2010IASSymComp PDF

Power System
CalculationsPart
Calculations
Part II
Kurt B. Ederhoff, Ph.D., P.E.
2010 Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting - Houston, TX
October 3-7, 2010
I
Introduction
d i
Topics
Per Unit Basis
Symmetrical
S
t i lC
Components
t
Component Modelling
Faults
l & Sequence Networks
k
POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II
IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE
P Unit
Per
U i C
Conversion
i
Per Unit Definition
A quantity a (voltage, current, power, impedance,
admittance,, etc.)) in per
p unit is defined as the ratio
of that quantity to a selected base quantity of the
same nature (i.e. voltage, current, power,
i
impedance,
d
admittance,
d itt
etc.)
t )
a[per unit]
[units]
a[actual units]
a
= [actual units] a[pu] = [units]
ab
ab
P Unit
Per
U i
Example:
If V = 120 [[V]] and we select Vb = 80 [[V],
], then
V
[pu]
120 [V]
=
= 1.5 [pu]
80 [V]
P Unit
Per
U i
Percent Definition
If the per unit value is multiplied by 100, the
quantityy is expressed
q
p
in p
percent with respect
p
to
the base quantity.
For the
F
th previous
i
example,
l we say the
th voltage
lt
iis
150% (1.5 x 100) of the base voltage of 80 [V].
P Unit
Per
U i
Per unit conversion requires us to select a base
quantity
How do we make the selection?
Answer: Select two quantities as the base from the
following: voltage, current, power, impedance,
admittance
Which do we choose?
Answer:
A
Generally
G
ll choose
h
voltage
lt
and
d power.
P Unit
Per
U i
Why Voltage and Power?
Voltage. For each voltage level in our system, we
know the rated voltage of equipment, and even if
loading changes,
changes the voltage does not deviate too much
from the rated value.
Power. The range of power flowing in a section of the
system is quadratically related with the voltage
voltage. As
such, the range of expected power flow is known for an
area. Note, for transmission level analysis, it is
c sto a to select a base power
customary
o e of 100 MVA
MVA.
Note: The base power is usually selected to be the
same for the entire network.
C
Conventions
i
Unless specifically stated,
stated the following
quantities are always complex numbers:
V,, I,, Z,, Y,, S,, t
All other quantities are real numbers, such as
R, X, G, B, L, C, P, Q
10
T
Terminology
i l
V
I
Z
Y
S
t
R
X
G
B
Voltage
Current
Impedance
Admittance
Complex Power
Turn Ratio
Resistance
Reactance
Conductance
Susceptance
L
C
P
Q
|S|
Inductance
Capacitance
Active Power
Reactive Power
Apparent Power
Pet Peeve #1: There is no

real power" anywhere
here
11
P Unit
Per
U i
Selecting Quantities
Vb = Vf -f
Sb = S3f
Voltage
phase-to-phase
p
voltage
g at each
Usuallyy selected as the nominal p
voltage level
Power
g of 3
3-phase
p
p
power flowing
g in the
Usuallyy selected in the range
network (i.e. whatever network is being analyzed)
For transmission level analysis, it is customary to select a base
power of 100 MVA.
The base power is usually selected to be the same for the entire
network.
12
P Unit
Per
U i F
Formulas
l
S3[VA]
f b
I f[A]-n b =
[W ]
b
[V]
f -f b
3V
(V
2
[V]
f -f b
[VA]
3 f
f b
Vf[V]
- n b =
[Siemens]
b
Vf[V]
-f b
3
1
= [W]
Zb
13
P Unit
Per
U i ffor E
Equipment
i
Per unit quantities for equipment is defined at
the equipment level
Ex:
25
5 MVA,, 110-33
0 33 kV transformer
a so e
Z = 8.3%
Ex:
4 kV,
k 1500 hp,
h 0.88 PF, 93.5% eff
ff
Xd = 0.155 pu
Smotor
1500 [hp] 0.746 [hp/kW]

= Sb =
0.88 PF 0.935 eff
= 1360 [kVA]
14
P Unit
Per
U i C
Conversion
i
Equipment ratings vary
Selection of base quantities vary
Analysis requires use of a common base
A[pu.old base]
[units]
A[units]
A
= [units] ; A[pu.new base] = [units]
Ab.old
Ab.new
[units]
[pu.new base] [units]
A[pu.old base] Ab.old
=
A
Abb.new
b ld
A[pu.new base] = A[pu.old base]

[units]
Ab.old
b old
[units]
Ab.new
15
P Unit
Per
U i C
Conversion
i
Particularly for impedances
Remember:
[V] 2
(Vb )
[W ]
Zb =
Sb[VA]
[W ]
[pu.new base]
[pu.old base] Z b.old
Z
= Z
[W]
Z
b.new
[V]
V
= Z [pu.old base] b.old
[V]
V
b.new
[VA]
Sb.new
S [VA]
b.old
16
Ad
Advantages
Of P
Per Unit
U i
Equipment Parameters. For a given type of equipment, and
disregarding the size and voltage, the parameters in per unit are
within a narrow, known range
j
networks of different
Eliminate Turn Ratio. For two adjacent
voltage levels, if the selected base power is the same throughout and
the selected base voltages match the turn ratio of the transformer
between the networks, then all quantities in per unit have the same
value regardless of which voltage level they are defined. In essence,
the transformer is eliminated.
Eliminate Coefficients. For almost all equations with quantities
defined in per unit, the numerical coefficients are eliminated.
Voltage. In per unit, the line-to-neutral voltage equals the phase-tophase voltage, and during normal operation both quantities are
close
l
to unity.
i
18
History
Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue
1876 Born in York Factory, Manitoba
1898 First engineer to graduate from Queens
University at Kingston in Ontario
Joined Westinghouse after graduation and spent his
entire career there
1913 Co-authored
h d paper on measurement off hi
high
h
voltage using sphere gap, a method still used to this
day (97 years later)
Obtained 185 patents in his career in design
transformers, insulators, and DC and AC power
circuits
19
History
Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue (cont
(contd)
d)
1921 Elected AIEE Fellow
1930 Paper in Electric Journal that outlined
direct stroke theory, which is said to have
completely revolutionized the approach to the
li h i problem.
lightning
bl
L
Led
d to adoption
d i off overhead
h d
static lines.
1936 Died in December at age 60
20
History
Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue (cont
(contd)
d)
1918 - Transactions of the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers (AIEE) included the classic paper
y
Co-Ordinates Applied
pp
to the
Method off Symmetrical
Solution of Polyphase Networks
88 pages long
24 additional pages of discussion
303 numbered
b d equations
i
bewildering exhibit of subscripts to be found in it is
something that will, well, make one pause
Vladimir Karapetoff suggested that the term
symmetrical components was a more correct and
descriptive expression
21
S
Symmetrical
i l C
Co-Ordinates
O di
What are Symmetrical Components?

Any set of N unbalanced phasors that is, any such
polyphase signal can be expressed as the sum of N
symmetrical sets of balanced phasors.
phasors
Only a single frequency component is represented by
the phasors. This is overcome by using techniques
such as Fourier or LaPlace transforms.
transforms
Absolutely general and rigorous and can be applied to
both steady state and transient problems.
It is thoroughly
h
hl established
bl h d as preeminently
l the
h only
l
effective method of analyzing general polyphase
network problems
22
Th
Three-Phase
Ph
SSequence N
Networks
k
Three
Three-Phase
Phase Systems
Three sets of symmetrical components, where each set

is referred to as a sequence.
phasors,, called the p
positive sequence,
q
, has
First set of p
the same phase sequence as the system under study
(say ABC)
The second set, the negative sequence, has the reverse
phase
h
sequence ((BAC)
AC)
The third set, the zero sequence, phasors A, B and C
are in phase with each other.
Method
M th d converts
t any sett off th
three phasors
h
i t th
into
three
sets of symmetrical phasors, which makes asymmetric
analysis more tractable.
23
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
Set of three phasors,
phasors say Xa, Xb and Xc can be
represented as a sum of the three sequence sets
X a = X a 0 + X a1 + X a 2
X b = X b 0 + X b1 + X b 2
X c = X c 0 + X c1 + X c 2
where
X a 0 , X b 0 , X c 0 is the zero sequence
q
set
X a1 , X b1 , X c1 is the positive sequence set
X a 2 , X b 2 , X c 2 is the negative sequence set
24
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
25
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
Only three of the sequence values are unique,
unique
X a , X a1 , X a 2
The others can be determined. First,, we define a
complex operator a.
a e j120 = 1120
a 2 = e j 240 = 1240
3
j 360
a = e
= 1360 = 1
1 + a + a2 = 0
26
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
Then, we relate phases within a sequence to the reference,
which is a-phase in this example
X a0 : X b0 = X a0 ,
X c0 = X a0
X a1 : X b1 = a 2 X a1 X c 1 = aX a1
X a 2 : X b 2 = aX a 2
X c2 = a2 X a2
27
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
Rearrange the equations
X a = X a 0 + X a1 + X a 2
2
X b = X a 0 + a X a1 + aX a 2
X c = X a 0 + aX a1 + a 2 X a 2
which in matrix form looks like this:
1 1 1 X a 0
Xa

2
a X a1
X b = 1 a
X
2
1 a a X a 2
c
28
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
Using simple notation, we can convert from symmetrical
component reference to the phase reference as follows:
X phase = TX sym
where
h
1 1 1
2
T 1 a
a
2
1 a a
Of course,
course the following equation can convert from the
phase reference to the symmetrical component reference:
X sym = T -1 X phase
h
29
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
The inverse of the transformation matrix is
1 1 1
1
-1
2
T = 1 a a
3
2
1 a
a
which in detail, results in the following equations:
1 1 1 X a
X a0

1
2
X a1 = 1 a a X b

X
3
2
1 a
a X c
a 2
30
S
Sym.
Components
C
Example
E
l 1
Let
Then
I a
100

I = I b = 10
I
10
c
I s = T -1 I
1 1
1
= 1 a
3
1 a 2

1 100
2
a 10 = 100
a 10
0
31
S
Sym.
Components
C
Example
E
l 2
If
Then
100
I = 10
10
Is = 0
100
32
S
Sym.
Components
C
Example
E
l 3
If
Then
Va
Vb
Vc
8.00
= 6.0
6 0 - 90
16.0
143.1
V0
V1
V2
2.0143.1
= 9.8
9 818
18.44
4.3
86.2
33
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
34
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
35
S
Symmetrical
i lC
Components
36
O Way
One
W to Vi
Visualize
li
Positive Sequence
Can be thought of as a source that rotates a
machine in a p
particular direction
Negative Sequence
This source rotates a machine in a direction
opposite of that of the positive sequence
Zero Sequence
C
Causes no rotational
t ti
l fforce, but
b t instead
i t d fforms an
oscillating (not rotating) field in the machine
37
C
Comments
on SSym. C
Components
The transformations apply only for linear systems,
that is, systems with constant parameters
(impedance, admittance) independent of voltages
and currents
The quantities used for X can be phase-to-neutral or
phase-to-phase voltages, or line or line-to-line
currents.
For some connections, the zero sequence component
is always zero
Line currents for an ungrounded wye connection
Line currents for a delta connection
Line-to-line voltages for a delta connection
38
M
More
C
Comments
Symmetrical components is a important tool for
analyzing unbalanced states
Three-phase unsymmetrical network and state is
converted to three symmetrical networks and states
Symmetrical networks can be solved using single
phase techniques
With
Wi h symmetrical
i l components we solve
l three
h
interconnected symmetrical networks using single
phase analysis, which is easy.
Once solved, we use transformation equations to
obtain phase quantities
39
M
More
C
Comments
Equipment Parameters
Symmetrical components has advantage that
parameters in system
p
y
components
p
are easier to
define
Because each sequence is a symmetrical threephase
h
case, the
h parameters can b
be d
defined
fi d using
i
typical three-phase tests.
40
Complex Power with Symmetrical

Components
For wye connections

*
S = V I + V I +V I + Vn ( I a + I b + I c )
*
an a
*
bn b
*
n
a
*
b b
*
cn c
= (Van + V ) I + (Vbn + Vn ) I b* + (Vcn + Vn ) I c*

= Va I a* + V I + Vc I c*
41

Components
For delta connections

S = Vab I ab* + Vbc I bc* +Vca I ca*
= (Va - Vb ) I ab* + (Vb - Vc ) I bc* + (Vc - Va ) I ca*
*
= Va ( I ab - I ca ) + Vb ( I bc - I ab ) + Vc ( I ca - I bc )
= Va I a* + Vb I b* + Vc I c*
42

Components
In matrix form
*
I a

T
S = Va Vb Vc I b = Vphase
I*phase

Ic

We have the following transforms
Vphase = TVsym
I phase = TI sym
Then the complex power becomes
T
S = Vsysym
T T T * I*sysym
43

Components
The product
1 0 0
T *
T T = 3I identity = 3 0 1 0
0 0 1
Then the complex power becomes

T *
S = 3 Vsym
I sym
= 3(Va 0 I a*0 + Va1 I a*1 + Va 2 I a*2 )
If the voltages and current are defined in
per unit,, the "3" disappears
p
pp
44
U off SSymmetrical
Use
i lC
Components
Consider the following wye connected load
I n = I a + Ib + I c
Va = ZY I a + Z n I n
Va = ( ZY + Z n )I a + Z n I b + Z n I c
Vb = Z n I a + ( ZY + Z n )I b + Z n I c
Vc = Z n I a + Z n I b + ( ZY + Z n )I c
Va
ZY + Z n

Vb = Z n
V
Z
c
n
Zn
ZY + Z n
Zn
I a
Zn

Zn
Ib
ZY + Z n I c
45
U off SSymmetrical
Use
i lC
Components
Va
ZY + Z n

ZY
Vb = Z n
V
Z
c
n
V = ZI
V = TVsym
I = TI sym
TVsym = ZTI sym
Vsym = T -1ZTI sym
Z y + 3Z n
-1
T ZT =
0
Zn
+ Zn
Zn
0
Zy
0
I a
Zn

Zn
Ib
ZY + Z n I c
0
0
Z y
46
U off SSymmetrical
Use
i lC
Components
V0
ZY + 3 Z n 0

V1 =
0
ZY

0
0
V2

Systems are decoupled
V0 = ( Z Y + 3 Z n ) I 0
V1 = ZY I1
V2 = Z Y I 2
0 I 0
0 I1

ZY I 2

52
Generators
Fault Behavior
Sudden change in voltage and current, such as
those in faults,, produces
p
transients
Armature current divided into two components
Symmetrical AC component whose associated
component in
i the
h fi
field
ld is
i a DC current
DC component whose associated component in the
field is an AC current
53
Generators
Symmetrical Component Modelling
Principle concern is with symmetrical component and its
associated constants
DC component often eliminated from studies
Usually not necessary to apply or set protective relays
If necessary (e.g. circuit breaker applications), various factors
are available from standards,, manufacturers,, or other sources
For synchronous machines, symmetrical AC component can

be resolved into three distinct components
Subtransient component the double prime () values
Transient component the single prime () values
The steady-state component
54
Generators
Subtransient Component
Occurs during onset of fault
Subtransient reactance (Xd)) approaches armature
leakage reactance but is higher as a result of
damper windings, and so on.
Subtransient time constant (Td) is very low
(because damper windings have relatively high
resistance) typically around 0
resistance),
0.01
010
0.05
05 seconds
55
Generators
Transient Component
Armature current demagnetizes the field and decrease

flux linkages with the field winding
Transient reactance ((Xd)) includes effect of both
armature and field leakages and is higher than
armature leakage reactance, and thus higher than the
subtransient reactance
Transient
i
time
i
constant ((Td) varies
i typically
i ll ffrom 0.35
to 3.3 seconds
Steady-State Component
Transient
i
eventually
ll d
decays
For faults, eventually becomes unsaturated direct axis
reactance (Xd)
56
Generators
57
Generators
Negative Sequence
Subtransient reactance can be measured by blocking
the rotor with the field winding shorted and applying
single phase voltage across any two terminals
As position of rotor is changed, measured reactance
varies considerably if machine has salient poles
without dampers (and very little damper winding
exists) or if the machine has a round rotor
For negative sequence, similar phenomenon exists
exceptt rotor
t iis att 2ff with
ith relation
l ti tto fi
field
ld sett up b
by
applied voltage
Good approximation: X 2 = 12 X d + X q
58
Generators
Zero Sequence
Varies quite a lot
Depends largely on pitch and breadth factors of
armature winding
Generally, X0 is much smaller than X1 and X2
values
59
Generators
60
G
Generators
&N
Network
kE
Equivalents
i l
Strong
Strong Remote
Systems
Assume X1 = X2
Calculate X1 from 3phase fault duty
Calculate
C l l t X0 from
f
SLG fault duty
I d i M
Induction
Machines
hi
Positive Sequence
Changes from stalled to
running
~0.15
5p
pu stalled ((Xd))
0.91.0 pu running
Negative Sequence
Remains
e a s eeffectively
ect e y co
constant
sta t
~0.15 pu (Xd)
Zero Sequence
0.0 if wye ungrounded or
delta connected
62
T
Transformers
f
Modelling
Usually modelled as a series impedance
Shunt parameters can be calculated by review of
transformer tests.
Shunt parameters dont generally impact analysis
Transformer winding configuration determines
sequence networks
Three winding transformers have interesting
sequence networks, but close inspections shows
them to be intuitive
T
Transformer
f
Sequence
S
Networks
N
k
64
3 Winding
Wi di T
Transformer
f
IImpedance
d
3 Winding Transformer Impedance
Usually given as a winding-to-winding (delta)

impedances in per cent
q
wye
y impedances
p
for sequence
q
Convert to equivalent
network analysis
Often times, the base power is different for various
impedances
Ex:
100 MVA auto with 35 MVA tertiary
May show ZHM on 100 MVA base
May show ZHL and ZML on 35 MVA base
Must convert delta impedance to common base
before converting to equivalent wye network
65
3 Winding
Wi di T
Transformer
f
IImpedance
d
Delta-Wye
Delta Wye Conversion Formula
Z H = 12 ( Z HM + Z HL - Z ML )
Z M = 12 ( Z HM + Z ML - Z HL )
Z L = 12 ( Z HL + Z ML - Z HM )
66
Zi Z Transformer
Zig-Zag
T
f
67
T
Transmission
i i Lines
Li
Positive and Negative Sequence Impedance
Passive component
Assume line transpositions
m0 Dm
L1 = L2 =
ln
[H/m]
2p Ds
X = w L = 2p fL
Dm
-7
X 1 = X 2 = 4p 10 ln
[W/m]
Ds
R1 = R2 = conductor AC resistance (tables)
68
T
Transmission
i i Lines
Li
69
T
Transmission
i i Lines
Li
Zero Sequence Impedance
More involved
Assumptions
Zero sequence current divides equally between
conductors
Conductors
C d
are parallel
ll l to ground
d
Earth is a solid with a plane surface, infinite in
extent,, and of uniform conductivityy
None of the assumptions are true

We get acceptable error with these assumptions
Line design affects calculation techniques
70
T
Transmission
i i Li
Line Z
Zero SSequence
71
T
Transmission
i i Li
Line Z
Zero SSequence
72
T
Transmission
i i Li
Line Z
Zero SSequence
73
T
Transmission
i i Li
Line Z
Zero SSequence
74
T
Transmission
i i Li
Line Z
Zero SSequence
75
Wh We
What
W Wont
W C
Cover
What We Wont
Won t Cover
Capacitive Reactance of Transmission Lines
Mutual Impedance of Transmission Lines
Cable
C bl Modelling
M d lli (look
(l k up iin ttable
bl or contact
t t
manufacturer)
So Whats the General Idea?

Produce a positive, negative, and zero sequence model
for your components.
Simple model for equipment is a series impedance
Connect the models according to system topology
Analyze imbalances by connecting systems
77
F l
Faults
Definition
A fault is any condition in a system considered

abnormal
yp
Basic Types
Short-Circuit Faults
Open-Circuit Faults
Combined Faults
Shunt Faults
Three-Phase (3Ph)
Phase-To-Phase (LL)
( )
Phase-To-Phase-To-Ground (LLG)
Single-Line-To-Ground (SLG)
78
F l
Faults
Series Faults
Open phase
Open neutral
Two open phases
Impedance in a phase
Combination Faults
See connection diagrams
79
Sequence Connections Shunt

Faults
80
Sequence Connections Shunt

Faults
81
Sequence Connections Series

Faults
82
Sequence Connections Series

Faults
83
Sequence Connections
Combination Faults
84
E
Example
l 1 System
S
Parameters
P
85
E
Example
l 1 System
S
Parameters
P
86
E
Example
l 1 System
S
Parameters
P
87
Example 2 Delta Wye Transformer

3-Ph Fault
88

3-Ph Fault
89

SLG Fault
90

SLG Fault
91

LL Fault
92

LL Fault
93
D l W Summary
Delta-Wye
S
3
3-Phase Fault
Behaves as expected, same

current both sides
LL Fault
Must coordinate full fault

current on primary with
0.866 factor on secondary
(i.e. coordination interval)
SLG Fault
F lt
For solidly grounded

system, shift damage curve
577 to p
protect against
g
byy 0.577
full fault current on
secondary
94
E
Example
l 5 Resistor
R i
Eff
Effect
95
E
Example
l 6 Open
O
Ph
Phase F
Fault
l
96
E
Example
l 6 Open
O
Ph
Phase F
Fault
l

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Power System

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

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POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

A[pu.new base] = A[pu.old base]

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

1918 - Transactions of the American Institute of

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

What are Symmetrical Components?

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

Three sets of symmetrical components, where each set

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II