Chapter 6:

Synchronous Machines
 Synchronous Generator

Synchronous generator or alternators are synchronous machines

used to convert mechanical power to AC electric power.
 Construction of Synchronous Generator
Operating Principle
• A DC current is applied to the rotor winding
producing a rotor magnetic field.
• The rotor is then turned by external means
producing a rotating magnetic field, which
induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator
winding.

Note:
• Field winding – Producing the main magnetic
field (rotor winding)
• Armature winding - Windings where main
voltage is induced (stator windings)
 Construction of Synchronous Generator
Rotor
• The rotor of a synchronous machine is a large electromagnet.
• Magnetic poles can be either salient (sticking out of rotor surface) or
non-salient construction.

Non-salient pole rotor: Salient pole rotor: usually 4

usually 2 or 4-pole rotors or more poles

• Rotor are made laminated to reduce eddy current losses.

 Construction of Synchronous Generator
Field Excitation and Exciter
• Two common approaches are used to supply a DC current to the field
circuit on the rotating rotor:
1) Supply the DC power from an
external DC source to the rotor by
means of slip rings and brushes.

2) Supply the DC power from a

special DC power source mounted
directly on the shaft of the
machine (brushless exciters).
 Construction of Synchronous Generator
(1) Exciter with Slip Rings and Brushes
Exciters (with slip rings and brushes) Synchronous Generator

Slip ring – Metal rings Graphite-like Carbon Brushes –

completely encircling the Connected to DC terminals ride on
shaft of a machine but each slip ring supplying DC voltage
insulated from it to field windings.
 Construction of Synchronous Generator
(2) Brushless Exciter (for large generator and motor)
Brushless Exciter Synchronous Generator

Brushless Exciter
• Small AC generator 3 Phase Rectifier
• Field circuits are mounted on the stator • Mounted on the shaft.
• Armature circuits are mounted on the • To rectify the generator’s 3-phase output into
rotor shaft. DC and fed into the main DC field circuit.
 Construction of Synchronous Generator

A rotor of large
synchronous
machine with a
brushless exciter
mounted on the
same shaft.
 Construction of Synchronous Generator

Exciter

Salient Poles
 Rotation Speed of Synchronous Generator
• By the definition, synchronous generators produce electricity whose
frequency is synchronized with the mechanical rotational speed.

p
fe  nm
120
where f = electrical frequency (Hz)
nm = rotor speed of the machine
p = number of poles
Note:
• Steam turbines are most efficient when rotating at high speed.
Therefore, ↑nm and ↓ p for fixed fe
• Water turbines are most efficient when rotating at low speed.
Therefore, ↓ nm and ↑ p for fixed fe
Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous
Generator
• The magnitude of internal generated voltage induced in a stator is
E A  K
where K = a constant represents the construction of the machine
 = flux in the machine
 = rotational speed of machine

• Flux in the machine

depends on the rotor
field current IF Saturation
• So, the internal points EA is direct
generated voltage E is proportional to IF
also a function of IF

Magnetizing curve (open-circuit characteristic) or no-load

saturation curve of a synchronous machine
 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

• The internally generated voltage in a single phase of a synchronous

machine EA is not usually the voltage V appearing at its terminals.
• Ea  V only when armature current IA = 0 A (no-load)
• Reasons:
a) Armature reaction (X) Modelled as the
synchronous reactance, Xs
b) Self- induction of the armature coils (XA)
c) Resistance of the armature coils (RA)
 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
Armature Reaction:
• When the rotor of a synchronous
generator is spinning, a voltage EA
is induced in its stator.

• When a load is connected, armature

current IA start flowing and creating
a magnetic field Bs in stator. ,
which will then produce armature
reaction voltage Estat.

• Stator magnetic field Bs adds to the

rotor magnetic field BR, affecting
the total magnetic field Bnet and Bnet = B R + Bs V = E A + Estat
therefore the phase voltage.
 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
• Since the armature reaction voltage EA
lags the current IA by 90 degree, it can
be modelled by:

Estat   jXI A
• The phase voltage is then
V  E A  jXI A
• In addition to armature reactance effect (X), the stator coil has a self-
inductance LA (XA is the corresponding reactance) and the stator has
resistance RA. The phase voltage is thus

V  E A  jXI A  jX A I A  RI A
 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
• Armature reactance X and self-
inductance XA are combined into
the synchronous reactance Xs of
the machine:

XS  X  X A
• The phase voltage is then

V  E A  jX S I A  RI A
• Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase
synchronous generator is shown.

Adjustable resistor Radj control field current

IF and therefore the rotor magnetic field and
internal generated voltage EA .
 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
• A synchronous generator can be Y-connected or delta-connected.

• The terminal (line) voltage will be:

VT  3V (for Y-connected) VT  V (for delta-connected)

• The terminal (line) current will be:

IL  I A (for Y-connected) I L  3I A (for delta-connected)
 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
• For balanced loads, the three phases of a synchronous generator are
identical except for phase angles.

• For ease of analysis, per-phase equivalent circuits are often used.

V  E A  jX S I A  RI A

Exciter + Rotor (Field Winding) Stator (Armature Winding)

 Parameters of a Synchronous Generator Model
• Three quantities must be determined in order to describe the generator
model:
1. The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore
between the field current IF and the internal generated voltage EA)
2. The synchronous reactance (Xs)
3. The armature resistance (RA)
1

2 3
 Open Circuit (No Load) Test
• Assume that the generator is rotated at the rated speed,
Step 1: All terminals are disconnected from loads (armature current IA = 0 A).
Step 2: The field current IF is set to zero first.
Step 3: The field current IF is increased in steps and the corresponding phase
voltage is measured. (Note: For open circuit test, phase voltage is equal to
internal generated voltage Ea since armature current I = 0 A.)

Equivalent generator’s circuit during open-circuit.

 Open Circuit (No Load) Test

Unsaturated Regions
• Reluctance of unsaturated core of
machine has reluctance thousand
times lower than that of air-gap.
• Resulting flux (and hence internal Saturated Regions
generated voltage Ea) increase
linearly with field current If .

Saturated Regions
• Core reluctance of machine is Unsaturated Regions
increased greatly when saturation is
reached.
• Resulting flux (and hence internal
generated voltage Ea) increase
much slower with field current If .
Open-Circuit Characteristic of Generator
 Short Circuit Test
• Assume that the generator is rotated at the rated speed,
Step 1: All the terminals are short-circuited through ammeters.
Step 2: Field current If is set to zero first.
Step 3: If is increased in steps and the corresponding armature current IA
is measured.

Equivalent generator’s The resulting phasor

circuit during short-circuit. diagram
 Short Circuit Test
• The short-circuit characteristic (SCC) is a straight line since, for the
short-circuited terminals, the magnitude of the armature current is:

EA
IA 
R X
2
A
2
S

Short-Circuit Equivalent generator’s

Characteristic (SCC) circuit during short-circuit.
Approximate Method to Determine the Value of Xs
Step 1 (From OCC): Measure and
record the exciting current If required to
produce the rated terminal (line) voltage
(same as internal generated voltage EA)
EA
Step 2 (From SCC): Given the same
exciting current If, measure and record
the corresponding short-circuit current
IA,SC. If

Step 3: Determine XS from

EA
Z S  RA  X S 
2 2
 X S , since X S  RA
I A,SC
IA,SC

Exact Method
Approximate Method
If
 Example
• A 200 kVA, 480 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with a rated field
current of 5 A was tested and the following data were obtained:
1. VT,OC = 540 V at the rated IF
2. IL,SC = 300 A at the rated IF
3. When a DC voltage of 10 V was applied to two of the terminals, a current of
25 A was measured. (Note: DC test to determine armature resistance RA)

Find the generator’s model at the rated condition (i.e., the armature resistance and
the approximate synchronous reactance).
 Synchronous Generator Under Load

• The behaviour of a synchronous generator varies greatly under load

depending on:
a) Power factor of the load*
b) Whether the generator is working alone or in parallel with other
synchronous generators.

• An increase (decrease) in the load is an increase (decrease) of the real

and/or reactive power drawn from the generator.
 Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Generator
• Since the voltages in a synchronous generator are AC voltages, they are
usually expressed as phasors diagram (vector plot of voltages and currents
within one phase).

• A phasor diagram of a synchronous

generator with a unity power factor
(resistive load)

• Lagging power factor (inductive

load): a larger than for leading PF
internal generated voltage E is needed
to form the same phase voltage.

• Leading power factor (capacitive

load): phase voltage may actually be
higher than the generated voltage Ea.
 Synchronous Generator Under Load
When electrical load is changed:
• Field resistor RF is unaffected
• Field current IF is constant E A  K
• Rotor flux  is constant
• Magnitude of internal generated voltage EA is constant.

• For the same power factor (PF) of the load, change in load will
change the magnitude of armature current I.
• However, the angle ϴ will be the same (for constant PF).
• Thus, the armature reaction voltage jXSIA will be larger for the
increased load.
• Since the magnitude of the internal generated voltage EA is constant

E A  V  jX S I A Note: Assume that Xs >> Ra

• Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to is initial position.

 Synchronous Generator Under Load
Example: Increase load effect on generators with

Leading PF (Capacitive Load)

Lagging PF (Inductive Load)

E A  K
E A  V  jX S I A
Unity PF (Resistive Load)
 Synchronous Generator Under Load
• When a load is added/increased to synchronous generator:

Type of loads Changes on Phase &

Terminal Voltage
Lagging (inductive) Decrease a lot
Unity (resistive) Decrease slightly
Leading (capacitive) Increase

Leading PF (Capacitive Load)

Lagging PF (Inductive Load) Unity PF (Resistive Load)

 Synchronous Generator Under Load
Vnl  V fl
• Voltage Regulation: VR  100% Vfl = full load voltage
V fl Vnl = no load voltage

Type of loads Value of VR

Lagging (inductive) Fairly large positive VR
Unity (resistive) Small positive VR
Leading (capacitive) Negative VR

Leading PF (Capacitive Load)

Lagging PF (Inductive Load) Unity PF (Resistive Load)

 Synchronous Generator: Power and Torque

• A synchronous generator needs to be connected to a prime mover

whose speed is reasonably constant for various load (to ensure
constant frequency of the generated voltage).
 Synchronous Generator: Power and Torque

• The input applied mechanical power Pin:

τapp = input applied torque
Pin   appm ωm = rotational speed (rad/s)

is partially converted to electricity:

Pconv   ind m  3E A I A cos  γ = angle between EA and IA
 Synchronous Generator: Power and Torque

• The real/active output power of the synchronous generator is:

Pout  S cos  3VT I L cos   3V I A cos  S = total apparent power

 = angle between V & IA

• The reactive output power of synchronous generator is

Qout  S sin   3VT I L sin   3V I A sin 

 Synchronous Generator: Power and Torque

• For real synchronous machine, RA << XS, therefore, the armature

resistance can be ignored. A simplified phasor diagram indicates that:

E A sin 
I A cos  
XS
 Synchronous Generator: Power and Torque
• The real/active output power of the synchronous generator can be
approximated as:
3V E A sin 
Pout  S cos   3VT I L cos   3V I A cos  
XS

where δ = torque angle between EA and V

• The maximum output power can be supplied by the generator

occurs when δ = 90 degree, i.e., sin δ = 1. Then,
3V E A
Pmax 
XS
• Note: Real generator do not approach this limit (i.e., δ = 90 degree).
Full load torque angles are usually between 15 to 20 degree.
 Example
A 480 V, 60 Hz, delta-connected, four pole synchronous generator has the
OCC shown below. This generator has a synchronous reactance of 0.1 ohm
and armature resistance of 0.015 ohm. At full load, the machine supplies
1200 A and 0.8 pf lagging. Under full-load conditions, the friction and
windage losses are 40 kW, and the core losses are 30 kW. Ignore field
circuit losses.
a) What is the speed of rotation of the generator?
b) How much field current must be supplied to the generator to make the
terminal voltage 480 V at no load?
c) If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws 1200 A at 0.8
pf lagging, how much field current will be required to keep the terminal
voltage equal to 480 V?
d) How much power is the generator now supplying? How much power is
supplied to the generator by the prime-mover? 600
What is the machine’s overall efficiency? 500
e) If the generator’s load were suddenly disconnected 400
from the line, what would happen to its terminal voltage? 300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Example
 Example
A two-pole wye-connected synchronous generated has the rated conditions of
300 kVA, 480 V, 60 Hz and 0.85 power factor lagging. The armature resistance
is given as RA = 0.04 Ω. The core losses and mechanical losses of synchronous
generator when it is operating under rated conditions are denoted as Pcore = 10
kW and Pmech = 13 kW, respectively. The OCC and SCC of this synchronous
generator is given in next slide.
a) Determine the saturated synchronous reactance Xs of this generator at the
rated conditions.
b) Calculate the rated current and internal generated voltage of this generator.
c) Determine the field current required by this generator to operate at the
given voltage, current and power factor.
d) Calculate the voltage regulation of this generator when it is operating at the
rated current and power factor.
e) Determine the electrical losses in this generator at rated conditions.
f) Calculate the input torque must be applied to the shaft of this generator if it
is operating at rated conditions.
 Synchronous Motors
Introduction
• Synchronous Motors - A synchronous
machine can operate as a motor when it
is connected to a 3-phase source.
• Convert input electrical power to output
mechanical power.
• Runs in synchronism with the revolving
magnetic field (in stator).
• Speed of rotation is tied to the
frequency of source. Constant speed
irrespective of load or voltage.
120 f
ns 
p
Construction of Synchronous Motors
 Construction of Synchronous Motors

Synchronous Motor (Doubly Excited Machine)

• Stator – Applied with 3-phase voltage to produce
Exciter (Brushless) rotating magnetic field.
• DC current Ix is • Rotor – Applied with DC voltage to produce
directly fed into the
steady state magnetic field.
rotor winding
Operating Principle of Synchronous Motors

• Rotor – Field current produces a

steady stage magnetic field BR.

• Stator – 3-phase currents in

armature winding produces a
uniform rotating magnetic field
BS.

• Rotor field will tend to line up

with the stator field, just as two  ind  kB R  B S
bar magnet will tend to line up
with each other.
Operating Principle of Synchronous Motors

• Since stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic field (and
the rotor itself) will constantly try to catch up.
• The larger the angle between the two magnetic fields (up to a certain
maximum), the greater the torque on the rotor of machine.
• Basic principle – Magnetic field of the rotor “locks” with the
rotating magnetic field and rotor turns at synchronous speed.
 Starting a Synchronous Motors
• Synchronous motors are inherently Instant 1
not self starting for stationary rotor.
• For 50 Hz frequency, the 3-phase
rotating flux rotates for 50 revolutions
in 1 second.
• At a particular instant (Instant 1)
rotor and stator poles might be of
same polarity (N-N or S-S) causing
repulsive force on rotor.
• At very next second (Instant 2), it Instant 2
will be opposite polarity (N-S)
causing attractive force.
• Due to inertia of the rotor, it is unable
to rotate in any direction (due to
attractive and repulsive force) and
remain in standstill condition.
 Starting a Synchronous Motors
Method 1:
• Some mechanical inputs are initially fed to the rotor so that it can
rotate in same direction as rotating magnetic field to a speed very
close to synchronous motor.
• After some time magnetic locking occurs and the synchronous speed
rotates in synchronism with the frequency.

Magnetic
locking
 Starting a Synchronous Motors
Method 2:
• Squirrel cage rotor is used to start up as an
induction motor.
• DC excitation in rotor is suppressed at the starting
period.
• When the rotor is running at close to synchronous
speed, it is excited with DC current to produce
alternate N and S poles around the rotor.
• If the DC excitation is applied at right moment,
the magnetic poles produced at the rotors will
happen to be facing opposite polarity on the
stator and set up strong magnetic field between
them.
• The mutual attraction locks the rotor and stator
poles together and the rotor then rotates in
synchronism with rotating field.
Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Motors
• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is exactly the same as that of
synchronous generator, except that the direction of current flow in stator IA
is reversed (direction of power flow is reversed).

3-phase
equivalent circuit
may be either Y-
or delta-
connected.
Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Motors

Synchronous Generator

V  E A  jX S I A  RI A

Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Generator

Synchronous Motor

V  E A  jX S I A  RI A

Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Motor

Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Motors
Synchronous Generator
• EA lies ahead of Vϕ
• BR lies ahead of Bnet
• BS = -jXsIA
• Induced torque is a
counter-torque opposing
the direction of motion
E A  V  jX S I A  RI A
Torque angle
Synchronous Motor
• EA lies behind of Vϕ
• BR lies behind of Bnet
• BS = jXsIA
• Induced torque is in the
direction of motion.
V  E A  jX S I A  RI A
 Synchronous Motors – Under Load
• The steady-state speed of the motor
is constant from no load all the way
up to the maximum torque that the
motor can supply (i.e., pullout
torque), so speed regulation = 0 %.

• Induced torque of motor:

3V E A sin 
 ind 
m X S

• Mechanical power (active power)

of motor: 3V E A sin  Torque-Speed Characteristic
P Curve of Synchronous Motor
XS
Note: Can also be considered as input electrical power if the I2R and iron losses in the
stator can be neglected
 Synchronous Motors – Under Load
• The pullout torque and maximum power occurs when δ = 90 degree, i.e., sin
δ = 1.

3V E A 3V E A
 max  Pmax 
m X S XS
• When the torque on the shaft of a synchronous motor exceeds the pullout
torque, the rotor can no longer remain locked to the stator and start losing its
synchronization.

Some comments about pullout torque:

1. Typically be 3 times the full-load torque of the machine.
2. The larger the field current (and hence EA), the greater the maximum
torque of the motor – Stability advantage in operating the motor with a
large field current.
 Synchronous Motors – Effects of Load Changes
Leading power factor
• When load ↑, rotor speed ↓
• Torque angle ↑ and the induced torque ↑
3V E A sin 
 ind 
m X S
• ↑ in induced torque ↑ rotor’s speed.
• Motor turns at synchronous speed again
but with ↑ torque angle
 Synchronous Motors – Effects of Load Changes
Other Comments:
• Field current (hence flux ϕ) and
speed of machine ωm is constant,
hence the magnitude of internal
generated voltage EA = kϕωm is
constant.

• As load ↑, EA swings down further.

• The quantity -jXsIA has to ↑ to

reach from the tip of EA to Vϕ.
Thus, armature current IA ↑.

• Power factor angle ϴ between IA and Vϕ changes too, becoming less and
less leading and then more and more lagging.
Synchronous Motors – Effects of Field Current
Changes
Lagging power factor • When field current IF ↑, EA↑.
• Real power supplied by the motor (P
= τindωm ) is unaffected because:
a) the change in IF does not affect the
shaft speed ωm
b) The load attached to the shaft is
unchanged, hence τind is unchanged
• From phasor diagram, E A sin  and
I A cos must be constant (distances
proportional to the power)
 Synchronous Motors – Field Current Changes

• When EA↑, the magnitude of IA first ↓ and then ↑ again.

• For low EA, IA is lagging and motor act as an inductive load, consuming
reactive power Q from the system (Under-excited)
• When IF ↑ , IA lines up with Vϕ and the motor looks purely resistive.
• When IF ↑ further , IA is leading and motor becomes a capacitive load,
supplying reactive power Q to the system (Over-excited).
Synchronous Motors – Field Current Changes
Synchronous Motor V-Curves

Under-excited
• Consuming
reactive power Q
• Inductive load

Overexcited
• Supplying reactive power Q
• Capacitive load

• Resistive load
 Comparisons between AC Motors
Synchronous Motor
• Require an additional DC power
source for energizing rotor winding
• Require slip rings and brushes
• Require additional starting
mechanism to initially rotate the rotor
near to the synchronous speed
• Power factor can be adjusted to
lagging, unity or leading by varying
the excitation
• More efficient than induction motors
• More expensive than induction
motors
Induction Motor
• Do not require any additional power
source
• Do not require slip rings and brushes
• No starting mechanism is required
• Always runs at lagging power factor
• Less efficient than synchronous motor
• Less expensive than synchronous
motor
 Example
A 500 hp, 720 r/min synchronous motor connected to a 3980
V, 3-phase line generates an excitation voltage EA of 1790 V
(line-to-neutral) when the DC exciting current is 25 A. The
synchronous reactance is 22 Ω and the torque angle between
EA and Vϕ is 30 degree.

Calculate:
a) The voltage drop across synchronous reactance Ex.
b) The AC line current
c) The power factor of the motor
d) The approximate horsepower developed by the motor
e) The approximate torque developed at the shaft
 Example
A 4000 hp (3000 kW), 6600 V, 60 Hz, 200 r/min synchronous
motor operates at full-load at a leading power factor of 0.8. If
the synchronous reactance is 11 Ω, calculate the following:

a) The apparent power of the motor per phase

b) The AC line current
c) The value and phase of Eo
d) Draw the phasor diagram
e) Determine the torque angle
 Example
A 208-V, 45-kVA, 0.8 PF leading, delta-connected, 60-Hz synchronous
machine has a synchronous reactance of 2.5 Ω and a negligible armature
resistance. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW, and its core losses are
1.0 kW. Initially, the shaft is supplying a 15-hp load, and the motor’s power
factor is 0.8 leading.

a) Sketch the phasor diagram of this motor, and find the values of IA , IL and
EA .
b) Assume that the shaft load is now increase to 30 hp. Sketch the behaviour
of the phasor diagram in response to this change.
c) Find IA , IL and EA after the load change. What is the new motor power
factor.
 Example
The 208-V, 45 kVA, 0.8-PF-leading, delta-connected, 60-Hz
synchronous motor is supplying a 15-hp load with an initial power
factor of 0.85 PF lagging. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW,
and its core losses are 1.0 kW. The field current IF at these conditions is
4.0 A.
a) Sketch the initial phasor diagram of this motor, and find the values
IA and EA.
b) If the motor’s flux is increased by 25%, sketch the new phasor
diagram of the motor. What are IA , EA and the new power factor of
the motor now?