Polymer Properties PDF

Polymer Properties
Material
ABS
ABS (reinforced)
Acetals
Acetals (reinforced)
Acrylics
Cellulosics
Epoxies
Epoxies (reinforced)
Fluorocarbons
Nylon
Nylon (reinforced)
Phenolics
Polycarbonates
Polycarbonates (reinforced)
Polyesters
Polyesters (reinforced)
Polyethylenes
Polypropylenes
Polypropylenes (reinforced)
Polystyrenes
Polyvinyl chloride
UTS (MPa)
2855
100
5570
135
4075
1048
35140
701400
748
5583
70210
2870
5570
110
55
110160
740
2035
40100
1483
755
E (GPa)
1.42.8
7.5
1.43.5
10
1.43.5
0.41.4
3.517
2152
0.72
1.42.8
210
2.821
2.53
6
2
8.312
0.10.14
0.71.2
3.66
1.44
0.0144
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
755
7525
505
1005
101
42
300100
20060
101
20
12510
64
3005
31
100015
50010
42
601
45040
Poissons
ratio
()
0.35
0.350.40
0.460.48
0.320.40
0.38
0.38
0.46
0.35
TABLE 10.1 Approximate range of mechanical properties for various engineering

plastics at room temperature.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Heat, pressure,
catalyst
Polyethylene
n
Mer
(a)
(b)
Monomer
Polymer repeating unit
CH3
CH3 n
Cl
Cl
C 6H 5
C6H5 n
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Polymer
Structure
Polyethylene
n
Polypropylene
Polyvinyl chloride
n
Polystyrene
Polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teflon)
n
(c)

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FIGURE 10.1
Basic structure of some
polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b)
polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene
molecules; (c) molecular structure of various
polymers. These molecules are examples of
the basic building blocks for plastics.
Effect of Molecular Weight
Property
Commercial
polymers
Tensile and
impact strength
Viscosity
107
104
Molecular weight, degree
of polymerization
FIGURE 10.2 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization
on the strength and viscosity of polymers.

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Polymer Chains
(a) Linear
(b) Branched
(c) Cross-linked
(d) Network
FIGURE 10.3 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons,
polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene. (c) Crosslinked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber produces this structure.
(d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics such as epoxies
and phenolics.
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Effect of Temperature
100% crystalline
Increasing
crystallinity
Rubbery
Viscous
Leathery
Rubbery
or
ph
ou
Viscous
Tg
Increasing
cross-linking
Glassy
Elastic modulus (log scale)
Leathery
Elastic modulus (log scale)
Glassy
cro
ss linkin
Tm
g
Tm
Temperature
Temperature
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.4 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) crosslinking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.

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Crystallinity
Amorphous
region
Crystalline
region
FIGURE 10.5 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. Note that the crystalline region
(crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer,
and less ductile is the polymer.

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Specific volume
Glass-Transition Temperature
Amorphous
polymers
Partly
crystalline
polymers
g:
Coolin
rapid
slow
Tg
Tm
Material
Nylon 6,6
Polycarbonate
Polyester
Polyethylene
High density
Low density
Polymethylmethacrylate
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)
Polyvinyl chloride
Rubber
Tg ( C)
57
150
73
Tm ( C)
265
265
265
-90
-110
105
-14
100
-90
87
-73
137
115
176
239
327
212
Temperature
FIGURE 10.6 Specific volume of polymers as a

function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such
as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition
temperature, Tg, but do not have a specific melting
point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as
polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply at their
melting points during cooling.
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TABLE 10.2
Glass-Transition
Temperatures of Selected Polymers
and
Melting
Strain
Strain
Deformation of Polymers
Increasing viscosity
t0
t1
Time
t0
(a)
Rigid and
brittle
(melamine,
phenolic)
t1
Time
Tough and ductile

(ABS, nylon)
Recovered strain
t0
t1
Time
(c)
Soft and flexible

(polyethylene, PTFE)
Strain
Strain
Stress
(b)
Recovered
strain
t0
0
Strain
t1
Time
(d)
FIGURE 10.7 Various deformation modes for

polymers.: (a) elastic; (b) viscous; (c) viscoelastic
(Maxwell model); and (d) viscoelastic (Voigt or Kelvin
model). In all cases, an instantaneously applied load
occurs at time to, resulting in the strain paths shown.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.8 General terminology describing the

behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE is
polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon, a trade name).
Source: After R.L.E. Brown.
Temperature Effects
C
218
225C
70
Low-density
polyethylene
25
40
30
50
65 20
80 10
4
2
0
10
15
20
Strain (%)
25
30
FIGURE 10.9 Effect of temperature on the stressstrain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic.
Note the large drop in strength and increase in
ductility with a relatively small increase in
temperature. Source: After T.S. Carswell and H.K.
Nason.

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Impact strength
50
32
High-impact
polypropylene
60
MPa
Stress (psi x 103)
10
Polyvinyl chloride
Polymethylmethacrylate
0
32
90
Temperature (F)
FIGURE 10.10
impact strength
small changes
significant effect
Powell.
Effect of temperature on the

of various plastics. Note that
in temperature can have a
on impact strength. Source: P.C.
Viscosity of Melted Polymers

v
Viscous behavior:
! "
dv
=
=
dy
FIGURE 10.11 Parameters used to

describe viscosity; see Eq. (10.3).
104
li c ( 2
L DP E (
103
40
1 7 0 C
Ri
C)
gi
(1
90
N ylon (2 85 C)
C
)
102
Polypro
pylene
Low d
ensity
polye
thylen
e
A cry
Nylo
n
P ol y c a r b o n a t
104
PV
C
PV
Viscosity (Ns/m2)
lic
ry
Ac
gid
Ri
FIGURE 10.12 Viscosity of some

thermoplastics as a function of (a)
temperature and (b) shear rate.
Source: After D.H. Morton-Jones.
103
Apparent viscosity (Ns/m2)
! = 1000 s-1
102
Polypropylene (230C)
10
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Temperature (C)
(a)

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10
10
103
102
Shear rate, ! (s-1)
(b)
104
Polymer Behavior in Tension

mm
0
25
16
75
100
125
Molecules are
being oriented
14
100
50
12
40
10
8
6
Load
60
(psi x 103)
Stress (MPa)
80
din
oa
ing
20
d
loa
2
0
Un
2
3
Elongation (in.)
(a)
Elongation
5
(b)
FIGURE 10.13 (a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source:

After R.P. Kambour and R.E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tension-test
specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).

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FIGURE 10.14
Typical loadelongation curve for elastomers.
The area within the clockwise
loop, indicating loading and
unloading paths, is the hysteresis
loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the
capacity to dissipate energy, damp
vibration, and absorb shock
loading, as in automobile tires and
vibration dampeners for
machinery.
Applications for Plastics

Design
Requirement
Mechanical
strength
Typical Applications
Plastics
Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan

blades, impellers, pistons.
Wear
resistance
Gears, wear strips and liners, bearings, bushings, roller-skate wheels.
Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonates,

polyesters, polypropylenes, epoxies, polyimides.
Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polyimides,
polyurethane,
ultrahigh-molecular-weight
polyethylene.
Frictional properties
High
Low
Electrical
resistance
Chemical
resistance
Heat resistance
Functional and
decorative
features
Functional and
transparent features
Housings
and
hollow shapes
Tires, nonskid surfaces, footware,

flooring.
Sliding surfaces, artificial joints.
All types of electrical components and
equipment, appliances, electrical fixtures.
Containers for chemicals, laboratory
equipment, components for chemical
industry, food and beverage containers.
Appliances, cookware, electrical components.
Handles, knobs, camera and battery
cases, trim moldings, pipe fittings.
Elastomers, rubbers.
Fluorocarbons, polyesters, polyethylene, polyimides.
Polymethylmethacrylate, ABS, fluorocarbons,
nylon, polycarbonate, polyester, polypropylenes, ureas, phenolics, silicones, rubbers.
Acetals, ABS, epoxies, polymethylmethacrylate, fluorocarbons, nylon, polycarbonate,
polyester, polypropylene, ureas, silicones.
Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs,

food-processing equipment
Fluorocarbons, polyimides, silicones, acetals,

polysulfones, phenolics, epoxies.
ABS,
acrylics,
cellulosics,
phenolics,
polyethylenes, polpropylenes, polystyrenes,
polyvinyl chloride.
Acrylics, polycarbonates, polystyrenes, polysulfones. laboratory hardware.
Power tools, housings, sport helmets,

telephone cases.
ABS, cellulosics, phenolics, polycarbonates,

polyethylenes, polypropylene, polystyrenes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
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TA B L E 1 0 . 3
recommendations
products.
General
for plastic
Reinforced Polymers
Laminate
Foam
Particles
(a)
Honeycomb
Short or long
fibers, or flakes
Continuous fibers
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 10.15 Schematic illustration of types of reinforcing plastics. (a) Matrix with particles;
(b) matrix with short or long fibers or flakes; (c) continuous fibers; and (d) and (e) laminate or
sandwich composite structures using a foam or honeycomb core (see also Fig. 7.48 on making
of honeycombs).

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Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

40
Strength/density (m x 104)
Thornel P-100
Tensile
Strength (MPa)
3500
Spectra 2000
30
Kevlar 29
Kevlar 129
20
Kevlar 49
Spectra 900
High-tensile
graphite
S-glass
Boron
E-glass
10
Celion 3000
Thornel
P-55
High-modulus
graphite
Titanium
Steel Aluminum
0
10
Stiffness/density (m x 106)
15
20
FIGURE 10.16 Specific tensile strength (ratio of tensile

strength-to-density) and specific tensile modulus (ratio of
modulus of elasticity-to-density) for various fibers used in
reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specific strength
and stiffness available.
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Elastic
Modulus (GPa)
380
Density
(kg/m3 )
2600
Relative
Cost
Highest
Type
Boron
Carbon
High strength
3000
275
1900
Low
High modulus
2000
415
1900
Low
Glass
E type
3500
73
2480
Lowest
S type
4600
85
2540
Lowest
Kevlar
29
2800
62
1440
High
49
2800
117
1440
High
129
3200
85
1440
High
Nextel
312
1630
135
2700
High
610
2770
328
3960
High
Spectra
900
2270
64
970
High
1000
2670
90
970
High
Note: These properties vary significantly, depending on the material and method
of preparation. Strain to failure for these fibers is typically in the range of 1.5% to
5.5%.
TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing fibers.
Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites

Material
FIBER
Glass
Graphite
Boron
Aramids (Kevlar)
Other
MATRIX
Thermosets
Thermoplastics
Metals
Ceramics
Characteristics
High strength, low stiffness, high density; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and
S (magnesiaaluminosilicate) types are commonly used; lowest cost.
Available typically as high modulus or high strength; less dense than glass; low
cost.
High strength and stiffness; has tungsten filament at its center (coaxial); highest
density; highest cost.
Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost.
Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron
nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, and molybdenum; see Chapters 3, 8,
9, and 10.
Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are phenolics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides.
Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets, but lower resistance to temperature.
Aluminum, aluminumlithium alloy, magnesium, and titanium; fibers used are
graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron.
Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers used are
various ceramics.
TABLE 10.4 Types and General Characteristics of Reinforced Plastics and Metal-Matrix and
Ceramic-Matrix Composites

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Fiber Spinning
Polymer
chips
Feed
hopper
Spinneret
Cold air
Melter/extruder
Melt
spinning
Bobbin
Stretching
Twisting and
winding

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.1 The melt spinning process for producing polymer

fibers. The fibers are used in a variety of applications, including
fabrics and as reinforcements for composite materials.
Composite Material Microstructure

Matrix
Tungsten
diameter 0.012 mm
Kevlar fibers
Boron
diameter 0.1 mm
Graphite fibers
Matrix
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.18 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing
fibers. Source: After J. Dvorak and F. Garrett. (b) Cross-section of boron-fiber-reinforced composite
material.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Effect of Fibers
300
Carbon fibers
30
Lo
20
la
gg
rt
Sho
10
rs
fi b e
200
s
fiber
s
s
gla
100
ss
0
0
10
20
30
Reinforcement (%)
0
40
s
las
g
ng
Lo
4
3
2
ibers
f
s
s
t g la
Shor
Carbon fibers
0
0
40
5
30
4
3
1
0
0
rs
ibe
f
on
20
arb
ort
d sh
n
a
s
Long
fiber
s
s
a
l
g
10
20
30
Reinforcement (%)
10
0
40
(c)
Flexural strength (psi x 103)
200
100
0
40
(b)
GPa
Flexural modulus (psi x 106)
(a)
10
20
30
Reinforcement (%)
300
60
400
ibe
nf
50
rs
rs
rbo
fibe
a
s
s
C
gla
s
g
n
iber
f
Lo
s
las
rt g
o
h
S
40
30
300
200
MPa
40
Impact energy (ft-lb/in.)
50
s
er
fib
J/m
400
MPa
Tensile strength (psi x 103)
60
20
100
10
0
0
10
20
30
Reinforcement (%)
0
40
(d)
FIGURE 10.19 Effect of the percentage of reinforcing fibers and fiber length on the mechanical properties of
reinforced nylon. Note the significant improvement with increasing percentage of fiber reinforcement. Source:
Courtesy of Wilson Fiberfill International.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Strength and Fracture of Composites

Unidirectional
1.5
1.0
Orthogonal
Random
500
0.5
(a)
1000
MPa
Tensile strength (psi x 105)
2.0
20
40
60
80
Glass content (% by weight)
(b)
FIGURE 10.20 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiberreinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 10 m (400
in.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b)
Fracture surface of a graphite-fiber-reinforced epoxy
composite. The fibers are 9-11 m in diameter. Note
that the fibers are in bundles and are all aligned in the
same direction. Source: Courtesy of L.J. Broutman.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.21 Tensile strength of glass-reinforced

polyester as a function of fiber content and fiber
direction in the matrix.
Source: After R.M.
Ogorkiewicz.
Plastics Processes
Process
Extrusion
Injection molding
Structural foam
molding
Blow molding
Rotational molding
Thermoforming
Compression molding
Transfer molding
Casting
Processing of
reinforced plastics
Characteristics
Long, uniform, solid or hollow, simple or complex cross-sections; wide range
of dimensional tolerances; high production rates; low tooling cost.
Complex shapes of various sizes and with fine detail; good dimensional
accuracy; high production rates; high tooling cost.
Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; low production rates; less
expensive tooling than in injection molding.
Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low
cost for making beverage and food containers.
Large hollow shapes of relatively simple design; low production rates; low
tooling cost.
Shallow or deep cavities; medium production rates; low tooling costs.
Parts similar to impression-die forging; medium production rates; relatively
inexpensive tooling.
More complex parts than in compression molding, and higher production
rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost.
Simple or intricate shapes, made with flexible molds; low production rates.
Long cycle times; dimensional tolerances and tooling costs depend on the
specific process.
TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.

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Extrusion
Barrel
liner
Barrel
heater/cooler
Hopper
Wire filter
screen
Melt
thermocouple
Thermocouples
Throat
Breaker
plate
Barrel
Thrust bearing
Throat-cooling
channel
Gear reducer
box
Adapter
Die
Feed section
Melt section
Melt-pumping section
Motor
FIGURE 10.22 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Screw
Pitch
Barrel
H
Flight
W
Drag flow:
Barrel
FIGURE 10.23 Geometry of the

pumping section of an extruder
screw.
2HD2N sin cos

Qd =
2
Pressure flow:
W H3 p
pDH 3 sin2
Qp =
=
12 (l/ sin )
12l
3
Flow rate, q x 10-5
(m3/s)
Extrusion Mechanics
Extruder characteristic
2
Die characteristic
Operating point
Qdie = K p
1
Die characteristic
0
5
10
Pressure (MPa)
15
FIGURE 10.1 Extruder and die

characteristics for Example
10.5.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
K for circular cross-sections:

D4d
K=
128ld
Blown-Film Manufacture
Pinch rolls
Wind-up
Guide rolls
Blown
tube
Mandrel
Extruder
Die
Air
(a)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.25 (a) Schematic illustration of production of thin film and plastic bags
from a tube produced by an extruder, and then blown by air. (b) A blown-film
operation. Source: Courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher Corp.

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Tube Extrusion
Spider die
Breaker plate
Polymer melt
Extruder barrel
Section AA
B
Screen pack
Melt flow
direction
Section
BB
Spider legs (3)
v
B
Spider legs (3)
Mandrel
Air channel
Air in
(a)
Co-extrusion blow molding

Extruder 1
Plastic melt:
two or more layers
Parison
Mandrel
Extruder 2
(b)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.26 Extrusion of plastic tubes. (a)

Extrusion using a spider die (see also Fig.6.59) and
pressurized air; (b) coextrusion of tube for
producing a bottle.
Injection Molding
Powder,
Pellets
Hopper
Heating
zones Nozzle Mold
Vent
Piston
(ram)
Cooling
zone
Cylinder
(barrel)
Injection
chamber
Torpedo
(spreader) Sprue
Press
Ejector pins (clamp)
force
Molded
part
Vent
(a)
Rotating and reciprocating

screw
(b)

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.27 Injection molding with (a) a plunger and (b)

a reciprocating rotating screw. Telephone receivers,
plumbing fittings, tool handles, and housings are examples
of parts made by injection molding.
Mold Features
Gate
Cavity
Sprue
Main
runner
Part
Gate
Branch
runner
Cold slug well
Cavity
Main Sprue Guide

runner
pin
Branch
runner
(a)
Guide pin
(b)
FIGURE 10.28 Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, with
important features identified; (b) injection molding of four parts, showing details and the volume
of material involved. Source: Courtesy of Tooling Molds West, Inc.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Mold Types
Plate
Gate
Plate
Stripper
plate
Plate
Plate
Part
Sprue
bushing
Sprue
Ejector
pins
Sprue
bushing
Ejector
pins
Part
Parts
Runner
(a)
(b)
Hot plate;
Runner stays molten
Plate
Plate
Sprue
bushing
Ejector
pins
Parts
(c)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.29 Types of molds used in

injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, (b)
three-plate mold, and (c) hot-runner mold.
Insert Molding
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.30 Products made by insert injection molding. Metallic components are embedded in these
parts during molding. Source: (a) Courtesy of Plainfield Molding, Inc., and (b) Courtesy of Rayco Mold and
Mfg. LLC.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Reaction-Injection Molding
Heat
exchanger
Stirrer
Heat
exchanger
Displacement
cylinders
Monomer 2
Pump
Recirculation
loop
Stirrer
Mixing
head
Monomer 1
Pump
Mold
Recirculation
loop
FIGURE 10.31 Schematic illustration of the reaction-injection-molding process.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Heating
passages
Extruder
Extruded
parison
Tail
Knife
Bottle
mold
Blown bottle
Mold closed
and bottle blown
Blow pin
Blow Molding
(a)
Blow pin
removed
Blow pin
Injection-molding
machine
Parison
Blown
bottle
Cooling
passages
Parison transferred
to blow mold
Parison mold
(b)
2 Blown-mold station
Core-pin opening
(Blown air passage)
Blow-mold
bottom plug
Blow mold
Blown bottle
Parison
Blow-mold
neck ring
1 Preform
mold station
Indexing
direction
Transfer
head
Reciprocating-screw extruder
3 Stripper station
Stripper plate
Bottle
Preform Preform
mold
neck ring
(c)

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.32 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blowmolding process for making plastic beverage bottles and
(b) a three-station injection-blow-molding machine.
Rotational Molding
Inlet
Outlet
vent
Primary
axis
Pressurizing
fluid
Mold
Spindle
Secondary
axis
FIGURE 10.33 The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans,
buckets, carousel horses and plastic footballs can be made by this process.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Thermoforming
Heater
Vacuum line
Clamp
Ram
Plastic
sheet
Mold
Plastic
sheet
Mold
Vacuum
line
(a) Straight vacuum
forming
Clamp
(b) Drape vacuum

forming
(c) Force above sheet
(d) Plug and ring forming
FIGURE 10.35 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly
used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ring
Compression Molding
Heating
elements
Punch
Open
Charge
Mold
Knockout
(ejector pin)
Land
Overlap
Closed
Flash
Molded
part
(a)
(b)
(c)
Part
Plug
(d)
FIGURE 10.35 Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive,
and (c) flash. The flash in part (c) is trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part
with undercuts. Such designs also are used in other molding and shaping operations.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Transfer Molding
Sprue
Transfer plunger
Transfer pot and
molding powder
Punch
Molded
parts
Knockout
(ejector) pin
1. Insert polymer in mold
2. Mold closed and

cavities filled
3. Mold open and molded

parts ejected
FIGURE 10.36 Sequence of operations in transfer molding of thermosetting plastics. This process
is particularly suitable for making intricate parts with varying wall thicknesses.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Casting, Potting, Encapsulation & Calendering

Mold
Liquid
plastic
Mold
Electrical
coil
Mold
1.
Coil
Housing
or case
2.
3.
FIGURE 10.37 Schematic illustration of (a) casting, (b) potting, and (c) encapsulation of plastics.
Rubber feed
Calender rolls
Finished film
FIGURE 10.38 Schematic illustration of calendering.

Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used
in processes such as thermoforming.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Takeoff or
stripper roll
Reinforced Plastic Components
FIGURE 10.39 Reinforced-plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown
are front and rear forks, a rear swing arm, a wheel, and brake disks.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Manufacture of Prepregs
Continuous
strands
FIGURE 10.40
(a) Manufacturing
process for polymer-matrix composite.
Source: After T.-W. Chou, R.L.
McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boronepoxy prepreg tape. Source: Textron
Systems.
Surface
treatment
Resin
Spools
(a)
Backing paper
(b)
Chopper
FIGURE 10.41 Manufacturing process

for producing reinforced-plastic sheets.
The sheet is still viscous at this stage
and can later be shaped into various
products. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R. L.
McCullough, and R. B. Pipes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Resin
paste
Carrier
film
Compaction
belt
Continuous
strands
Resin
paste
Carrier
film
Vacuum and Pressure Molding

Clamping
bar
Vacuum
trap
Atmospheric
pressure
Flexible bag
Air pressure
345 kPa (50 psi)
Clamp
Gasket
Vacuum
trap
Flexible bag
Steam or
hot water
Mold
Mold
Gel
Resin
release coat and glass
Metal or
plastic mold
Mold
release
Gel Resin and

coat
glass
Room-temperature or oven cure

Hand or spray lay-up
Hand or spray lay-up
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.42 (a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming. Source: After T. H. Meister.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Open Mold Processing

Roving
Roller
Resin
Brush
Lay-up of
resin and
reinforcement
Chopped glass
roving
Spray
Mold
Mold
(a)
(b)
Mold
Gantry crane
Boat hull
Mold
(c)
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.43
Manual
methods of processing
reinforced plastics: (a) hand
lay-up and (b) spray-up. These
methods are also called
open-mold processing. (c) A
boat hull made by these
processes. Source: Courtesy
of Genmar Holdings, Inc.
Filament Winding
Continuous roving
Traversing resin bath
Rotating mandrel
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the filament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass being wound over
aluminum liners for slide-raft inflation vessels for the Boeing 767 aircraft. Source: Advanced Technical Products
Group, Inc., Lincoln Composites.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Pultrusion
Preforming die
Saw
Heated die
Pultrusion
cut to length
Prepreg
feed system
Infiltration tank
Puller
Cured
pultrusion
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process. (b) Examples of parts made by
pultrusion. Source: Courtesy of Strongwell Corporation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Processing of RP Parts
(a)
(b)
Side view
Model
Model
Support
FIGURE 10.46
The computational steps
involved in producing a stereolithography file.
(a) Three-dimensional description of the part.
(b) The part is divided into slices. (Only 1 in 10
is shown.) (c) Support material is planned. (d)
A set of tool directions is determined for
manufacturing each slice. Shown is the
extruder path at section A-A from (c), for a
fused-deposition modeling operation.
A
Support
A
(c)
(d)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rapid Prototyping Processes

Supply
Phase
Liquid
Process
Stereolithography
Polyjet
Powder
Selective
laser sintering
Fused-deposition
modeling
Three-dimensional
printing
Layer of powder
Layer Creation
Technique
Liquid-layer curing
Phase-Change
Type
Photopolymerization
Liquid-layer curing
Extrusion of
melted plastic
Binder-droplet
deposition onto
powder
layer
Laser-driven
Photopolymerization
Solidification by
cooling
No phase
change
Sintering or
melting
Materials
Photopolymers
(acrylates,
epoxies, colorable resins, and
filled resins)
Photopolymers
Thermoplastics (ABS, polycarbonate, and polysulfone)
Polymer, ceramic and metal
powder with binder
Polymers,
metals
with
binder, metals, ceramics,
and sand with binder
TABLE 10.7 Characteristics of rapid-prototyping processes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Process
Stereolithography
Material
Somos 7120a
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
63
Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)
2.59
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
2.3-4.1
Somos 9120a
32
1.14-1.55
15-25
47.1-53.6
2.65-2.88
3.3-3.5
Prototool 20Lb
72-79
10.1-11.2
1.2-1.3
FC 700
42.3
2.0
15-25
FC800
49.9-55.1
2.5-2.7
15-25
FC900
2.0-4.6
47
Polycarbonate
52
2.0
ABS
22
1.63
34.8
1.83
4.3
Duraform PA
44
1.6
Duraform GF
38.1
5.9
SOMOS 201
17.3
14
130
ST-100c
305
137
10
WaterShed 11120
Polyjet
Fuseddeposition
modeling
PC-ABS
Selective
laser sintering
Notes
Transparent amber; good general
purpose material for rapid prototyping.
Transparent amber; good chemical
resistance; good fatigue properties;
used for producing patterns in rubber molding.
Optically clear with a slight green
tinge; similar mechanical properties
as ABS; used for rapid tooling.
Opaque beige; higher strength polymer suitable for automotive components, housings, and injection
molds.
Transparent amber; good impact
strength, good paint absorption and
machinability.
White, blue or black; good humidity
resistance; suitable for general purpose applications.
Gray or black; very flexible material, simulates the feel of rubber or
silicone.
White; high-strength polymer suitable for rapid prototyping and general use.
Available in multiple colors, most
commonly white; a strong and
durable material suitable for general
use.
Black; good combination of mechanical properties and heat resistance.
White; produces durable heat- and
chemical-resistant parts; suitable for
snap-fit assemblies and sandcasting
or silicone tooling.
White; glass-filled form of Duraform
PA, has increased stiffness and is
suitable for higher temperature applications.
Multiple colors available; mimics
rubber mechanical properties
Bronze-infiltrated steel powder.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
RP Materials
TABLE 10.8 Mechanical properties of

selected materials for rapid prototyping.
Stereolithography and FDM

UV light source
UV curable
liquid
c
b
a
FIGURE 10.47
Schematic illustration of the
stereolithography process. Source: Courtesy of 3D
Systems.
Liquid surface
Formed part
Vat
Thermoplastic
or wax filament
Platform
z
y
x
FIGURE 10.48 (a) Schematic illustration of

the fused-deposition modeling process. (b)
The FDM Vantage X rapid prototyping
machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratasys, Inc.
Plastic model
created in
minutes
Heated FDM head

moves in xy plane
Table
moves in
z-direction
Fixtureless
foundation
Filament supply
(a)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
Support Structures
Gussets
(a)
Island
Ceiling within an arch
Ceiling
(b)
FIGURE 10.49 (a) A part with a protruding section that requires support material. (b) Common
support structures used in rapid-prototyping machines. Source: After P.F. Jacobs.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Selective Laser Sintering

Galvanometers
Laser
Optics
Environmentalcontrol unit
Process chamber
Roller mechanism
Powderfeed
cylinder
Process-control
computer
Motor
Part-build
cylinder
Motor
FIGURE 10.50 Schematic illustration of the selective-laser-sintering process. Source: After C. Deckard and P.F. McClure.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Three-Dimensional Printing
Powder
1. Spread powder
Binder
2. Print layer
3. Piston movement
FIGURE 10.51
Schematic illustration of the threedimensional-printing process. Source: After E. Sachs and M.
Cima.
4. Intermediate stage
5. Last layer printed
6. Finished part
FIGURE 10.52 (a) Examples of parts produced

through three-dimensional printing. Full color parts
also are possible, and the colors can be blended
throughout the volume. Source: Courtesy ZCorp,
Inc.
(a)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
3D Printing of Metal Parts

Infiltrating metal, permeates into P/M part
Binder deposition
Microstructure detail
Unfused
powder
Binder
Metal
powder
Particles are loosely sintered

Binder is burned off
Infiltrated by
lower-melting-point metal
(b)
(c)
(a)
FIGURE 10.53 The three-dimensional printing process: (a) part build; (b) sintering, and (c) infiltration steps
to produce metal parts. Source: Courtesy of the ProMetal Division of Ex One Corporation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rapid Manufacturing: Investment Casting
1. Pattern creation
2. Tree assembly
3. Insert into flask
4. Fill with investment
7. Cool
8. Finish
Crucible
Molten
metal
Heat
5. Wax meltout/burnout
6. Fill mold with metal
FIGURE 10.54 Manufacturing steps for investment casting that uses rapid-prototyped wax parts as
patterns. This approach uses a flask for the investment, but a shell method can also be used. Source: 3D
Systems, Inc.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Sprayed Metal Tooling Process

Aluminum-filled
epoxy
Metal
spray
Flask
Alignment tabs
Pattern
Coating
Base plate
(a)
(b)
(c)
Finished mold half
Molded part
Pattern
Base plate
(d)
Second mold half

(e)
FIGURE 10.55 Production of tooling for injection molding by the sprayed-metal tooling process. (a) A pattern and base plate are
prepared through a rapid-prototyping operation; (b) a zinc-aluminum alloy is sprayed onto the pattern (See Section 4.5.1); (c) the
coated base plate and pattern assembly is placed in a flask and back-filled with aluminum-impregnated epoxy; (d) after curing, the
base plate is removed from the finished mold; and (e) a second mold half suitable for injection molding is prepared.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Example: RP Injection Manifold
FIGURE 10.56 Rapid prototyped model of an injection-manifold design, produced

through stereolithography. Source: 3D Systems.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design of Polymer Parts

Original
design
Modified
design
Distortion
(a)
Thick
Die shape
Pull-in (sink mark)
Thin
Extruded product
(b)
(c)
(d)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 10.57 Examples of design modifications to eliminate or

minimize distortion of plastic parts. (a) Suggested design changes
to minimize distortion. Source: After F. Strasser. (b) Die design
(exaggerated) for extrusion of square sections. Without this
design modification, product cross-sections would not have the
desired shape because of the recovery of the material, known as
die swell. (c) Design change in a rib to minimize pull-in caused
by shrinkage during cooling. (d) Stiffening of the bottom of thin
plastic containers by doming, similar to the process used to
make the bottoms of aluminum beverage cans and similar
containers.
Costs and Production Volumes

Equipment
Capital Cost
Med
High
High
High
Med
Low
Med
Low
Low
High
High
Production
Rate
Med
Med
Med
High
High
Low
Med
Low
Very low
Low
Med
Tooling
Cost
Low
High
High
High
Low
Low
Med
Low
Low
Med
Med
Typical Production Volume,

Number of Parts
102 103 104 105 106
107
Process
10
Machining
Compression molding
Transfer molding
Injection molding
Extrusion
*
Rotational molding
Blow molding
Thermoforming
Casting
Forging
Foam molding
*Continuous process.
c
Source: After R. L. E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright !1980
by John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TABLE 10.9 Comparative costs and production volumes for processing of plastics.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Case Study: Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners
(a)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.58 (a) An aligner for orthodontic use,

manufactured using a combination of rapid tooling and
thermoforming; (b) comparison of conventional
orthodontic braces to the use of transparent aligners.
Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.
(b)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(c)
FIGURE 10.59 Manufacturing sequence for Invisalign orthodontic

aligners. (a) Creation of a polymer impression of the patient's
teeth; (b) computer modeling to produce CAD representations of
desired tooth profiles; (c) production of incremental models of
desired tooth movement. An aligner is produced by
thermoforming a transparent plastic sheet against this model.
Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.

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Polymer Properties

TABLE 10.1 Approximate range of mechanical properties for various engineering

Polymer repeating unit

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Effect of Molecular Weight

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Elastic modulus (log scale)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 10.6 Specific volume of polymers as a

Tough and ductile

Soft and flexible

FIGURE 10.7 Various deformation modes for

FIGURE 10.8 General terminology describing the

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Stress (psi x 103)

Effect of temperature on the

Viscosity of Melted Polymers

FIGURE 10.11 Parameters used to

FIGURE 10.12 Viscosity of some

Apparent viscosity (Ns/m2)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Polymer Behavior in Tension

FIGURE 10.13 (a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source:

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Applications for Plastics

Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan

Gears, wear strips and liners, bearings, bushings, roller-skate wheels.

Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonates,

Tires, nonskid surfaces, footware,

Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs,

Fluorocarbons, polyimides, silicones, acetals,

Power tools, housings, sport helmets,

ABS, cellulosics, phenolics, polycarbonates,

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

FIGURE 10.16 Specific tensile strength (ratio of tensile

TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing fibers.

Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 10.1 The melt spinning process for producing polymer

Composite Material Microstructure

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Flexural strength (psi x 103)

Flexural modulus (psi x 106)

Impact energy (ft-lb/in.)

Tensile strength (psi x 103)

Strength and Fracture of Composites

Tensile strength (psi x 105)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 10.21 Tensile strength of glass-reinforced

TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 10.22 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 10.23 Geometry of the

2HD2N sin cos

FIGURE 10.1 Extruder and die

K for circular cross-sections:

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Co-extrusion blow molding