andDC Motor and Drive DC

Drive
2.2 CONSTRUCTION

Cutaway view of a dc motor

2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Stator with visible poles

2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Rotor of a dc motor.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

General arrangement of a dc machine

 2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

 The stator of the dc motor has poles,

which are excited by dc current to
produce magnetic fields.
 In the neutral zone, in the middle
between the poles, commutating
poles are placed to reduce sparking of
the commutator. The commutating
poles are supplied by dc current.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION
 2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

 The poles are mounted on an

iron core that provides a closed
magnetic circuit.
 The motor housing supports the
iron core, the brushes and the
bearings.
 The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with slots.
 Coils with several turns are
placed in the slots. The distance
between the two legs of the coil
is about 180 electric degrees.
 2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

 The coils are connected in series

through the commutator segments.
 The ends of each coil are connected to
a commutator segment.
 The commutator consists of insulated
copper segments mounted on an
insulated tube.
 Two brushes are pressed to the
commutator to permit current flow.
 The brushes are placed in the neutral
zone, where the magnetic field is close
to zero, to reduce arcing.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION ….contnd

Commutator of a dc motor
 2.2 CONSTRUCTION

 The commutator switches the current

from one rotor coil to the adjacent coil.
 The switching requires the interruption
of the coil current.
 The sudden interruption of an inductive
current generates high voltages .
 The high voltage produces flashover
and arcing between the commutator
segment and the brush.
DC Motor Operation
DC Motor Operation : Current
DC Motor Operation : Force
DC Motor Operation : Magnetic Field
DC Motor Operation
DC Motor Operation
 Basic principle of operation
• The generated voltage of a DC machines having (p) poles and (Z)
conductors on the armature with (a) parallel path between brushes as
below :
pZ
EA = = K 
2a
where K = pZ /(2πa) = machine constant

• The mechanical torque which also equal to electromagnetic torque, is

found as follows:
EAI A
e =m = = K I A

➢In the case of a generator:
m is the input mechanical torque, (converted to electrical power)
➢For the motor:
e is developed electromagnetic torque, (drive the mechanical load)
 Equivalent Circuit
The brush
voltage
drop
RA

External variable resistor

used to control the
amount of current in the Armature circuit (entire
field circuit
rotor structure)

Field Coils

Equivalent circuit of dc motor

Because a dc motor is the same physical machine as a dc generator, its
equivalent circuit is exactly the same as generator except for the direction of
current flow.
 Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Simplified equivalent circuit of dc motor

• The brush drop voltage (Vbrush ) is often only a very tiny fraction of the
generated voltage in the machine – Neglected or included in RA.

• Internal resistance of the field coils is sometimes lumped together with the
variable resistor and called RF
 Separately excited DC motor

VF
IF =
RF

IL = I A

VT = E A + I A RA
Separately excited motor is a motor
whose field current is supplied from a
separate constant-voltage power supply.
 Shunt DC motor

VT
IF =
RF

IL = I A + IF

VT = EA + I A RA
A shunt dc motor is a motor whose
field circuit get its power directly
across the armature terminals of the
motor.
 Shunt DC Motor :
Terminal Characteristics
• Consider the DC shunt motor. From the Kirchoff’s
Law
VT = E A + I A RA
• Induced Voltage
EA = K

• Substituting the expression for

induced voltage between VT and EA.

VT = K + I A RA
• Since, then current IA can be
expressed as

 ind  ind
IA = VT = K + RA
K K
 • Finally, solving for the motor's speed yield

VT RA
= − 
K ( K) 2 ind

This equation is a straight line with a negative slope.

Torque-speed characteristic of a shunt or separately excited dc motor

Shunt DC Motor : Terminal Characteristic
• Affect of Armature Reaction (AR) will reduce flux as the load increase
(ind also increase), so it will increase motor speed ().
If the motor has compensating winding, the flux () will be constant.

VT RA
= − 
K ( K) 2 ind

Torque-speed characteristic of a motor with armature reaction

present.
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
1 : Changing The Field Resistance (flux affected)
 V 
1. Increasing RF causes IF =  T  to decrease.
 RF  
2. Deceasing IF decreases . (graph flux vs current)

3. Decreasing  lowers (E A
= K   )

 VT − E A  
4. Decreasing EA increases IA =  
 RA 

5. Increasing IA increases  ind = K  I A 

with the change in IA dominant over the change in flux ().

6. Increasing τind makes  ind  load and the speed ω increases.

 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
7. Increasing speed to increases EA = K again.

8. Increasing EA decreases IA.

9. Decreasing IA decreases until ind =  load at a higher speed ω

Decreasing RF would reverse the whole process, and the speed of the motor
would drop.
The effect of field
resistance speed control on a
shunt motor’s torque speed
characteristic: over the
motor’s normal operating
range
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
2: Changing The Armature Voltage

Armature voltage
control of a shunt (or
separately excited)
dc motor.

1. An increase in VA increases IA [= (VA  – EA)/RA]

2. Increasing IA increases  ind (= KI A )
3. Increasing τind makes  ind  load increasing ω.
4. Increasing ω increases EA (=Kω  )
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
5. Increasing EA decreases IA [ = (VA – EA)/RA]
6. Decreasing IA decreases τind until  ind =  load at a higher ω.

The effect of armature voltage

speed control on a shunt
motor’s torque speed
characteristic

The speed control is

shiftted by this method, but
the slope of the curve
remains constant
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control
3 : Inserting Resistor in Series with Armature Circuit
Add resistor in
series with RA

The effect of armature resistance

Equivalent circuit of DC speed control on a shunt motor’s
shunt motor torque – speed characteristic

Additional resistor in series will drastically increase the slope of the motor’s
characteristic, making it operate more slowly if loaded
 Shunt DC Motor : Speed Control

VT RA
= − 
K ( K) 2 ind

The above equation shows if RA increase, speed will decrease

This method is very wasteful method of speed control, since the losses
in the inserted resistor is very large. For this it is rarely used.
 Series DC Motor
Series DC Motor: DC motor whose field windings consists of relatively few
turns connected in series with armature circuit

Equivalent circuit of a
series DC motor.

The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for this motor

VT = E A + I A ( RA + RS )
 Series DC Motor : Induced Torque
• The induced or developed torque is given by  ind = KI A

• The flux in this motor is directly proportional to its armature current.

Therefore, the flux in the motor can be given by

 = cI A
where c is a constant of proportionality. The induced torque in this
machine is thus given by

 ind = KI = KcI

A A
2

This equation shows, torque in the motor is proportional to the square of

armature current. So, series motor give more torque per ampere than any
other dc motor, therefore it is used in applications requiring very high
torque, e.g. starter motors in cars, elevator motors, and tractor motors in
locomotives.
Series DC Motor : Terminal Characteristic
• To determine the terminal characteristic of a series dc motor,
analysis will be based on the assumption of a linear magnetization curve, and
the effects of saturation will be considered in a graphical analysis

• The assumption of a linear magnetization curve implies that the flux in the

 = cI A
motor given by :

• The derivation of a series motor’s torque-speed characteristic starts with

Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
VT = E A + I A ( RA + RS )
From the equation; ind = KI A = KcI A the armature current can be
2

expressed as:
 ind
IA =
Kc
• Also, EA = K, substituting these expression yields:

 ind
VT = K + ( RA + RS )
Kc

We know IA = ;
c
• Substituting the equations so the induced torque equation
can written as
K 2
 ind = KcIA 2
= 
c
Therefore, the flux in the series motor can be written as :

c
=  ind
K
• Substituting the previous equation for V T yields:

c  ind
VT = K  ind  + ( RA + RS )
K Kc

VT 1 RA + RS
= −
Kc  ind Kc

• Disadvantage of series motor can be seen immediately

from this equation. When the torque on this motor goes to
zero, its speed goes to infinity.
In practice, the torque can never go entirely to zero, because
of the mechanical, core and stray losses that must be
overcome.
• However, if no other load is connected to the motor, it can
turn fast enough to seriously damage itself.
NEVER completely unload a series motor, and NEVER connect
one to a load by a belt or other mechanism that could break.

Figure : The ideal torque- speed characteristic of a series dc motor

 Series DC Motor : Speed Control
Method of controlling the speed in series motor :
1. Change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is
increased, the speed also increased, resulting in a higher speed for any
given torque.
VT 1 R A + RS
= −
Kc  ind Kc
2. By the insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit, but this
technique is very wasteful of power and is used only for intermittent period
during the start-up of some motor.
 Compounded DC Motor
• In long shunt compound dc motor, the series field is
connected in series with armature and the combination is in
parallel with the shunt field.

•In the short shunt field compound dc motor, the shunt field
is in parallel with armature and the combination is connected
in series with the series field.
• If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series field and
shunt field windings are in same direction, that is, additive,
the dc motor is cumulative compound. If the magnetic fluxes
are in opposite, the dc motor is differential compound.
 Compounded DC Motor
• The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for a compound dc motor is:
VT = E A + I A ( R A + RS )

• The currents in the compounded motor are related by :

IA = IL − IF IF = T
V
RF

• The net magnetomotive force given by

F net = F F ± FSE - FAR
FF = magnetmotive force (shunt field)
FSE = magnetomotive force (series field)
FAR = magnetomotive force (armature reaction)
The effective shunt field current in the compounded DC motor
given by:

N SE FAR
I = IF 
*
F IA −
NF NF
NSE = winding turn per pole on series
winding
NF = winding turn per pole on shunt
winding
The positive (+) sign is for cumulatively compound motor
The negative (-) sign is for differentially compound motor
 Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor:
Torque Speed Characteristic
• Has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor (whose flux is constant)
but a lower starting torque than a series motor (whose entire flux is proportional
to armature current).

• It combines the best features of both the shunt and the series motors.
Like a series motor, it has extra torque for starting; like a shunt motor,
it does not over speed at no load.
• At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so the motor behaves
approximately as a shunt dc motor.

• As the load gets very large, the series flux becomes quite important and the
torque speed curve begins to look like a series motor’s characteristic.

• A comparison of these torque speed characteristics of each types is shown in

next slide.
Fig (a) The torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively compounded
dc motor compared to series and shunt motors with the same full-load
rating.
Fig. (b) The torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively
compounded dc motor compared to a shunt motor with the same no-
load speed.
 Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor :
Speed Control
The techniques available for control of speed in a cumulatively
compounded
dc motor are the same as those available for a shunt motor:

1. Change the field resistance, RF

2. Change the armature voltage, VA
3. Change the armature resistance, RA

The arguments describing the effects of changing RF or VA

are very similar to the arguments given earlier for the shunt
motor.
 Differentially Compounded DC Motor:
Torque Speed Characteristic
• The shunt magnetomotive force and series magnetomotive force subtract
from each other.
• This means that as the load on the motor increase,
IA increase and the flux in the motor decreased, (IA)
As the flux decrease, the speed of the motor increase, ()
This speed increase causes an-other increase in load, which further increase
IA,
Further decreasing the flux, and increasing the speed again.
• All the phenomena resulting the differentially compounded motor is
unstable and tends to run away.
• This instability is much worse than that of a shunt motor with armature
reaction, and make it unsuitable for any application.
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
Available AC source to control DC motor (brushed)

AC-DC AC-DC-DC

Uncontrolled Rectifier
Single-phase Control
Control
Three-phase
Controlled Rectifier DC-DC Switched mode
Single-phase 1-quadrant, 2-quadrant
Three-phase 4-quadrant
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC 400

200

+ 2Vm
Vo = cos 
-200


-400
0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44

50Hz Vo 10

1-phase Average voltage

5

− over 10ms
0
0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44

500

50Hz
+ -500
3-phase 0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44
3VL−L,m
Vo Vo = cos 

30

20

− Average voltage
10
over 3.33 ms
0
0.4 0.405 0.41 0.415 0.42 0.425 0.43 0.435 0.44
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC
2Vm


+ 2Vm
Vo = cos 

50Hz Vo 90o 180o
1-phase Average voltage
− over 10ms
2 Vm
−


3VL−L,m

50Hz
+
3-phase
3VL−L,m
Vo Vo = cos 
 90o 180o

− Average voltage
over 3.33 ms 3VL − L,m
−

Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC

ia

+ Vt
3-phase
Vt Q2 Q1
supply

− Q3 Q4 Ia

- Operation in quadrant 1 and 4 only

Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC

+
3-
phase 3-phase
Vt supply
supply
−

Q2 Q1

Q3 Q4
T
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC

F1 R1

3-phase
supply
+ Va -
R2 F2

Q2 Q1

Q3 Q4
T
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC

Cascade control structure with armature reversal (4-quadrant):

iD

ref + Speed
iD,ref + Current Firing
controller Controller Circuit
_
_

iD,ref
Armature
iD, reversal
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC-DC

Uncontrolled control
rectifier
Switch Mode DC-DC
1-Quadrant
2-Quadrant
4-Quadrant
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
AC-DC-DC

control
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
− D2
T2
Va

T1 conducts → v a = Vdc
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
− D2
T2
Va

D2 conducts → v a = 0 T1 conducts → v a = Vdc

Va Eb

Quadrant 1 The average voltage is made larger than the back emf
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
− D2
T2
Va

D1 conducts → v a = Vdc
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter

Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1

+ Ia
− D2
T2
Va

T2 conducts → v a = 0 D1 conducts → v a = Vdc

Va Eb

Quadrant 2 The average voltage is made smallerr than the back emf, thus
forcing the current to flow in the reverse direction
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Switching Control in Two-quadrant Converter

vc
2vtri

+
vA Vdc
-

+
vc
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va −
Vdc

− D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON

Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va −
Vdc

− D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON

va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va −
Vdc

− D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON

va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va −
Vdc

− D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON

va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B

+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+ Va −
Vdc

− D4 D2
Q4 Q2

Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON

va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON va = -Vdc when Q3 and Q4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
Bipolar switching scheme – output
AC-DC-DC swings between VDC and -VDC

vc
2vtri

Vdc
Vdc
+ + vA
vA vB 0
- - Vdc
vB
0

vc Vdc

+ vAB

_ -Vdc
 Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
Unipolar switching scheme – output
AC-DC-DC swings between Vdc and -Vdc

vc
Vtri
-vc

Vdc
+ + Vdc
vA vB
vA
-
0
-

Vdc
vc vB
0
+
Vdc
_
vAB
0

-vc
Power Electronic Converters in DC Drive
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter

Armature
200
current 200

150 150 Armature

Vdc 100 Vdc 100
current
50 50

0 0

-50 -50

Vdc -100 -100

-150 -150

-200 -200

0.04 0.0405 0.041 0.0415 0.042 0.0425 0.043 0.0435 0.044 0.0445 0.045 0.04 0.0405 0.041 0.0415 0.042 0.0425 0.043 0.0435 0.044 0.0445 0.045

Bipolar switching scheme Unipolar switching scheme

• Current ripple in unipolar is smaller

• Output frequency in unipolar is effectively doubled
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives

 Closed loop control is when the firing angle is varied

automatically by a controller to achieve a reference
speed or torque
 This requires the use of sensors to feed back the
actual motor speed and torque to be compared with
the reference values

Reference +
Controller Plant Output
signal − signal

Sensor
68
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives

 Feedback loops may be provided to satisfy one or more of

the following:
 Protection
 Enhancement of response – fast response with small
overshoot
 Improve steady-state accuracy
 Variables to be controlled in drives:
 Torque – achieved by controlling current
 Speed
 Position
69
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
 Cascade control structure
 Flexible – outer loops can be added/removed depending on control
requirements.
 Control variable of inner loop (eg: speed, torque) can be limited by
limiting its reference value
 Torque loop is fastest, speed loop – slower and position loop -
slowest

70
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
 Cascade control structure:
 Inner Torque (Current) Control Loop:
 Current control loop is used to control torque via armature
current (ia) and maintains current within a safe limit
 Accelerates and decelerates the drive at maximum permissible
Torque
current and torque during transient operations
(Current)
Control
Loop

71
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
 Cascade control structure
 Speed Control Loop:
 Ensures that the actual speed is always equal to reference speed
*
 Provides fast response to changes in *, TL and supply voltage (i.e.
any transients are overcome within the shortest feasible time)
without exceeding motor and converter capability

Speed
Control
Loop

72
Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant
Current
Control Loop

Speed
Control
Loop

73
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant
 Actual motor speed m measured using the tachogenerator (Tach) is
filtered to produce feedback signal mr
 The reference speed r* is compared to mr to obtain a speed error
signal
 The speed (PI) controller processes the speed error and produces the
torque command Te*
 Te* is limited by the limiter to keep within the safe current limits and the
armature current command ia* is produced
 ia* is compared to actual current ia to obtain a current error signal
 The current (PI) controller processes the error to alter the control
signal vc
 vc modifies the firing angle  to be sent to the converter to obtained
the motor armature voltage for the desired motor operation speed

74
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant
 Design of speed and current controller (gain and
time constants) is crucial in meeting the dynamic
specifications of the drive system
 Controller design procedure:
1. Obtain the transfer function of all drive subsystems
a) DC Motor & Load
b) Current feedback loop sensor
c) Speed feedback loop sensor
2. Design current (torque) control loop first
3. Then design the speed control loop

EEEB443 - Control & Drives 75 Dr. Ungku Anisa, July 2008

 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load

TL = BLm
 Assume load is proportional to speed
 DC motor has inner loop due to induced emf magnetic
coupling, which is not physically seen
 This creates complexity in current control loop design

76
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load

 Need to split the DC motor transfer function between m and Va

ωm (s ) ωm (s ) Ia (s )
= 
Va (s ) Ia (s ) Va (s ) (1)

 where
ωm (s ) Kb
= (2)
Ia (s ) Bt (1 + sTm )

Ia (s ) (1 + sTm ) (3)
= K1
Va (s ) (1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )
 This is achieved through redrawing of the DC motor and load
block diagram.

77
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load
 In (2),
J
 - mechanical motor time constant: Tm = (4)
Bt

- motor and load friction coefficient: Bt = B1 + BL (5)

 In (3), Bt
K1 =
K b + Ra Bt
2
(6)
2
1  Ra Bt  1  Ra Bt   Ra Bt K b 
2
1 1
− ,− = −  +    +  −  +  (7)
T1 T2 2  La J  
4  La J   JLa JLa 

Note: J = motor inertia, B1 = motor friction coefficient,

BL = load friction coefficient
78
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
Three-phase Converter

 Need to obtain linear relationship between control signal

vc and delay angle  (i.e. using ‘cosine wave crossing’
−1  vc 
method)
 = cos  
 Vcm  (8)

where vc = control signal (output of current controller)

Vcm = maximum value of the control voltage
 Thus, dc output voltage of the three-phase converter
3 3  −1 vc  3 VL−L, m
Vdc = VL−L, m cos = VL−L, m cos cos  = vc = K r vc
   Vcm   Vcm (9)

79
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
Three-phase Converter

 Gain of the converter

3 VL−L, m 3 2V V
Kr = = = 1.35 (10)
 Vcm  Vcm Vcm
where V = rms line-to-line voltage of 3-phase supply
 Converter also has a delay

1 60 1 1 1 (11)
Tr =   = 
2 360 f s 12 f s
where fs = supply voltage frequency
 Hence, the converter transfer function
Kr (12)
G r (s ) =
(1 + sTr )
80
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
Current and Speed Feedback
 Current Feedback
 Transfer function: H c
 No filtering is required in most cases
 If filtering is required, a low pass-filter can be included (time
constant < 1ms).
 Speed Feedback
 Transfer function:
K
G ω (s ) = (13)
(1 + sT )
where K = gain, T = time constant
 Most high performance systems use dc tachogenerator and
low-pass filter
 Filter time constant < 10 ms

81
 Design of Controllers –
Block Diagram of Motor Drive
Current
Speed
Control Loop
Control Loop

 Control loop design starts from inner (fastest) loop to

outer(slowest) loop
 Only have to solve for one controller at a time
 Not all drive applications require speed control (outer loop)
 Performance of outer loop depends on inner loop
82
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
Controller Converter DC Motor

K c (1 + sTc )
 PI type current controller: G c (s ) = (14)
sTc
 Open loop gain function:
 K1K c K r H c 
GH ol (s ) = 
(1 + sTc )(1 + sTm ) (15)

 T c  s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
 From the open loop gain, the system is of 4th order (due to 4
poles of system) 83
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
 If designing without computers, simplification is needed.
 Simplification 1: Tm is in order of 1 second. Hence,
(1 + sTm )  sTm (16)
Hence, the open loop gain function becomes:
 K1 K c K r H c 
GH ol (s ) = 
(1 + sTc )(1 + sTm )

 Tc  s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )


 K1 K c K r H c  (1 + sTc )(sTm )

 T c  s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
GH ol (s )  K
(1 + sTc )
where K =
K1 K c K r H cTm
(17)
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr ) Tc
i.e. system zero cancels the controller pole at origin.
84
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
 Relationship between the denominator time constants in
(17): Tr  T2  T1
 Simplification 2: Make controller time constant equal to T2
Tc = T2 (18)
Hence, the open loop gain function becomes:
GH ol (s )  K
(1 + sTc )
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
K
(1 + sT2 )
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
GH ol (s ) 
K KK K HT
where K = 1 c r c m
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr ) Tc
i.e. controller zero cancels one of the system poles.
85
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
 After simplification, the final open loop gain function:
GH ol (s ) 
K
(19)
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr )
K1K c K r H cTm
where K= (20)
Tc
 The system is now of 2nd order.
GH ol (s )
 From the closed loop transfer function: G cl (s ) = 1 + GH (s ) ,
ol
the closed loop characteristic equation is:
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr ) + K
 2  T1 + Tr  K + 1
or when expanded becomes: T1Tr s + s  +  (21)
  T1Tr  T1Tr 
86
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
 Design the controller by comparing system characteristic
equation (eq. 21) with the standard 2nd order system
equation:
s 2 + 2n s + n2

 Hence, +T
2 n = T 1 r
(22)
TT 1 r

K +1
n 2 = (23)
TT1 r

 So, for a given value of  :

 use (22) to calculate  n
 Then use (23) to calculate the87 controller gain KC
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
 To design the speed loop, the 2 nd order model of current
loop must be replaced with an approximate 1st order model
 Why?
 To reduce the order of the overall speed loop gain function

2nd order current

loop model
88
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
 Approximated by adding Tr to T1 T3 = T1 + Tr

1st order
approxima
tion of
 Hence, current model transfer function is given by: current
K c K r K 1Tm 1 loop
Ia (s )
=
Tc (1 + sT3 )
=
Ki (24)
Ia (s )
*
1+
K K
c r 1 K H T
c m 1 (
1 + sTi )
Tc (1 + sT3 )
89
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
where T3 (26)
Ti =
1 + K fi
K fi 1 (27)
Ki =
H c (1 + K fi )

K1K c K r H cTm
K fi = (28)
Tc
 1st order approximation of current loop used in speed loop
design.
 If more accurate speed controller design is required, values
of Ki and Ti should be obtained experimentally.
90
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller Load

1st order approximation

of current loop

K s (1 + sTs )
 PI type speed controller: G s (s ) = (29)
sTs
 Assume there is unity speed feedback:
H
G ω (s ) = =1 (30)
(1 + sT )
91
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller DC Motor
& Load

1st order
approximation
1 of current loop

 Open loop gain function:

 K B K s Ki 
GH(s ) = 
(1 + sTs ) (31)

 BtTs  s(1 + sTi )(1 + sTm )
 From the loop gain, the system is of 3 rd order.
 If designing without computers,
92
simplification is needed.
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
 Relationship between the denominator time constants in (31):
Ti  Tm (32)
 Hence, design the speed controller such that:
Ts = Tm (33)
The open loop gain function becomes:

( )
GH s = 

K B K s Ki  (1 + sTs )

 BtTs  s (1 + sTi )(1 + sTm )
 K B K s Ki 

(1 + sTm )

 BtTs  s (1 + sTi )(1 + sTm )
GH (s ) 
K K K K
where K  = B s i
s (1 + sTi ) BtTs
i.e. controller zero cancels one
93
of the system poles.
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
 After simplification, loop gain function:
K
GH(s )  (34)
s(1 + sTi )
K B K s Ki
K =
where BtTs (35)

 The controller is now of 2nd order. GH (s )

 From the closed loop transfer function: G cl (s ) = ,
the closed loop characteristic equation is: 1 + GH (s )
s(1 + sTi ) + K
 2  1  K 
or when expanded becomes: Ti s + s  +  (36)
  Ti  Ti 
94
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
 Design the controller by comparing system characteristic
equation with the standard equation:
s 2 + 2n s + n2
 Hence:
 1 
2 = 
n T  (37)
  i

n 2 =
K (38)
Ti

 So, for a given value of  :

 use (37) to calculate  n
 Then use (38) to calculate the controller gain KS
95
 Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
 Motor operation above base speed requires field
weakening
 Field weakening obtained by varying field winding voltage
using controlled rectifier in:
 single-phase or
 three-phase
 Field current has no ripple – due to large Lf
 Converter time lag negligible compared to field time
constant
 Consists of two additional control loops on field circuit:
 Field current control loop (inner)
 Induced emf control loop (outer)
96
Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
Field weakening

97
 Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
Field weakening

Field
current
controller
(PI-type)

Estimated machine -
induced emf
Induced emf
dia
e = Va − Ra ia + La Induced emf
reference
controller Field current
reference
dt
EEEB443 - Control & Drives 98
(PI-type with
limiter)
 Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
 The estimated machine-induced emf is obtained from:
dia
e = Va − Ra ia + La
dt
(the estimated emf is machine-parameter sensitive and must be
adaptive)
 The reference induced emf e* is compared to e to obtain the induced
emf error signal (for speed above base speed, e* kept constant at rated
emf value so that   1/)
 The induced emf (PI) controller processes the error and produces the
field current reference if*
 if* is limited by the limiter to keep within the safe field current limits
 if* is compared to actual field current if to obtain a current error signal
 The field current (PI) controller processes the error to alter the control
signal vcf (similar to armature current ia control loop)
 vcf modifies the firing angle f to be sent to the converter to obtained
the motor field voltage for the desired motor field flux
99
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Four-quadrant
 Four-quadrant Three-phase Controlled Rectifier DC Motor
Drives

100
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Four-quadrant
 Control very similar to the two-quadrant dc motor drive.
 Each converter must be energized depending on quadrant of operation:
 Converter 1 – for forward direction / rotation
 Converter 2 – for reverse direction / rotation
 Changeover between Converters 1 & 2 handled by monitoring
 Speed
 Current-command Inputs to
‘Selector’ block
 Zero-crossing current signals
 ‘Selector’ block determines which converter has to operate by assigning
pulse-control signals
 Speed and current loops shared by both converters
 Converters switched only when current in outgoing converter is zero
(i.e. does not allow circulating current.
101
One converter is on at a time.)
 References

 Krishnan, R., Electric Motor Drives: Modeling, Analysis

and Control, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 2001.
 Rashid, M.H, Power Electronics: Circuit, Devices and
Applictions, 3rd ed., Pearson, New-Jersey, 2004.
 Nik Idris, N. R., Short Course Notes on Electrical Drives,
UNITEN/UTM, 2008.

102