Advanced Calculus (MATH 104)-Polar Coordinates

Harish Bhandari

Department of Mathematics
Kathmandu University
Dhulikhel, Nepal

Lecture 1
July 23, 2019
Polar Coordinates

Cartesian Coordinates
Let us first recall the definition of Cartesian coordinates: to each
point in the plane one can associates a pair of numbers (x, y) as
the Cartesian or rectangular coordinates of this point.

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Polar Coordinates

Cartesian Coordinates
Let us first recall the definition of Cartesian coordinates: to each
point in the plane one can associates a pair of numbers (x, y) as
the Cartesian or rectangular coordinates of this point.

Polar Coordinates
The polar coordinates of the point can be defined as the pair
(r , θ), where r is the distance of the point from the origin, and θ is
the angle between the line segment from the origin(pole) to the
point and the x-axis(initial ray).

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Polar Coordinates
Definition
Fix an origin O (called the pole)
Fix an initial ray from the origin (called initial ray)
P(r , θ) where OP = r , (directed distance from the point O to
P.

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Cartesian coordinates and Polar Coordinates

The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates can be

shown from the figure below, in which the pole corresponds to the
origin and the polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis. If the
point P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y ) and polar coordinates
(r , θ), then from the figure, we have

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Negative Value of r

According to the definition of polar coordinates, r should be

positive. However, we can extend the definition to include negative
values of r . Suppose r < 0.

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Polar coordinates are not unique...

For r = 2, θ = π/4, the complete list of angles is

π/4, π/4 + 2π, π/4 + 4π, π/4 + 6π, + · · ·
For r = −2, θ = 5π/4 the complete list of angles is
5π/4, 5π/4 + 2π, 5π/4 + 4π, 5π/4 + 6π, + · · ·
For the point P(r , θ), the equivalent polar coordinates are
P(r , θ + 2nπ), n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · ·
Harish Bhandari Coordinates systems
Polar Coordinates

Harish Bhandari Coordinates systems

Examples

1. Find all polar coordinates of the point P(1, π/3).

2. Plot the following points.

a. (2, π/2) b. (−3, π/4) c. (−2, π/3)

3. Which polar coordinate pairs label the same point?

a. (3, 0) b. (−3, π) c. (−r , θ)

d. (2, 2π/3) e. (−2, −π/3)
f. (r , θ) g. (r , π + θ)

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Polar Equations and Graphs

Equation Graph
r =a Circle of radius |a| centered at origin.
θ = θ0 Line through origin making an angle θ0 with the initial ray.

What does r = r0 , θ = θ0 represent?

Equations of axes???
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Graphs of Polar Equations
a. r = 1, r = −1
b. 1 ≤ r ≤ 2 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
c. −3 ≤ r ≤ 2 and θ = π/4
d. 2π/3 ≤ θ ≤ 5π/6
(no restriction on r )
Figure: Graph of equation (b)

Figure: Graph of equation (c)

Figure: Graph of equation (d)

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Examples

Graph the sets of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the

following

a. r = 2 b. 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/6, r ≥ 0

c. −π/4 ≤ θ ≤ π/4, d. θ = π/2, r ≥ 0

−1 ≤ r ≤ 1
f. θ = π/2, r ≤ 0
e. 0 ≤ r ≤ 2
h. 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, r = 1
g. r ≥ 1

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Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

Relation
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ (Polar - Cartesian)
y
r 2 = x 2 + y 2 , tan θ = (Cartesian - Polar)
x

Write equivalent Cartesian equations.

a. r sin θ = 2 b. r = −3 sec θ
c. r 2 sin 2θ = 2 d. r = 1 − cos θ
e. r = 1 + 2r cos θ f. r = 2 cos θ − sin θ
 π
g. r sin θ + = 2 h. r sin θ = ln r + ln cos θ
6

Write equivalent Polar equations.

a. x = 1 b. x 2 + y 2 = 4 c. x 2 + xy + y 2 = 1

Harish Bhandari Coordinates systems