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Biology Revision
Biology Revision
WATER
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- higher metabolic rate of many mammals etc means that diffusion is too slow
to meet needs, as SA/V ratio is small- thus mass transport systems are used to
maximise efficiency. In some animals their needs are met by simple diffusion
such as amoeba with a large SA/V ratio diffusion is efficient and effective.
BLOOD
BLOOD VESSELS
THE HEART
Superior Vena Cava vein-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to
right atrium.
Pulmonary Veins carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
Right Atrium blood collection chamber of the heart, it has a thin walled
structure
Left Atrium this receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary
veins.
Right Ventricle this receives blood from
the right atrium and pumps it in to the
pulmonary artery.
Inferior Vena Cava - carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body
into the right atrium of the heart.
Aorta largest artery in the body -brings
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
in the systemic circulation.
Cardiac Muscle these muscle cells push
blood from the atria to the ventricles to
the blood vessels of the circulatory
system.
Pulmonary Arteries this carries blood from the heart the lungs.
When the muscles of the atria walls contract it forces the remaining blood in to
the ventricles. The walls of the ventricles contract as they fill with blood, the
increased blood pressure closes the atrioventricular valves preventing
backflow of blood in to the atria. As the atrioventricular valves are closed the
pressure increases opening the semi lunar valves and pushing the blood in to
the pulmonary artery and aorta.
CARDIAC CYCLE
Diastole + systole.
Diastole- atria / ventricles relax- blood into atrium- atrioventricular valves
open- blood into ventricles- semi lunar is closed.
Systole- ventricles contract- atrioventricular closes, semi lunar opens blood to
aorta or pulmonary artery
INTRINSIC RHYTHM
early embryo cells begin to rhythmically contract long before muscle formsvia electrical excitation at 60bpm.
CARDIOVASCULAR CENTER IN BRAIN
Controls heart- as nerves speed the heart or slow down- dependant on CO2
levels in blood- nerve control provides quick reactions- hormones also affect
heart rate but generally slower.
CORONARY ARTERIES
Feed myocardial (heart muscle) above aortic valve from aorta so received
straight away and quickly.
BLOOD PRESSURE
CVD-
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
Cascade =
Damage to lining- increased likelihood of clot- if clot occurs, inflammatory
response- cholesterol builds up = atheroma- build up of calcium, salts and
platelets = plaque formation- narrows artery- raises blood pressure- increased
likelihood of damage.
Clot can lead to aneurysm, plaque causes blood build up behind- artery
bulges, can rupture artery
Artherosclerosis- process as above but calcium plaque causes loss of elasticity
in artery walls- less able to cope with recoil damage more likely.
What increases likelihood of artery damage and whySmoking- nicotine intake results in adrenaline production- heart rate faster, BP
increases
toxins in smoke irritate endothelial lining, greater risk of damage
Obesity- greater strain on heart, also association between obesity and raised
blood pressure/ had diet
Inactivity- exercise makes heart stronger so can pump more blood with each
beat.
High cholesterol/ fatty died- large amounts cholesterol in blood stream
increases risk of clot
Family history- suggested genetic links
High Blood Pressure.
Age- with ageing elasticity and width of arteries deteriorates
Gender- oestrogen in women offers some protection from CVD
Treatments- anticoagulants, antihypertensives, statins (see above)
Risk can be reduced by changing lifestyle choices such as smoking or bad diet
CARBOHYDRATES
All composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Three main groups- monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Monosaccharides- single sugar molecules containing 1 Oxygen atom and 2 Hydrogen
atoms for each Carbon.
(C H2 O)n (n= number of sugars) e.g. Triose (n=3) C3H6O3
Disaccharides are two joined monosacs.
Joined in a condensation reaction-H2O released
Link between two monosacs is covalent bond called glycosidic bond
(C6 H10 O5)n
Glucose+ Fructose = Sucrose (stored in plants e.g. sugar beet/cane)
Glucose+ Galactose= Lactose (main carbohydrate of milk)
Glucose+ Glucose= Maltose (found in germinating seeds e.g. barley)
Made of many monosacs joined with glycosidic bonds- many condensation reactionslots H2O released.
3-10 monosacs = oligosaccharides
11+ monosacs= polysaccharides
No sweet taste
Can form compact molecules, ideal for storage in cells.
Glycosidic bonds broken in hydrolysis reaction.
Not very water soluble- dont interfere cellular functions/ disrupt osmotic balance.
Starch important energy store in plants- sugar from photosyn. are converted to
starch- insoluble & compact- but can be rapidly broken down
Starch= long chains glucose- but is mixture of AMYLOSE and AMYLOPECTIN
AMYLOSE- unbranched polymer- spirals- more compact with length. Comprised 2005000 glucose molecules. Only released by enzymes working from each end of
amylase molecule.
AMYLOPECTIN- Polymer of glucose molecules- but branched. Lots of terminal endsbreak quickly when energy is required.
The combination of both in starch explains why starchy foods e.g. pasta are good for
exercise. AMYLOPEC releases glucose for cellular respiration rapidly. AMYLOSE
provides longer term energy to keep going.
TYPICAL STARCH GRAIN IN PLANT CELL IS 75% AMYLOPEC- rest AMYLOSE.
Glycogen- like starch but + branches- quick breakdown.
AMYLOSE, AMYLOPECTIN AND GLYCOGEN ALL MADE GLUCOSE MOLECULES IN CHAINS
Carbon in glycosidic bond determines which is involved.
Amylose- only glycosidic bonds carbon 1 and 4 *1,4-glycosidic bonds* = straight
Amylopectin- Some 1,4 but few 1,6-glycosidic bonds = branching
Starch = combination of straight chain amylose and branched Amylopectin.
Glycogen= More 1,6 bonds than 1,4 bonds.
To be good store, bonds in carbohydrates need to be broken to release single sugars
for cells to use. Glycosidic bond between monosaccharides split by hydrolysisopposite condensation- water required/ added to bond. Hydrolysis takes place in
digestion/ in muscle and liver cells.
LIPIDS
Act as energy source but also have functions such as protective around
organs, also waterproofing fur/ feathers, insulating properties- the fatty sheath
around nerves.
Lipids dissolve in organic solvents- insoluble in water so dont affect cellular
osmotic balance.
Fats are solid at room t, oils are liquid (if unsaturated double bonds= kinks in
chain- weaker IM bonds)
Fatty acid(s) + glycerol join by condensation reaction between carboxyl group
on fatty acids and hydroxyl group on glycerol= ester bond so reaction =
esterification.
Lipid + protein = lipoprotein lipid + phosphate group= phospholipids
(phosphate attaches to glycerol= hydrophilic head, lipid tails of fatty acids=
hydrophobic)
CHOLESTEROL
Using to form cell membranes- cant dissolve in blood- found in all body cells
and among lipids- they have be transported via lipoprotein carriers;
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) major cholesterol carrier, excess LDL increases
risk plaque/ atheroma- reduces the cholesterol absorption from blood.
HDL- (high-density lipoprotein) transports lipids/ unsaturated fats to liver to be
broken down / removed. HDL acts to reduce cholesterol- thus is considered
good cholesterol
High cholesterol- increase risk of CHD as clots ability to form increases due to
large amount cholesterol in blood- treatment for high cholesterol = Statins
(block enzyme in liver responsible for making the cholesterol)
Munster Heart Study- around 11,000 tested for between 4-14 years, aged
between 36-65.
BMI
CATALYSTS
Speed up reactions- enzymes are biological catalysts that work intracellular or
extracellular.
Enzymes are globular proteins- specific shape including a specific active siteonly certain shaped molecules can fit into the active site- (substrate)= lock
and key hypothesis or if active site is induced to change shape by substrate=
induced fit theory. Both end up with enzyme-substrate complex- charged
groups attract distorting the substrate by aiding bond breakage and formationproducts released from active site- enzyme/ active site are unchanged and can
accept another substrate molecule.
Anabolic reactions- build up new chemicals
Catabolic reactions- break down
Combination= metabolism
Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed
When enzymes are denatured (due to heat/ pH etc) tertiary structure is lost
due breaking of H bonds etc- when this happens rate of reaction declines as
enzyme stops functioning
CELL MEMBRANES
phospholipids bilayer- phosphate
prosthetic group attached to glycerol
of lipid. Glycerol and phosphate=
hydrophilic head, lipid tails are
hydrophobic fatty acids. Chemical
pass through layer by carrier/channel
proteins- fat-soluble organic
molecules and small molecules e.g.
water can pass through.
DNA STRUCTURE
Nucleic acids- information molecules of cells.
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid.
RNA- ribonucleic acid
DNA/RNA- polymers monomers are nucleotides/ mononucleotides.
Each mononucleotide- 3 parts- pentose (5 CARBON) sugar, phosphate group
and a nitrogen containing base.
Pentose Sug. In RNA- ribose, DNA- deoxyribose- (one less oxygen)
Nitrogen-containing bases found in nucleic acidsPURINES- 2 Nitrogen ringsADENINE, GUANINE
PYRIMIDINES- 1 Nitrogen ring- CYTOSINE, THYMINE
DNA- 4 base combo- 1 PURINE TO ONE PYRIMIDINES A-T G-C
RNA purine base same but thymine is replaced by Uracil.
DEOXYRIBOSE has OH, off carbon on bottom left pentagon corner, and H on
bottom right, RIBOSE has both OH.
Phosphate group- makes nucleic acids acidic
Sugar, Base and phosphate joined by CONDENSATION REACTIONS- loss 2 H20
molecules.
Mononucleotides linked by condensation reaction- polynucleotide strands.
Sugar from one bonds to phosphate in another= hydroxyl group at one end
and phosphate at other.
RNA- forms singular polynuc. Strands- folded to shapes or remain thread.
DNA- two strands twisted around each other, one upside down.
Sugar/phosphate= backbone
Inwards= bases = spiralled DNA.
Two strands DNA held Hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs.
5 strand and 3 strand- deps on which carbon of pentagon bonds are.
DNA code- triplet code.
3 base pairs= a codon.
Same amino acid can be made of different codons e.g. Ser = AGA or AGG.
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DNA MUTATIONS
Normal functioning CFTR protein- enables sodium channel- Na+ and CL- ions
enter cell- CL- via chlorine pump on Basal side via active transport. BUT when
CFTR not functioning- blocks sodium channel so ions cant leave- thus water
moves via osmosis into the cell- so it is not with mucus that as a result is salty
and thick- builds up in airways- blocks air flow to alveoli- cilia cant move out of
system. Pathogens get trapped in mucus- ideal conditions for infection to
develop. Dehydrated cells loose anti-bacterial properties.
Mucus blocks pancreatic duct- enzymes to digest food cant reach intestinetrapped in pancreas, can begin to digest pancreas thus damaging it. Mucus
blocks cervix in women. Sweat is salty and more concentrated- reabsorption of
salts does not occur- salts lost.
TreatmentsPhysiotherapy- means to remove mucus from airways manually by massage
twice a day
Take enzymes with food so they can be digested
Antibiotic medication (usually inhalers) - prevent pathogens caught in mucus
causing infection
Fertility treatments like IVF
Transplants
Gene therapy
GENE THERAPY- inserting normal allele of a gene into cells to replace a faulty
allele caused by a inherited disorder. Can be done on early embryo (illegal in
UK currently) or in the affected body
part- somatic therapy
SOMATIC THERAPY
-identify gene involved e.g. for CF on
chromosome 7
- make copies of normal allele- insert
into vector (usually viruses and
liposomes)
- use the vector to insert the allele
into the target cells.
After insertion the normal allele into
the genome the target cell can make
it- make CFTR function thus allow
normal chloride movement- but faulty gene still in gametes- so can be passed
on.
Only around 25% normal chloride function resumes
Effect is temporary as cells die- and new cells have DNA with faulty gene
Use of virus vectors have side effects
Hard to deliver, especially with liposomes 1 in 1000 genes reached an
epithelial cell.
Genetic disorders cant be cured- thus avoidance and early treatment are
important for potential parentsnot have child if will have condition,