
Raucamp, Gerald J. 597
Ray, Satjavit 4
R ear Window 486, 601
Requiem fo r a H eavyweight 381

Resnais, Alain 147, 167, 606

Return from the A shei 611
Reward, The 565
Richard III (to

Rising on a common axis 198, 200

R ival World, The 604
Rope, The 502

San Francisco 600

Santa Teresa Fortress 284
Scene matching

matching the look 20-22

matching the movement 20
matching the position 19
Schaflner, Franklin 359
Screen spacc distribution
by halves 39-40
in thirds of screen 37-9
minimal versus maximum screen
areas 10-1
occult balance 109
off-centre 45
opposed screen areas 43-4
repetition of screen area 40, 42-3
space gaps between players 69, 71
vertical opposition 45
Sea Was no M ore, The 595
Seconds 596
Seven Samurai 501
Shakespeare, William 468
Sharif, Omar 352
Sight an d Sound 5
Sinatra, Frank 495-6
sitting and reclining
converging on the centre 207
irregular coverage 201-6
Sleeping Car M urders, The 584
Solanas, Fernando 604Split screen 68
S p y in the Green H at, The 596
Stewart, James 481, 486, 602
S traw berry Statem ent, The 423
sub-titles, use of 581
Sweden 4
Sw eet C harity 614
Sundays and Cybele 565
Tashlin, Frank 583
Tenth Victim, The 6, 138
The Time o f the Ovens 604

The triangle principle

axis lines 46, 61, 87
common visual axis 36
external reverse angles 32
internal reverse angles 33
its advantages 29-30, 36
oblique line of interest 65
parallel positions 33-4
right angle positions 35
static players 29-30

622

the cardinal rule 29

the line o f interest 27
tw o triangular form ations 29-31
use o f the apex position 37
vertical line o f interest 64-6
They D ied with their B oots On 493
T hom pson, J. Lee 611
Tim e and space manipulation
tw o places to a com m on spot 134,
221, 250, 257, 3 6 1 ,4 0 4 , 418
one shot flash back 147
time com pression on action 342
Tim e lapse photography 12
T ohoscope 73
T om asini, G eorge 497
Trailers, film 580
Travelling m atte process 58, 68, 354
Travelling m otion
avoiding obstructive foregrounds
424
both sides o f the track used 436
circular m otion 46 5 -6
cut away to static sites 46 1 -4
intermittent camera m otion 434-5
intermittent subject m otion 42 4 -6
opposite directions for camera and
subject 447-55
panning added 44 3 -6
plana! contrasts used 424
point o f view stressed 458-61
qualities o f m otion 424
qualities o f tracking speed 45 6 -7
single files 4 5 5 -6
sm ooth tracking preferred 424
subject approaches tracking
camera 457 -5 9
subject stops in second static shot
430-33
use o f pauses 424
winding paths 438-41
Trintignant, Jean Louis 157
Trip, The 588
Trip to the M oon, A 579
Truffaut, Francois 596
Turning
arc m otion 196-7
com m on axis 189, 191
external reverse 189-90

foreground m otion dominates over

background m otion 194
opposed fragments o f a continuous
(notion 195-6
right angle 189-91
visual group expansion and co n
traction 193
Tushingham , R ita 155
Unforgiven, The 407
Uruguay 284
U stinov, Peter 146
Varda, A gnes 579
Ventura, Lino 598-9
Vera Cruz 403
Vertical m otion
blocking the screen 375
by horizontal halves o f screen
375-7
com m on axis 370-1
external reverse sites 372
neutral direction becom es vertical
372-3
right angle 371
using a mirror reflection 374
Vertigo 451
Visual pauses
picture established 152, 154, 155-6
verbally established 155
W alsh, R aoul 493
W alston, R ay 583
W ang, G eorge 6
W atergate Building 526
Where Eagles D are 588
W ild Bunch, The 501
W ithout A pparent M otive 157
W orld War II 148

Y am ada, K azuo 73
Y ates, Peter 600-1
You O nly L ive Twice 595
Z ones, m oving by
advantages 542
a subject m oving or static 551-3
different editing patterns used
543, 545

623

Zones, moving by (C ont.)

group contraction 559
grotip expansion
its properties 543
making zone changes 555-63
motivating motion 542-3
on the re-establishing shot 543-5
subject moves, second stays 522-4
visual group expansion $45-8
zoom shots
adding tiltmotion 479
frozen zooms 482

624

opposed subject-zoom directions

477
panning whilezooming 439,448-9,
479
player moves during zoom motion
476-7
qualities of zoom motion 475-6
through foreground objects
to simulate a tracking shot 477
tracking while zooming
used without lens motion 475